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87-610: The International Style is sometimes called rationalist architecture and the modern movement , although the former is mostly used in English to refer specifically to either Italian rationalism or the style that developed in 1920s Europe more broadly. In continental Europe , this and related styles are variably called Functionalism , Neue Sachlichkeit ("New Objectivity"), De Stijl ("The Style"), and Rationalism , all of which are contemporaneous movements and styles that share similar principles, origins, and proponents. Rooted in

174-652: A World Heritage Site , describing it as "a masterpiece of modern city planning, architecture and art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and a group of distinguished avant-garde artists". In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), in Mexico City , a World Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms of international style movement. It

261-439: A 19th-century French movement, usually associated with the theorists Eugène Viollet-le-Duc and Auguste Choisy . Viollet-le-Duc rejected the concept of an ideal architecture and instead saw architecture as a rational construction approach defined by the materials and purpose of the structure. The architect Eugène Train was one of the most important practitioners of this school, particularly with his educational buildings such as

348-487: A book-length critique of the International Style. Architectural historian Vincent Scully regarded Venturi's book as 'probably the most important writing on the making of architecture since Le Corbusier's Vers une Architecture . It helped to define postmodernism . Best-selling American author Tom Wolfe wrote a book-length critique, From Bauhaus to Our House , portraying the style as elitist. One of

435-460: A common struggle between old and new. These architects were not considered part of the International Style because they practiced in an "individualistic manner" and seen as the last representatives of Romanticism . The International Style can be traced to buildings designed by a small group of modernists, the major figures of which include Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , Jacobus Oud , Le Corbusier , Richard Neutra and Philip Johnson . The founder of

522-610: A common trait shared by multiple movements of the first three decades of the 20th century (so called First Machine Age ), including French purism , Dutch De Stijl , Russian suprematism and productivism , German constructivism ( Bauhaus ), and American precisionism . With the notable exception of dadaists , most adherents of machine aesthetic were generally adoring the industrial development, although sometimes with hesitation: "this shouldn't be beautiful, but it is" ( Elsie Driggs on her smokestacks- and smoke-filled landscape of Pittsburg steel mills). At its heyday, machine aesthetic

609-541: A complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement . Tomas Bata Memorial is the most valuable monument of the Zlín functionalism . It is a modern paraphrase of the constructions of high gothic style period: the supporting system and colourful stained glass and the reinforced concrete skeleton and glass. With the rise of Nazism, a number of key European modern architects fled to

696-498: A conglomeration of three glass skyscrapers in downtown Ottawa, where the plans of the property developer Robert Campeau in the mid-1960s and early 1970s—in the words of historian Robert W. Collier, were "forceful and abrasive[;] he was not well-loved at City Hall"—had no regard for existing city plans, and "built with contempt for the existing city and for city responsibilities in the key areas of transportation and land use". Architects attempted to put new twists into such towers, such as

783-445: A few ballets where dancers performed fast and repetitive motions of pistons and cogs (evoking " mechanthropomorphism "), with costumes and sets imitating the engine parts on a grand scale. Drawing a comparison between the body and machine, the mechanistic motions of dancers were in contrast to fluid and graceful moves of the traditional ballet. Blaise Cendrars in his La prose du Transsibérien et de la Petite Jehanne de France about

870-501: A floppy cravat " (Fernand Léger, 1924). Van Doesburg had founded a De Stijl journal in 1917 and published it together with Piet Mondrian , Oud, Rietveld until 1931. De Stijl was unabashed in its "celebration of the machine" and proclaiming the aesthetic values of the industrial production. De Stijl community included painters (most notably Mondrian) and sculptors ( Constantin Brancusi ). Composer George Antheil had created

957-431: A major building boom and few restrictions on massive building projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's major cities, especially Ottawa , Montreal , Vancouver , Calgary , Edmonton , Hamilton , and Toronto . While these glass boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to the point of ubiquity. A typical example is the development of so-called Place de Ville ,

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1044-579: A model of a mid-rise housing development for Evanston , Illinois, by Chicago architect brothers Monroe Bengt Bowman and Irving Bowman , as well as a model and photos of Walter Gropius's Bauhaus building in Dessau. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, J. J. P. Oud and Frank Lloyd Wright (including a project for a house on the Mesa in Denver, 1932). Room B

