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116-552: The reason it is also referred to as "Former Zhao" in historiography is to distinguish it from the similarly-named dynasty founded by Shi Le in 319, which was also known officially as "Zhao" (labeled "Later Zhao" in Chinese historiography). Since both the Former Zhao and Northern Han were ruled by the same family, the Chinese scholars often conditionally combined them into a single Han-Zhao regime. Numerous Western texts refer to

232-526: A breakthrough as they crossed the Yellow River to march on Luoyang. As the coalition forces approached, officials and generals in the capital began to turn on Lun and Sun Xiu despite their attempts to suppress reports of their losses. The defeat at Huangqiao left Sun Xiu's camp greatly alarmed as they struggled to devise a plan in response. On 30 May 301, the general of the Left Guard led troops into

348-535: A disturbance occurred in Sun Fu's camp, causing him to flee back to Luoyang and claim that Zhang Hong was defeated. Lun recalled a segment of his army to defend Luoyang, but when news of Zhang Hong's recent victories reached him, he sent them out again to attack Sima Ying. However, by this time Jiong had reversed his early defeats and repelled Zhang Hong back to his camp. Sun Hui led the main army against Ying at Huangqiao (黃橋, in present-day Wen County, Henan ), defeating

464-423: A few days later. On 2 November, Ai's forces defeated Ying's army again outside of Luoyang. The next day, Ai brought with him Emperor Hui and personally confronted Lu Ji's army at the city gates. Ai's officers had several thousand cavalry equipped with double-ended halberds charge Lu Ji's forces, heavily defeating them. Many of Lu Ji's officers were killed, and the dead on his side reportedly laid in piles and clogged

580-612: A proclamation to campaign against Sima Lun. The most important figure to accept his call was Sima Ying. Ying was described as beautiful but dull in the mind and did not read books, but he heeded his advisor Lu Zhi 's advice to rally the people to his cause. Some 200,000 troops, including the forces of the Prince of Changshan (later known as the Prince of Changsha), Sima Ai , were thus assembled near his base in Ye . In Chang'an , Sima Yong initially dispatched troops to support Lun but later sided with

696-523: A selected few to be his retainers. However, Shi Hu, citing his vast contributions to the state's founding, was angered by Shi Le's decision as he saw himself having more claim to the throne. In 333, Shi Le died and was succeeded by Shi Hong. Almost immediately, Shi Hu launched a coup and took over the government, facing very little resistance from most of the Zhao gentry and military. Shi Le's family and allies were swiftly eliminated by Shi Hu, and in 334, he took

812-518: A series of political intrigues and coups d'état . The literal Chinese translation, Disorder of the Eight Kings , may be more appropriate in this regard. While initial conflicts were relatively minor and confined to the imperial capital of Luoyang and its surroundings, the scope of the war expanded with each new prince who entered the struggle. The civil wars opened the empire to rebellions, most notably by tribal subjects that had resettled into

928-638: A similar angular differential principle. For the great ingenuity shown in the construction of the device, Shi Hu granted Xie Fei the noble title of hou without land possessions and rewarded him generously. War of the Eight Princes The War of the Eight Princes , Rebellion of the Eight Kings , or Rebellion of the Eight Princes ( simplified Chinese : 八王之乱 ; traditional Chinese : 八王之亂 ; pinyin : bā wáng zhī luàn ; Wade–Giles : pa wang chih luan )

1044-845: A subordinate army on his way to Chang'an. On his way back, Zhang Fang seized over 10,000 slave women in Luoyang and cut them into mince meat to feed to his men. Liu Chen defeated Yong in succession, and 5,000 of his soldiers were able to break into Chang'an. However, he was slow to capitalize on his success, and the soldiers in Chang'an were eventually killed while Zhang Fang arrived just in time to defeat and capture him. After Sima Ai's death, Sima Ying appointed himself Prime Minister and promoted Sima Yue to President of State Secretariat. Despite his new position, Ying kept Emperor Hui at Luoyang , leaving behind an army of 50,000 under Shi Chao while he returned to his base in Ye . On April 304, he imprisoned

1160-585: A successful coup against his co-regent, Cao Shuang . Sima Yi and two of his sons, Sima Shi and Sima Zhao , came to serve as the de facto rulers of Wei. In February 266, Sima Zhao's eldest son, Sima Yan , also known as Emperor Wu of Jin, forced the Wei emperor Cao Huan to abdicate the throne and established the Jin dynasty . Sima Yan sought to learn from the mistakes that led to the Cao Wei's downfall. Previously,

1276-470: A text that said, amongst other things, that Emperor Hui should abdicate in favor of him. Empress Jia then presented the copied text to Emperor Hui, who then decided to place him under house arrest. Sima Lun was tutor to the prince at the time and had climbed his way into Empress Jia's inner circle during his time in Luoyang. He also commanded some troops in the capital as general of the Right Army and

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1392-439: A time, and he entrusted political affairs to his eunuchs and consort kins , which severely divided the court. He also began empowering his eldest son, Liu Can , threatening Liu Ai's position as Crown Prince. This power struggle culminated in a brutal purge in 317 orchestrated by Liu Can and Liu Cong's consort kins which saw Liu Ai and several prominent ministers executed. After Liu Cong's death in 318, his successor, Liu Can and

1508-543: The Battle of Luoyang , and during the battle, Liu Yao, supposedly drunk, fell off his horse during a retreat and was captured by Later Zhao soldiers. He was then executed as his Crown Prince, Liu Xi , hastily succeeded him in Chang'an. In 329, Liu Xi was driven out of his capital and finally killed at Shanggui by Later Zhao forces. The Han-Zhao dynasty was at its end, and the Later Zhao would rule most of northern China for

1624-750: The Central Plains . At its conclusion, the war devastated the Jin heartlands in northern China, and ushered in the Sixteen Kingdoms era in northern China, causing centuries of warfare between the numerous short-lived dynasties in the north and the Eastern Jin dynasty in the south. While many princes participated in the conflict, the eight major players in this conflict were: Other people of note included Emperor Hui of Jin , co-regent Yang Jun , Empress Dowager Yang , Empress Jia Nanfeng , and

1740-719: The Disaster of Yongjia and demise of the Western Jin dynasty by 317. At the height of its power, the Han ruled Shanxi, Shaanxi , eastern Gansu , and large parts of Shandong , Hebei , and Henan . After Jin Zhun's coup in 318, the empire, which renamed itself to (Former) Zhao in 319, was split into two between Liu Yao and the warlord, Shi Le . Liu Yao moved the capital to the west in Chang'an , retaining Shaanxi and eastern Gansu, while

1856-686: The Former Liang , Dai and Duan-Liaoxi states partially retained their independence through vassalage, while the Xianbei Murong tribe in Liaodong remained loyal to the Eastern Jin dynasty . To consolidate his rule, Shi Le enacted several policies with the help of Han Chinese ministers such as Zhang Bin . Among others, he re-introduced the Nine Ranks System , promoted agriculture and emphasized education. He also continued

1972-575: The North China Plain , plundering the local counties and commanderies although never capturing them and staying there for long. In 311, he massacred the 100,000 strong Jin imperial army in the Battle of Ningping , allowing Han forces to capture Luoyang in the Disaster of Yongjia . Shortly after, Shi Le assassinated his rival peer, Wang Mi , and absorbed his army. The Han court, fearing that he would rebel, could only reprimand and appease him. With Wang Mi’s death, Shi Le essentially controlled

2088-525: The Shandong region. In the west, Liu Cong heavily entrusted his cousin, Liu Yao, to lead the war against Emperor Min. After several years of campaigning, Liu Yao captured Chang'an in 316, ending the Western Jin dynasty. Both Emperor Huai and Min suffered similar fates; they were forced to serve as cupbearers for Liu Cong before they were executed out of fear they would rebel. After Emperor Min's capture,

2204-516: The "King of Han," the same first title used by Emperor Gaozu of Han . As a descendant of the chanyu, Liu Yuan also claimed descent from the Han dynasty , as the chanyus used to marry Han princesses through marriage alliances or heqin. By portraying his state as a restoration of the Han, Liu Yuan was able to establish his legitimacy and potentially win over support from the Han Chinese. Liu Yuan honored

2320-655: The Army of Readiness. Li Han was afraid to accept the appointment due to enmity between himself and Huangfu Shang , one of Jiong's advisers. Li Han fled back to Yong and conspired with him to rebel against Jiong. Yong was told to align himself with Sima Ying, offering him the role of Crown Prince due to his public support. He was also told to force Sima Ai, who was in Luoyang , into joining so that Jiong would execute him and provide justification to overthrow him. In January 303, Yong rebelled while Ying, despite opposition from Lu Zhi,

2436-606: The Crown Prince. Shi Zun even planned to assassinate Shi Min, but after the plan leaked, Shi Min led his troops to depose him. He installed Shi Zun's half-brother, Shi Jian to the throne, but real power in Ye was held by himself and his ally, Li Nong . In the old capital, Xiangguo, another son of Shi Hu, Shi Zhi , began rallying a coalition to fight Shi Min. While controlling Shi Jian, Shi Min survived three attempts on his life, which made him deeply wary of his followers. Seeing that

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2552-539: The Eastern Jin launched a series of northern expeditions to reclaim lost territory from the south. For most of his reign, Shi Zhi was besieged at Xiangguo by Ran Min's army. He was forced to make an alliance with the Former Yan and demoted his own title to King of Zhao. Despite eventually lifting the siege, he and his family were soon betrayed and slaughtered by his general, Liu Xian in 351. The last member of

2668-645: The Eight Princes" is somewhat of a misnomer : rather than one continuous conflict, the War of the Eight Princes saw intervals of peace interposed with short and intense periods of internecine conflict. At no point in the whole conflict were all of the eight princes on one side of the fighting (as opposed to, for example, the Rebellion of the Seven States ). The initial conflicts prior to the coalition against Sima Lun in 301 also cannot be considered as wars, but rather