1131-585: A more organic and sensual International Style. He designed the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of the new, planned capital Brasilia . The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lúcio Costa . [REDACTED] Jakarta , Indonesia In 1930, Frank Lloyd Wright wrote: "Human houses should not be like boxes, blazing in the sun, nor should we outrage the Machine by trying to make dwelling-places too complementary to Machinery." In Elizabeth Gordon 's well-known 1953 essay, "The Threat to

1218-636: A new journal called L'Esprit Nouveau that advocated the use of modern industrial techniques and strategies to create a higher standard of living on all socio-economic levels. In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was the Weissenhof Estate in Stuttgart , overseen by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. It was enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors. The exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition ran from February 9 to March 23, 1932, at

1305-538: A prototypical modern architect. After World War II, the International Style matured; Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum (later renamed HOK ) and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) perfected the corporate practice, and it became the dominant approach for decades in the US and Canada. Beginning with the initial technical and formal inventions of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago, its most famous examples include

1392-726: A series of spirited, cantankerous exchanges with the museum." The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis' rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of avant-gardist architects, many of them Jews, were forced out of continental Europe. Some, such as Mendelsohn, found shelter in England, while a considerable number of the Jewish architects made their way to Palestine , and others to

1479-480: A unity of approach and general principles: lightweight structures, skeletal frames, new materials, a modular system, an open plan, and the use of simple geometric shapes. The problem of the International Style is that it is not obvious what type of material the term should be applied to: at the same time, there are key monuments of the 20th century (Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye ; Wright's Fallingwater House ) and mass-produced architectural products of their time. Here it

1566-410: A younger generation of German architects, including Hans Kollhoff , Max Dudler , and Christoph Mäckler . Machine aesthetic The machine aesthetic "label" is used in architecture and other arts to describe works that either draw the inspiration from industrialization with its mechanized mass production or use elements resembling structures of complex machines (ships, planes, etc.) for

1653-421: Is a crime, truth to materials , form follows function ; and Le Corbusier 's description: "A house is a machine to live in". International style is sometimes understood as a general term associated with such architectural phenomena as Brutalist architecture , constructivism , functionalism , and rationalism . Phenomena similar in nature also existed in other artistic fields, for example in graphics, such as

1740-513: Is a science that can be comprehended rationally. The formulation was taken up and further developed in the architectural treatises of the Renaissance . Eighteenth-century progressive art theory opposed the Baroque use of illusionism with the classic beauty of truth and reason. Twentieth-century Rationalism derived less from a special, unified theoretical work than from a common belief that

1827-469: Is appropriate to talk about the use of recognizable formal techniques and the creation of a standard architectural product, rather than iconic objects. Hitchcock and Johnson's 1932 MoMA exhibition catalog identified three principles of the style: volume of internal space (as opposed to mass and solidity), flexibility and regularity (liberation from classical symmetry). and the expulsion of applied ornamentation ('artificial accents'). Common characteristics of

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1914-665: Is not a Style", won over a small but talented group of architects to the classical point of view. Organizations such as the Traditional Architecture Group at the RIBA , and the Institute of Classical Architecture attest to their growing number, but mask the Rationalist origins. In Germany, Oswald Mathias Ungers became the leading practitioner of German rationalism from the mid-1960s. Ungers influenced

2001-466: Is primarily in science as opposed to reverence for and emulation of archaic traditions and beliefs. Rationalist architects, following the philosophy of René Descartes emphasized geometric forms and ideal proportions. The French Louis XVI style emerged in the mid-18th century with its roots in the waning interest of the Baroque period. The architectural notions of the time gravitated more and more to

2088-440: Is sometimes called a culture of materials . Vladimir Tatlin in particular considered himself an "inventor" imitating factory processes when putting together three-dimensional pieces made of industrial materials like sheet metal . Regularity and rhythm of the machine operation can be compared to music and ballet, hence the repeated use of the title Ballet mécanique in different genres. Oskar Schlemmer at Bauhaus had created

2175-467: The Ballet mécanique , "the first piece of music that has been composed OUT OF and FOR machines, ON EARTH", that was used as a score to a " film without scenario " by Léger. The music was played by an orchestra including primarily the percussion instruments , but also included the sounds of a bell, a siren, and an airplane propeller. By the 1922 De Stijl exchanged ideas with the art's opposite take on