2784-476: The Empress Dowager. Empress Jia enlisted the help of Sima Liang and the Prince of Chu, Sima Wei to overthrow Yang Jun. Liang was reluctant to help her, but Wei agreed and left his fief for the capital, Luoyang with his troops. On the night of 23 April 291, Empress Jia and her allies sent out an imperial edict calling for the deposal of Yang Jun and occupied the gates leading to his residence. Yang Jun

2900-506: The Former Zhao's army reportedly numbered at around 285,000 strong. Despite the state's new positioning, Liu Yao maintained interest in integrating with Chinese culture, as evident by his opening of an Imperial University in Chang'an taught by Confucian scholars. War between the two Zhaos eventually broke out in 324, and in 328, Liu Yao led his forces to secure the Henan region from Later Zhao. Liu Yao and Shi Le's forces came head to head at

3016-517: The Han Chinese scholar-officials. Various ethnic group from conquered places were relocated to live around his capital, as to better control them and restore agricultural output in the north. Buddhism was also given a platform to grow as the Kuchean monk, Fotu Cheng , held a high-ranking position within Shi Le's court. Shi Le and his family had an unusual practice of adopting people into their clan,

3132-521: The Han court had no actual means to restrain them. In 308, the Han conquered Pingyang Commandery, where they shifted their capital to Puzi (蒲子, in modern Linfen , Shanxi ) and then to Pingyang city (平陽, also in modern Linfen), pressuring the Jin as they brought themselves closer to Luoyang. Liu Yuan died in 310 and was succeeded by his son Liu He . A week into his reign, He attempted to purge all his brothers before one of them, Liu Cong retaliated and killed him. After his offer to his half-brother, Liu Ai

3248-543: The Jia clan was beset with widespread corruption and bribery. Rumors began to spread of Empress Jia's personal debauchery and tyrannical behavior, laying the seeds of discontent that would surface by the end of the decade. Empress Jia also carried out a series of transfers that would influence the next stage of the War of the Eight Princes. In 296, a major tribal rebellion led by Qi Wannian broke out in Qin and Yong provinces under

3364-681: The Jie and other tribespeople in Ye refused to submit, he decreed an infamous culling order, calling on his Han Chinese subjects to kill any hu person they find. Shi Min personally led his army to massacre the tribes in Ye, while also ordering his generals to purge their armies of tribespeople. The Jie and hu were identified by their high noses and full beards, but many of the people killed were also mistakenly-identified Han Chinese. In total, around 200,000 people were killed. Shi Min killed Shi Jian and declared himself Emperor of Wei in 350, changing his name to Ran Min . In response, Shi Zhi proclaimed himself

3480-590: The Later Zhao ruled a significant portion of northern China and vassalized the Former Liang and Dai ; only the Former Yan in Liaoning remained fully out of their control. For roughly twenty years, it maintained a stalemate with the Eastern Jin dynasty in the south before its rapid collapse in 349 following the death of Shi Hu. Shi Le was a Jie chieftain from Shangdang Commandery in Bing province . The Jie

3596-573: The Prince of Changsha, Sima Ai , discovered the plan, he prompted Jiong to reject it and have Wang Bao executed. Shortly after Lun's defeat in May 301, the court issued an edict ordering refugees in Yi province to return north. However, many of them, including Li Te , refused to comply with the edict. In winter 301, the provincial inspector, Luo Shang declared war against Li Te. Jiong wanted to appoint Li Han, one of Sima Yong 's chief of staff, to be colonel of

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3712-464: The Prince of Huainan, Sima Yun rebelled against Lun with only 700 men in Luoyang. Lun was nearly killed in the fighting, but one of his supporters pretended to defect to Yun and killed him, ending his rebellion. The rebellion provided Lun and Sun Xiu with pretext to purge their court rivals and oppositions. Meanwhile, the Prince of Qi, Sima Jiong , who played a vital part in Empress Jia's arrest,

3828-518: The Qianjin Dam (千金堨), effectively cutting off Luoyang's water supply. In response, Ai convinced the Inspector of Yong province , Liu Chen , to defect from Yong's side and attack Chang'an . He also sent Huangfu Shang out with an edict from the emperor to get the generals attacking Huangfu Zhong to disband, thus allowing him to send reinforcements to Luoyang. However, along the way, Huangfu Shang

3944-525: The Shi clan, Shi Kun fled to the Eastern Jin at Jiankang , where he was put to death. Xie Fei and Wei Mengbian were two mechanical engineers under the Later Zhao who built a south-pointing chariot (also called south-pointing carriage ), a directional compass vehicle that apparently did not use magnetic principle, but was operated by use of differential gears (which apply an equal amount of torque to driving wheels rotating at different speeds), or

4060-585: The Shi family of Jie ethnicity during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Among the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Later Zhao was the second in territorial size to the Former Qin dynasty that once unified northern China under Fu Jian . In historiography, it is given the prefix of "Later" to distinguish it with the Han-Zhao or Former Zhao, which changed its name from "Han" to "Zhao" just before the Later Zhao