2262-587: The Bauhaus school, Walter Gropius , along with prominent Bauhaus instructor, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, became known for steel frame structures employing glass curtain walls.  One of the world's earliest modern buildings where this can be seen is a shoe factory designed by Gropius in 1911 in Alfeld , Germany, called the Fagus Works building. The first building built entirely on Bauhaus design principles

2349-523: The Collège Chaptal and Lycée Voltaire . Architects such as Henri Labrouste and Auguste Perret incorporated the virtues of structural rationalism throughout the 19th century in their buildings. By the early 20th century, architects such as Hendrik Petrus Berlage were exploring the idea that structure itself could create space without the need for decoration. This gave rise to modernism , which further explored this concept. More specifically,

2436-638: The International Typographic Style and Swiss Style . The Getty Research Institute defines it as "the style of architecture that emerged in The Netherlands, France, and Germany after World War I and spread throughout the world, becoming the dominant architectural style until the 1970s. The style is characterized by an emphasis on volume over mass, the use of lightweight, mass-produced, industrial materials, rejection of all ornament and colour, repetitive modular forms, and

2523-590: The Toronto City Hall by Finnish architect Viljo Revell . By the late 1970s a backlash was under way against modernism—prominent anti-modernists such as Jane Jacobs and George Baird were partly based in Toronto. The typical International Style or "corporate architecture" high-rise usually consists of the following: In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed University City of Caracas in Caracas , Venezuela , as

2610-980: The United Nations headquarters , the Lever House , the Seagram Building in New York City , and the campus of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto . Further examples can be found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and the "corporate architecture" spread from there, especially to Europe. In Canada , this period coincided with

2697-491: The modernism movement , the International Style is closely related to " Modern architecture " and likewise reflects several intersecting developments in culture, politics, and technology in the early 20th century. After being brought to the United States by European architects in the 1930s, it quickly became an "unofficial" North American style, particularly after World War II. The International Style reached its height in

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2784-486: The 1932 exhibition and book, Hitchcock had concerned himself with the themes of modern architecture in his 1929 book Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration . According to Terence Riley : "Ironically the (exhibition) catalogue, and to some extent, the book The International Style , published at the same time of the exhibition, have supplanted the actual historical event." The following architects and buildings were selected by Hitchcock and Johnson for display at

2871-463: The 1950s and 1960s, when it was widely adopted worldwide for its practicality and as a symbol of industry, progress, and modernity. The style remained the prevailing design philosophy for urban development and reconstruction into the 1970s, especially in the Western world . The International Style was one of the first architectural movements to receive critical renown and global popularity. Regarded as

2958-645: The Bauhaus, who also pioneered the use of plywood and tubular steel in furniture design, and who after leaving the Bauhaus would later teach alongside Gropius at Harvard, is as well an important contributor to Modernism and the International Style. Prior to use of the term 'International Style', some American architects—such as Louis Sullivan , Frank Lloyd Wright , and Irving Gill —exemplified qualities of simplification, honesty and clarity. Frank Lloyd Wright's Wasmuth Portfolio had been exhibited in Europe and influenced

3045-455: The City in 1982, explored several of the ideas that inform Neo-rationalism. In seeking to develop an understanding of the city beyond simple functionalism, Rossi revives the idea of typology , following from Quatremère de Quincy, as a method for understanding buildings, as well as the larger city. He also writes of the importance of monuments as expressions of the collective memory of the city, and

3132-465: The Easel to the Machine" (1923), Kurt Ewald 's "The Beauty of Machines" (1925-1926), Walter Gropius ' "Where Artists and Technicians Meet" (1925-1926). Machine aesthetic can be considered as a backlash against the expressionism . At the time, art critics suggested that the abstract art was splitting into two streams, an evolution of expressionism, termed "non-geometrical" by Alfred Barr (who placed

3219-525: The International Style in the 1930s. Many Jewish architects who had studied at the German Bauhaus school designed significant buildings here. A large proportion of the buildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick Geddes , north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center. In 1994, UNESCO proclaimed the White City a World Heritage Site , describing