4176-788: The Wei regime had discouraged their princes from holding government and military offices, instead sending them away to live in their fiefs. Thus, Sima Yi, with the backing of the powerful gentry clans, was able to take control over the Wei government with minimal resistance. Identifying this issue, Sima Yan bolstered the power of the Sima clan by enfeoffing his uncles, cousins, and sons. Those with large enfeoffments were entitled to an army of five thousand, those with medium enfeoffments were entitled to an army of three thousand, and those with small enfeoffments were entitled to an army of one thousand five hundred. As time passed, these princes and dukes were given administrative powers over their lands and were granted

4292-507: The Xiongnu elite and herdsmen, a keen sense of separate identity from the Chinese was retained. Most herdsmen still kept their horseback raiding and combat skills. Discontent against the Jin rule and of their subordinate position prompted them to seek an independent or self-governing Xiongnu entity. As one of the elites adequately puts it: “In the past, our ancestors and those of the Han acted like brothers through joy and sorrow. However, since

4408-490: The Xiongnu elites contacted Liu Yuan, who was serving as a general under the Prince of Chengdu, Sima Ying at Ye , and offered him to become their rebellion's leader. Liu Yuan agreed and took advantage of a commission from the desperate Sima Ying who was just being driven out of his base to gather 50,000 Xiongnu warriors. At Lishi , Liu Yuan declared himself the Grand Chanyu. Later that year, Liu Yuan proclaimed himself

4524-463: The Xiongnu, specifically from the Five Divisions and Chuge branches, were not included in the "Six Yi", and were instead administrated as part of the Han Chinese. Yuanxi (元熙) 304–308 Yongfeng (永鳳) 308–309 Herui (河瑞) 309–310 Guangxing (光興) 310–311 Jiaping (嘉平) 311–315 Jianyuan (建元) 315–316 Linjia (麟嘉) 316–318 Note: Liu Xi was Liu Yao's crown prince who was thrust into

4640-516: The Yang clan’s defeat, Sima Wei was notorious for his violent temperament. They attempted to strip him of his military power and send him back to his fief in Jing province , but Wei retaliated by conspiring with Empress Jia to depose them, claiming to her that the two were planning to overthrow her. Soon, Empress Jia produced an edict from the emperor calling for the removal of Liang and Wei Guan. However, Wei

4756-514: The advice of Lu Zhi , Ying withdrew to Ye to care for his ailing mother and handed over all major responsibility to Jiong. At Ye, Ying carried numerous popular policies to win over the people. He arranged for grain to be transported to the famine-stricken region of Yangdi, which had been devastated by war. He then had over 8,000 coffins constructed for high-ceremony funerals of those who had fallen in battle and over 14,000 of Sima Lun's soldiers to be buried. These were all Lu Zhi's ideas. In May 302,

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4872-594: The border, he sent his generals to launch an early attack, capturing a few cities before withdrawing. In 346, he invaded the Former Liang but was repelled, although he captured their territory south of the Yellow River . His reign was also troubled by a succession crisis that would lead to the empire's downfall. On two occasions, his crown princes attempted to kill him and usurp the throne, which led to him executing them in brutal fashion. In 349, shortly before his death, Shi Hu chose his 10-year-old son, Shi Shi to be

4988-526: The campaign, Liu Yao was instated as emperor, so Shi Le sent an envoy to congratulate him. However, Liu Yao, believing that Shi Le's rebellion was already in motion, had the envoy killed instead. Shi Le promptly declared independence as Liu Yao moved the capital to his base in Chang’an , splitting the empire into two. In 319, Shi Le proclaimed himself the King of Zhao, a title he was supposed to receive before his envoy

5104-606: The capital, such as the Di and Qiang people from Guanzhong . Shi Hu had ambitions to expand the state and heavily conscripted his subjects, but his campaigns yielded very minimal success. In 338, he carried out a joint campaign with the Murong-led Former Yan to conquer the Duan-Liaoxi. After the campaign, he turned on Yan but was defeated in the Battle of Jicheng . In 339, provoked by Eastern Jin movements along

5220-454: The chanyu clan from power during the end of the Han dynasty . After the Xiongnu were divided, Liu Bao briefly unified the Five Divisions during the Jiaping era (249–254) before the Chinese court intervened and forced them back into five. It is speculated that Liu Yuan fabricated his lineage to the chanyu for legitimacy when he rebelled. The Xiongnu Five Divisions began staging revolts during

5336-563: The city of Ye in 307. After their defeat, Shi Le led his forces to join the Xiongnu -led Han state in Bing province. Under Han, Shi Le quickly rose through the ranks, attracting many Jie and hu tribes in Hebei to his cause. Like many rebel generals who joined the state, he had full control over his army as the Han court had little actual power to assert their authority. With his peers, he raided

5452-672: The coalition after learning that they were larger in size. Due to their strategic bases and command over vast armies, Jiong, Ying and Yong were collectively referred to as the "Three Princes" (三王) in records. Another notable participant of the coalition was the Duke of Xinye, Sima Xin . Lun sent Zhang Hong (張泓) and Sun Fu (孫輔) with 24,000 men to secure the passes and 30,000 under Sun Hui (孫會) to confront Ying. Zhang Hong fought Jiong at Yangdi (陽翟, modern Yuzhou, Henan ) and defeated him several times before Jiong retreated and made camp at Yingyin (潁陰; in present-day Xuchang , Henan ). However, one night,

5568-515: The defenseless city and Emperor Huai in an event known as the Disaster of Yongjia . Despite the symbolic victory, Jin forces continued to resist in northern China, with Emperor Min being installed at Chang'an in 312. More concerning was Shi Le gaining control of a significant part of the eastern empire after assassinating his fellow warlord, Wang Mi and absorbing his army. Liu Cong, fearing that Shi Le may outright rebel, did not punish him, while Wang Mi's subordinate, Cao Ni continued to hold on to

5684-421: The earliest example being Shi Hu , a distant cousin who was adopted by Shi Le's father during their tribal years. He continued this practice after taking the throne, and his adopted relatives, especially Shi Hu, became important princes and military commanders. Near the end of his reign, Shi Le prepared his biological son, Shi Hong to take the throne in accordance with the Chinese rule of succession and handpicked

5800-447: The early Jin period, and their insurbordination caused concern among a few ministers, who unsuccessfully pushed for their resettlement outside the frontiers. Developments in the War of the Eight Princes finally favored the Xiongnu, as infighting between the Jin princes over control of the developmentally-disabled Emperor Hui led to civil wars and widespread famines in northern China. In 304,

5916-503: The east. In Longxi , he defeated the forces of Sima Bao , the last claimant to the Jin throne in the north, and later survived a major tribal rebellion by the Di and Qiang , leading to the relocation of nearly 200,000 of their people to Chang'an. Liu Yao then defeated Chen An , a warlord in Longxi who nominally submitted to Former Zhao, before going on to force the Former Liang into submission and invading Chouchi by 323. At its prime,

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6032-523: The eastern parts of the empire, with the exception of Shandong. In 312, Shi Le departed from his practice of leading a roving army to cultivate a base in Xiangguo. He also expanded his territory by defeating the Jin governors, Wang Jun and Liu Kun . In 318, he joined forces with the prince, Liu Yao , in quelling the coup of Jin Zhun , who massacred the emperor and imperial family in Pingyang . During

6148-686: The eastern portion of the empire fell to Shi Le's Later Zhao dynasty . Following the break-up of the Xiongnu Empire in the 1st century, the Southern Xiongnu branch submitted to the Han dynasty and were resettled into the border commanderies. By the 280s, a huge number (approximately 400,000) of Xiongnu herdsmen resided in the Ordos Desert and Bing province after Cao Cao moved them there and split them into "Five Divisions" (五部). The Xiongnu continued their nomadic lifestyles of

6264-424: The edict's authenticity among his soldiers. Deserted by his followers, Wei was captured and executed. His full-brother Sima Ai the Prince of Changsha, who provided support, was demoted to the lesser title of Prince of Changshan as punishment. For the next nine years, Empress Jia ruled Jin in the emperor's name while entrusting power to her closest family members, most notably Jia Mi , and Guo Zhang . From now on,

6380-413: The emperor's final decree appointing him and Sima Liang as co-regents while his daughter, the empress Yang Zhi , issued another edict making her father the sole regent. Emperor Wu was aware of Yang Jun's manipulations, but was too ill to stop him. On 16 May 290, Emperor Wu died, and Sima Zhong, posthumously known as Emperor Hui of Jin, ascended the throne. Yang Jun was instated as his regent while Yang Zhi

6496-584: The emperors of Western, Eastern and Shu Han , and in 308, he elevated himself to Emperor of Han. As the Jin civil war continued, more rebellions began breaking out on the North China Plain . To bolster their numbers, Liu Yuan welcomed these Han Chinese and non-Xiongnu rebels to join his ranks, such as the Chinese bandit, Wang Mi and the Jie former slave, Shi Le . To ensure their loyalty, they were given high ranks and full command over their armies, but this practice also meant that they were also essentially warlords as

6612-525: The empire left Jin vulnerable to rebellions. In 304, the Ba-Di -led Cheng-Han and the Xiongnu -led Han-Zhao broke away from Jin, beginning the Sixteen Kingdoms period. In the south, there were also the rebellions of the Man leader, Zhang Chang , between 303 and 304 and Han Chinese general, Chen Min between 305 and 307. However, unlike their Ba-Di and Xiongnu contemporaries, they were eventually suppressed in

6728-533: The empire. In the southwest, Li Te 's rebellion raged on despite his death. Along the Changjiang , rebels consisting of refugees and draft evaders led by the Man leader, Zhang Chang took up arms. When the court ordered Sima Yong to campaign against Zhang Chang, he refused to move his troops. Later, when the Prince of Xinye, Sima Xin (son of Sima Jun , Prince Wu of Fufeng), asked for permission to send his troops out, Ai rejected his request, believing that Xin