3306-449: The International Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of superfluous ornamentation, bold repetition and embracement of sleek glass, steel and efficient concrete as preferred materials. Accents were found to be suitably derived from natural design irregularities, such as the position of doors and fire escapes, stair towers, ventilators and even electric signs. Further, the transparency of buildings, construction (called

3393-466: The International Style went to the Soviet Union in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, building entire cities from scratch. In 1936, when Stalin ordered them out of the country, many of these architects became stateless and sought refuge elsewhere; for example, Ernst May moved to Kenya. The White City of Tel Aviv is a collection of over 4,000 buildings built in

3480-593: The International Style were endorsed, while other styles were classed less significant. In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by Eliel Saarinen gave some indication of what was to come, though these works would not have been accepted by Hitchcock and Johnson as representing the "International Style". Similarly, Johnson, writing about Joseph Urban's recently completed New School for Social Research in New York, stated: "In

3567-408: The International Style. But later he evolved to a more traditional local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the International Style or modern period are Carlos Obregón Santacilia , Augusto H. Alvarez , Mario Pani , Federico Mariscal  [ es ] , Vladimir Kaspé , Enrique del Moral , Juan Sordo Madaleno , Max Cetto , among many others. In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed

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3654-520: The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. Beyond a foyer and office, the exhibition was divided into six rooms: the "Modern Architects" section began in the entrance room, featuring a model of William Lescaze's Chrystie-Forsyth Street Housing Development in New York. From there visitors moved to the centrally placed Room A, featuring

3741-659: The Mussolini regime, including the University of Rome (begun in 1932) and the Esposizione Universale Roma (EUR) in the southern part of Rome (begun in 1936). The EUR features monumental buildings, many of which evocative of ancient Roman architecture, but absent ornament, revealing strong geometric forms. In the 1950s in Italy, studies on rationalism and the methodology of science were developed in

3828-657: The New School we have an anomaly of a building supposed to be in a style of architecture based on the development of the plan from function and facade from plan but which is a formally and pretentiously conceived as a Renaissance palace. Urban's admiration for the New Style is more complete than his understanding." California architect Rudolph Schindler 's work was not a part of the exhibit, though Schindler had pleaded with Hitchcock and Johnson to be included. Then, "[f]or more than 20 years, Schindler had intermittently launched

3915-600: The Next America", she criticized the style as non-practical, citing many instances where "glass houses" are too hot in summer and too cold in winter, empty, take away private space, lack beauty and generally are not livable. Moreover, she accused this style's proponents of taking away a sense of beauty from people and thus covertly pushing for a totalitarian society. In 1966, architect Robert Venturi published Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture , essentially

4002-561: The Soviet Modernist group ASNOVA were known as 'the Rationalists'. Rational Architecture (Italian: Architettura razionale ) thrived in Italy from the 1920s to the 1940s, under the support and patronage of Mussolini 's Fascist regime. In 1926, a group of young architects – Sebastiano Larco , Guido Frette , Carlo Enrico Rava , Adalberto Libera , Luigi Figini , Gino Pollini and Giuseppe Terragni (1904–43) – founded

4089-544: The US. However, American anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection of functionalism have tended to mask the fact that many of the important architects, including contributors to the original Weissenhof project, fled to the Soviet Union . This group also tended to be far more concerned with functionalism and its social agenda. Bruno Taut , Mart Stam , the second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer , Ernst May and other important figures of

4176-566: The US. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany they both arrived at the Harvard Graduate School of Design , in an excellent position to extend their influence and promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies fled in 1938, he first fled to England, but on emigrating to the US he went to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidified his reputation as

4263-497: The arms at the same time. For buildings even differences between inside and outside became minor: since the walls no longer needed to carry the load (with the support often provided by the steel frame ), the inside space can be made almost as open as the outside one. On the most basic level, the machine aesthetic was manifested through depictions of the machines, sometimes using techniques alluding to their textures. For example, Charles Sheeler in his precisionist works showing off

4350-463: The belief that reason and natural forms are tied closely together, and that the rationality of science should serve as the basis for where structural members should be placed. Towards the end of the 18th century, Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand , a teacher at the influential École Polytechnique in Paris at the time, argued that architecture in its entirety was based in science. Other architectural theorists of

4437-472: The building’s form, as opposed to a solid mass"; (2) "Regularity in the facade, as opposed to building symmetry"; and (3) "No applied ornament". International style is an ambiguous term; the unity and integrity of this direction is deceptive. Its formal features were revealed differently in different countries. Despite the unconditional commonality, the international style has never been a single phenomenon. However, International Style architecture demonstrates

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4524-622: The city as "a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century". In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City was listed as a World Monuments Fund endangered site. The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm , Sweden, blended an international or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, most of them designed by Edvin Engström, it remains

4611-466: The clean geometric forms and smooth surfaces enabled by the new construction techniques. The adherents of machine aesthetic called for elimination of traditional for architecture (and furniture design) structural distinctions between load and support . For example, in the Red and Blue Chair (1917) the (red) back plays the role of the load (supported by a crossbar underneath the seat) and provides support for

4698-450: The contemporary manifestations of architecture", the new aesthetical emotions thus ought to be evoked through "the grace of the machine". Fernand Léger in the 1924 penned a declaration on "The Machine Aesthetic", stating that the humanity is starting to live in the "geometrical order" and called for "the architecture of the mechanical". Theo van Doesburg in his 1926 manifesto "The End of Art" explicitly argued that aestheticism kills

4785-542: The creativity, and the architects should learn from non-artistic objects: Let us refresh ourselves with things that are not Art: the bathroom, the W. C. the bathtub, the telescope, the bicycle, the auto, the subways, the flatiron. There are many people who know how to make such good unartistic things. Other notable declarations of adoration towards the machines included Filippo Marinetti 's "Mechanical and Geometrical Splendor and Sensitivity Toward Numbers" (1914), Gino Severini 's "Machinery" (1922), Nikolai Tarabukin 's "From

4872-400: The exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition : The exhibition excluded other contemporary styles that were exploring the boundaries of architecture at the time, including: Art Deco ; German Expressionism, for instance the works of Hermann Finsterlin ; and the organicist movement, popularized in the work of Antoni Gaudí . As a result of the 1932 exhibition, the principles of

4959-419: The factory complexes used glossy finishes and crisp lines to imitate the surface of instruments. Some artists, like sculptor Jacob Epstein in his " The Rock Drill ", viewed the machine as a mindless and ruthless monster. Constructivists viewed themselves as technicians who constructed and assembled the art pieces, rather than chiseling or painting them, their use of drastically unconventional art materials

5046-618: The hallmark of today's youth is a desire for lucidity and wisdom...This must be clear...we do not intend to break with tradition...The new architecture, the true architecture, should be the result of a close association between logic and rationality. One of the first rationalist buildings was the Palazzo Gualino in Turin , built for the financier Riccardo Gualino by the architects Gino Levi-Montalcini and Giuseppe Pagano . Gruppo 7 mounted three exhibitions between 1926 and 1931, and

5133-422: The high point of modernist architecture, it is sometimes described as the "architecture of the modern movement" and credited with "single-handedly transforming the skylines of every major city in the world with its simple cubic forms". The International Style's emphasis on transcending historical and cultural influences, while favoring utility and mass-production methods, made it uniquely versatile in its application;

5220-486: The honest expression of structure), and acceptance of industrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's design philosophy. Finally, the machine aesthetic , and logical design decisions leading to support building function were used by the International architect to create buildings reaching beyond historicism . The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in three slogans: ornament

5307-410: The idea of place as an expression of both physical reality and history. Architects such as Leon Krier , Maurice Culot , and Demetri Porphyrios took Rossi's ideas to their logical conclusion with a revival of Classical Architecture and Traditional Urbanism. Krier's witty critique of Modernism, often in the form of cartoons, and Porphyrios's well crafted philosophical arguments, such as "Classicism

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5394-468: The industrial revolution, Dadaism . Dadaists found chaos and absurdity where machine aesthetic found order and beauty, but both sides agreed on a need for a "new synthesis". Schröder House in Utrecht ( Gerrit Rietveld , 1924) is a combination of interlocking planes expanding outside ( cantilevered ) and movable walls partitioning the open space inside. The architect was trying to avoid an appearance of

5481-572: The journey aboard the Trans-Siberian Express alluded to the movements of the train. The idea of exhibiting the machines goes back to at least the Great Exhibition of 1851 . Full acceptance by the museum curators came in 1934, with the "Machine Art" exhibit at New York Museum of Modern Art where the machine parts were presented as more traditional art objects: engines on pedestals like sculptures, propellers mounted on