6844-472: The empress, Yang Xianrong , and depose his nephew, Sima Tan from the position of Crown Prince . On 1 May, Ying was installed as Crown Prince and his power was described as being equal to that of Cao Cao during the end of the Han dynasty . Sima Yong was also appointed the Grand Governor and Grand Commander. As Crown Prince, Ying was said to have become more brazen and extravagant in his actions and

6960-603: The empress, Lun's actions would only lead to the accession of Yu, who would then exact revenge on Lun himself. With Lun's encouragement, the empress had Yu assassinated. Lun then produced an edict allegedly from Emperor Hui calling for her removal. On 7 May 300, he arrested Empress Jia and put her under house arrest, and later forced her to commit suicide by drinking gold powered wine. He also executed many of her partisans, including Jia Mi, Zhang Hua and Pei Wei. Sima Lun assumed regency over Emperor Hui , but delegated most of his power over to Sun Xiu . Lun and Sun Xiu plotted to take

7076-432: The end. In late 289, Emperor Wu developed a deadly illness and considered appointing his father-in-law, Yang Jun , and his uncle, the Prince of Ru'nan, Sima Liang , as Sima Zhong's regent. As the emperor's health declined, Yang Jun sought to monopolize his control over Zhong as consort kin , first by sending away Sima Liang to Xuchang and then by forcing his court rival, Wei Guan , into retirement. Yang Jun also hid

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7192-483: The enemy forces. However seeing how few of the opposing army remained, the capital troops regretted surrendering and secretly plotted to free Ai. Fearing the consequences should Ai escape, Yue sent Ai to Zhang Fang, who put Ai to the torch. Although Ai was defeated, Yong was still threatened by Liu Chen, while Huangfu Zhong continued to resist in his city of Jicheng (冀城; in present-day Gangu County , Gansu ). Yong recalled Zhang Fang to deal with Liu Chen, who had defeated

7308-541: The expense of the common people, who were forced into construction work and often had their women taken away from them. On the other hand, he showed extreme leniency towards his own ministers and military generals, rarely punishing them to maintain their loyalty. The empire remained largely intact throughout his reign, with rebellions being quickly dealt with. Shi Hu reaffirmed Buddhism by continuining to show reverence to Fotu Cheng and promoting religious freedom. He also continued Shi Le's policy of relocating people to live around

7424-762: The fall of Han and the rise of Wei and Jin, our titles of chanyus hold no value, and we have not gained a foot of land since. Although we have been bestowed with many noble ranks, our households are all equally low." Liu Yuan inherited the Commander of the Left Division from his father, Liu Bao . Official history states that Liu Bao was the son of Yufuluo , one of the last chanyus of the Southern Xiongnu, but modern historians have challenged this claim. Various passages in contemporaneous records refer to Liu Yuan and his family as Chuge . The Chuge, also known as Xiuchuge (休屠各), were an influential Xiongnu tribe that ousted

7540-406: The government system was such that first all matters are reported to the empress, then all important or minor decisions are made by the empress's appointees, and then they are given to her to accept or reject the decisions, and she issued decrees in the name of the emperor. Despite the efforts of ministers like Zhang Hua and Pei Wei to uphold the government's functionality, the imperial court under

7656-512: The government, Liu Cong introduced a dual administrative system between the Han Chinese and non-Chinese people that would later be adopted by some of the Sixteen Kingdoms. He created the offices of the Left and Right Director of Retainers to manage the 200,000 Chinese households along with the Left and Right Assistant Chanyu to govern the 100,000 tribes, who were collectively known as the "Six Yi " or "Six Barbarians" (六夷). Modern scholars have noted that

7772-497: The imperial Sima family reestablished itself as the Eastern Jin dynasty in 318 at Jiankang , south of the Yangtze river . Within the Han court, Liu Cong also faced strong dissidence from his own ministers. Records depict him as a hedonistic ruler with a violent temperament, but restrained himself under pressure from his officials during his early reign. In his later reign, he had the unusual practice of having three empresses at

7888-510: The interests of their dynasty. However, after Zhong took the throne and became a mere figurehead, the princes later proved themselves self-serving and willing to undermine one another for real control over the empire. The War of the Eight Princes coincided with the upheaval of the " Five Barbarians "; tribal people who had been resettling into the Chinese interior since the Eastern Han dynasty . The princes' infighting and mismanagement of

8004-625: The last of Sima Yu 's lineage died, throwing the line of succession into confusion. Sima Jiong designated the Emperor's nephew, Sima Tan (司马覃), as crown prince. At the same time, Sima Yue , Prince of Donghai, was appointed to direct the Central Secretariat. Throughout his regency, Jiong alienated many of his ministers due to his arrogant and extravagant personality. He rarely visited the emperor and attended court meetings, and despite multiple attempts to get him to change his ways, he