5568-563: The largest coherent functionalist or "International Style" villa area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction in 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural heritage . Zlín is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated

5655-422: The machine aesthetic into the center of Barr's diagram ), and " geometrical ", a continuation of constructivism. Walter Gropius contrasted the "technological product" made by "sober mind" and "work of art created by passion". The groups associated with machine aesthetic sometimes exhibited a strong rejection of expressionist self-indulgence: "I have more faith [in the machine] than in the longhaired gentleman with

5742-541: The most varied problems posed by the real world could be resolved by reason. In that respect, it represented a reaction to Historicism and a contrast to Art Nouveau and Expressionism . The term Rationalism is commonly used to refer to the wider International Style . The name Rationalism is retroactively applied to a movement in architecture that came about during the Age of Enlightenment (more specifically, Neoclassicism ), arguing that architecture's intellectual base

5829-907: The movement constituted itself as an official body, the Movimento Italiano per l'Architettura Razionale (MIAR), in 1930. Exemplary works include Giuseppe Terragni's Casa del Fascio in Como (1932–36), The Medaglia d'Oro room at the Italian Aeronautical Show in Milan (1934) by Pagano and Marcello Nizzoli , and the Fascist Trades Union Building in Como (1938–43), designed by Cesare Cattaneo, Pietro Lingeri, Augusto Magnani, L. Origoni, and Mario Terragni. Pagano became editor of Casabella in 1933 together with Edoardo Persico. Pagano and Persico featured

5916-414: The museum's first architectural exhibition. The three of them toured Europe together in 1929 and had also discussed Hitchcock's book about modern art. By December 1930, the first written proposal for an exhibition of the "new architecture" was set down, yet the first draft of the book was not complete until some months later. The 1932 exhibition led to two publications by Hitchcock and Johnson: Previous to

6003-568: The period who advanced rationalist ideas include Abbé Jean-Louis de Cordemoy (1631–1713), the Venetian Carlo Lodoli (1690–1761), Abbé Marc-Antoine Laugier (1713–1769) and Quatremère de Quincy (1755–1849). The architecture of Claude Nicholas Ledoux (1736–1806) and Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728–1799) typify Enlightenment rationalism, with their use of pure geometric forms, including spheres, squares, and cylinders. The term structural rationalism most often refers to

6090-484: The sake of appearance. As an example of the latter, buildings in the International Modernism style frequently used horizontal strips of metal-framed windows crossing the smooth walls to imitate an ocean liner in a deliberate violation of the " truth to materials " principle (as the walls were actually made of bricks). Machine aesthetic is neither an art style , nor an art movement in itself, but

6177-481: The so-called Gruppo 7 , publishing their manifesto in the magazine Rassegna Italiana . Their declared intent was to strike a middle ground between the classicism of the Novecento Italiano movement and the industrially inspired architecture of Futurism . Their "note" declared: The hallmark of the earlier avant garde was a contrived impetus and a vain, destructive fury, mingling good and bad elements:

6264-458: The style today are simply "another species of revivalist ", noting the irony. The negative reaction to internationalist modernism has been linked to public antipathy to overall development. Rationalism (architecture) In architecture , Rationalism ( Italian : razionalismo ) is an architectural current which mostly developed from Italy in the 1920s and 1930s . Vitruvius had claimed in his work De architectura that architecture

6351-461: The style was ubiquitous in a wide range of purposes, ranging from social housing and governmental buildings to corporate parks and skyscrapers . Nevertheless, these same qualities provoked negative reactions against the style as monotonous, austere, and incongruent with existing landscapes; these critiques are conveyed through various movements such as postmodernism , new classical architecture , and deconstructivism . Postmodern architecture

6438-497: The supposed strengths of the International Style has been said to be that the design solutions were indifferent to location, site, and climate; the solutions were supposed to be universally applicable; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. This was soon identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses. In 2006, Hugh Pearman , the British architectural critic of The Times , observed that those using

6525-672: The twentieth century in particular by Gualtiero Galmanini , who left an imprint that was later followed by many, influencing the starchitects of his time. In the late 1960s, a new rationalist movement emerged in architecture, claiming inspiration from both the Enlightenment and early-20th-century rationalists. Like the earlier rationalists, the movement, known as the Tendenza, was centered in Italy. Practitioners include Carlo Aymonino (1926–2010), Aldo Rossi (1931–97), and Giorgio Grassi . The Italian design magazine Casabella featured

6612-822: The use of flat surfaces, typically alternating with areas of glass." Some researchers consider the International Style as one of the attempts to create an ideal and utilitarian form. Around the start of the 20th century, a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technological possibilities. The work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde in Brussels , Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona , Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow , among many others, can be seen as

6699-410: The walls like paintings. László Moholy-Nagy tried to erase the border between a work of art and the machine in his " Light-Space Modulator ", a "fountain of light" made in collaboration with the engineering company ( AEG ). J. J. P. Oud already in the 1919 declared that "the motor car [and the] machine ... correspond more closely to the socio-aesthetic tendencies of our age and the future than do

6786-456: The work of European modernists, and his travels there probably influenced his own work, although he refused to be categorized with them. His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly showed a change in the style of the architect, but in a different direction than the International Style. In Europe the modern movement in architecture had been called Functionalism or Neue Sachlichkeit ( New Objectivity ), L'Esprit Nouveau , or simply Modernism and

6873-591: The work of the rationalists in the magazine, and its editorials urged the Italian state to adopt rationalism as its official style. The Rationalists enjoyed some official commissions from the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini, but the state tended to favor the more classically inspired work of the National Union of Architects. Architects associated with the movement collaborated on large official projects of

6960-505: The work of these architects and theorists. The work of architectural historian Manfredo Tafuri influenced the movement, and the University Iuav of Venice emerged as a center of the Tendenza after Tafuri became chair of Architecture History in 1968. A Tendenza exhibition was organized for the 1973 Milan Triennale . Rossi's book L'architettura della città , published in 1966, and translated into English as The Architecture of

7047-545: The works of Europeans of the 1920s. Among these works was shown Alvar Aalto's Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku , Finland. After a six-week run in New York City, the exhibition then toured the US – the first such "traveling-exhibition" of architecture in the US – for six years. MoMA director Alfred H. Barr hired architectural historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson to curate

7134-622: Was a section titled "Housing", presenting "the need for a new domestic environment" as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford . In Room D were works by Raymond Hood (including "Apartment Tower in the Country" and the McGraw-Hill Building ) and Richard Neutra. In Room E was a section titled "The extent of modern architecture", added at the last minute, which included the works of thirty-seven modern architects from fifteen countries who were said to be influenced by

7221-480: Was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid-1950s based upon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral . His original idea was enriched by other students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The university houses murals by Diego Rivera , Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also features Olympic Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexican architect Luis Barragán designed buildings in

7308-417: Was developed in the 1960s in reaction to the International Style, becoming dominant in the 1980s and 1990s. The term "International Style" was first used in 1932 by the historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock and architect Philip Johnson to describe a movement among European architects in the 1920s that was distinguished by three key design principles: (1) "Architecture as volume – thin planes or surfaces create

7395-756: Was the concrete and steel Haus am Horn , built in 1923 in Weimar , Germany, designed by Georg Muche . The Gropius-designed Bauhaus school building in Dessau , built 1925–26 and the Harvard Graduate Center (Cambridge, Massachusetts; 1949–50) also known as the Gropius Complex, exhibit clean lines and a "concern for uncluttered interior spaces". Marcel Breuer , a recognized leader in Béton Brut (Brutalist) architecture and notable alumnus of

7482-410: Was truly the spirit of the age, Zeitgeist , that affected the mood of artists across movements as diverse as realism , dadaism , and futurism , changing the minds like the (contemporaneous) Jazz Age did. The machine aesthetic label was born in the beginning of the 20th century, when the newly created machines embodied the purity of the function . Architects were fascinated by the possibilities of

7569-654: Was very much concerned with the coming together of a new architectural form and social reform, creating a more open and transparent society. The "International Style", as defined by Hitchcock and Johnson, had developed in 1920s Western Europe, shaped by the activities of the Dutch De Stijl movement, Le Corbusier , and the Deutscher Werkbund and the Bauhaus . Le Corbusier had embraced Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models in order to reorganize society. He contributed to

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