8120-400: The leadership role when Liu Yao was captured by Later Zhao 's emperor Shi Le , but he never took the imperial title. Later Zhao Zhao , briefly known officially as Wei (衛) in 350 AD, known in historiography as the Later Zhao ( simplified Chinese : 后赵 ; traditional Chinese : 後趙 ; pinyin : Hòu Zhào ; 319–351) or Shi Zhao (石趙), was a dynasty of China ruled by

8236-463: The military. Immediately following the deaths of Sima Liang and Wei Guan , he was advised to utilize his military authority to execute Empress Jia's powerful relatives, Jia Mi and Guo Zhang . However, Wei was hesitant in accepting this plan. In Empress Jia's camp, the minister, Zhang Hua urged her to punish Wei for killing the emperor's regents. Just one day after Liang's death, Empress Jia deployed her troops against Wei and spread doubt regarding

8352-437: The new Crown Prince and took the title of Emperor. In addition to the displeasure of his other sons, many of the military generals were also not pleased with his decision as he bestowed power to a regent and the soon-to-be empress dowager . After Shi Shi ascended the throne, his half-brother, Shi Zun conspired with the generals to depose him, and among these generals was Shi Hu's adopted Han Chinese grandson, Shi Min . Shi Min

8468-535: The new Emperor of Zhao. At this point, the Later Zhao was on the verge of collapse. The Di general, Fu Hong led his forces west to occupy the Guanzhong, where his son Fu Jiàn founded the Former Qin dynasty in 351. The Xianbei general, Duan Kan , also founded his short-lived state of Duan Qi in Shandong. From the northeast, the Former Yan began an invasion to establish themselves on the Central Plains , while

8584-485: The next 20 years. When Liu Yuan established the Han, he retained most of the imperial Chinese government offices such as Grand Marshal, Minister of Works and Minister Over the Masses while introducing a few Xiongnu-influenced offices, most notably the Grand Chanyu. The Grand Chanyu was second to the emperor, tasked with managing the non-Chinese tribes and was usually deferred to the heir apparent. In 314, while reorganizing

8700-480: The night. Ai thought that Zhang Fang had been dealt with, but after realizing that the ramparts had been completed, he attacked them unsuccessfully. Ai's officials attempted to negotiate peace with Ying, seeing that the two were brothers. However, when offered to split the empire between him and Ai, he rejected it. Ai personally wrote a letter to Ying to persuade him, but Ying would only accept it if Ai executed Huangfu Shang, which Ai refused to do. Zhang Fang severed

8816-430: The palace and arrested Lun. Sun Xiu and many of Lun's supporters were also captured and executed. Lun spent the next few days denouncing his own conduct before he was forced to commit suicide. Emperor Hui was reinstated and celebrated the occasion with a five-day non-stop drinking binge. Ying was the first to reach the capital on 1 June, followed by Yong on 7 June. Jiong was still fighting Zhang Hong's forces at Yangdi at

8932-426: The power to levy taxes and employ central officials. Emperor Wu’s reign was troubled by a succession crisis due to his heir, Sima Zhong, being developmentally disabled. Some ministers wanted Wu’s brother, the abled Sima You , to replace Zhong as the Crown Prince, but Wu was adamant in upholding the traditional succession law. Zhong was the son of Wu’s first empress, Yang Yan , and married to Jia Nanfeng , so he had

9048-412: The prince's vanguard and killing 10,000. Ying planned to retreat back to Zhaoge , but Lu Zhi advised him to carry out a surprise attack during the early morning. Sun Hui and his contemporaries were complacent by their recent victory and did not prepare any defense. Ying rallied his troops and returned with a counterattack, smashing Hui's forces north of the Yellow River . Ying's army was the first to make

9164-478: The rest of the imperial family in Pingyang were massacred in a coup by a powerful consort kin, Jin Zhun . Jin Zhun declared himself Heavenly King of Han and invited the Eastern Jin court to assist him, but was ignored. Meanwhile, both Liu Yao and Shi Le combined their forces to oppose Jin Zhun. During the campaign, Liu Yao was acclaimed the new emperor by surviving Han officials fleeing from Pingyang. The rebellion

9280-459: The river. Lu Ji managed to escape but was arrested and executed on Ying's orders. Meng Jiu (孟玖) replaced him as head of military operations. Ai then moved west to face Zhang Fang. The emperor's presence caused panic within Zhang Fang's army, so he was badly defeated and lost 5,000 soldiers. Zhang Fang rejected his subordinates' advice to retreat and instead secretly constructed ramparts during

9396-403: The self-abdication of Emperor Hui and usurped the throne on 3 February 301. During Lun's regency, the Inspector of Yi Province , Zhao Xin , a relative of Empress Jia, rebelled in his province. In early 301, his rebellion was quelled after his subordinate, the Ba-Di refugee leader, Li Te , betrayed and ousted him from Chengdu . Not long after his usurpation, Sima Jiong rebelled and sent out

9512-512: The senior minister Wei Guan . It is also important to note that the fiefdom titles of the princes do not reflect their base of operation. For example, although Sima Ying was the Prince of Chengdu , he mostly operated in Ye throughout the war and was never near his fief. Sima Yi , an official, general, and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period, effectively seized control of Wei in early 249 after instigating

9628-406: The separate governance system between the Han Chinese and non-Chinese people from the Han-Zhao dynasty . He adopted the Grand Chanyu title, tasked with managing the tribes, while also introducing new offices that specifically dealt with litigations and population movements of the tribes. He banned the word “ hu ”, opting to use “ guoren ” (國人; countryman) instead, and forbid the tribes from oppressing

9744-431: The situation by recalling Li Han to Luoyang and ordering Zhong to disperse his troops, but Zhong refused. Finally, Yong secretly ordered Li Han to have Ai assassinated. Huangfu Shang discovered their plot and informed Ai, and so the prince had Li Han executed. After the failed assassination attempt, Yong prepared his troops for war. At the time, Sima Ying was setting out to quell Zhang Chang's rebellion, but hearing about

9860-508: The situation in Luoyang and Guanzhong, he took his troops to join Yong instead, once again ignoring Lu Zhi's advice. In fall 303, Yong sent an army of 70,000 under Zhang Fang to attack the capital. Ying also sent an army 200,000 strong under Lu Ji against the capital. Uncharacteristically, Emperor Hui commanded his own troops to help Sima Ai defend Luoyang. On 21 September 303, Ai sent 10,000 men under Huangfu Shang to oppose Zhang Fang, but he

9976-588: The steppes with horse breeding and to some extent agriculture. Sinicization was evident, especially among the elite; Liu Yuan , a commander of the Left Division (左部, pinyin Zuǒbù), was educated in Luoyang , the Western Jin capital, and was proficient in the Chinese-Confucianist classics . He was even considered the post of the Jin forces commander for the conquest of Eastern Wu but was later dropped because of his Xiongnu ethnicity. Nonetheless, among

10092-513: The strong backing of the influential Yang and Jia clans. Another factor for choosing Zhong was that Wu saw great potential in his grandson, Sima Yu , should he succeed Zhong. By empowering the princes, Emperor Wu intended for them to act as a safeguard for his successors against the gentry clans should they overstep their boundaries, even more so considering Sima Zhong's disability. Wu had likely hoped that his family members, by virtue of their familial ties, would cooperate with each other to protect

10208-461: The throne by following the precedent of the Jin dynasty's foundation. They awarded their family members and allies with high-ranking positions and noble titles, while also posthumously honoring Sima Yu and recruiting famed individuals into their administration to win the people's support. Yang Xianrong , a distant relative of Sun Xiu, was installed as the new empress of Emperor Hui. In autumn 300, after Lun attempted to take his military authority away,

10324-469: The throne by forcing Shi Hong to abdicate before also having him executed. When he first ascended, Shi Hu took the title of Regnant Heavenly King and later elevated it to Heavenly King in 337. He also moved the capital from Xiangguo to his base in Ye in 335. Records describe Shi Hu as a tyrant with a violent streak who spent his time indulging in women and alcohol. Most notably, he took on several grand building projects in Ye and greatly expanded his harem at

10440-471: The time, so Ying had to send his soldiers to assist him. After Zhang Hong and his peers surrendered, Jiong entered the capital with "several hundred thousand armored soldiers, before whom the capital trembled in awe" on 23 July. On 11 August 301, Sima Jiong received the Nine Bestowments and was made regent of Emperor Hui . Jiong had intention to share his regency with Sima Ying , but through

10556-552: The two states separately; others referred to the Han state as the “Northern Han”, a confusing nomenclature given that the term also refers to the Northern Han state of the later Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . During the Han period, the capital was frequently shifted around Shanxi before finally settling in Pingyang . The Han was a driving force during the upheaval of the Five Barbarians , as they brought

10672-412: The warlord, Cao Ni . War between the two Zhaos only broke out in 324, and in 328, Shi Le and Liu Yao led their armies to face each other in the pivotal Battle of Luoyang . Liu Yao was captured during the battle and later executed, while the remaining Former Zhao forces was destroyed in 329. Thus, the Later Zhao became the hegemonic power in northern China, though some areas were still out of their control;

10788-664: The watch of the Prince of Zhao, Sima Lun . Due to his failure to quell the uprising, Lun was recalled back to Luoyang . Later on, the Prince of Chengdu, Sima Ying was assigned away to Ye following a heated argument he had with Jia Mi over the latter's treatment of the Crown Prince , Sima Yu . The Prince of Hejian, Sima Yong , was garrisoned in Guanzhong through the endorsement of the gentry families. The rebellion in Qin and Yong coincided with famines and plagues, and although it

10904-407: Was Prince of Zhongshan , and Zhongshan was in the ancient state of Zhao ), and honoured his ancestor, Modu Chanyu , but still saw his state as a continuation of Liu Yuan's Han. Soon after, Shi Le also named his state Zhao, leading to historiographers to distinguish the two states as Former Zhao and Later Zhao. In his early reign, Liu Yao expanded westwards while Shi Le dealt with his own matters in

11020-442: Was a powerful commander and favoured grandson of Shi Hu, who had adopted his father Shi Zhan, originally named Ran Zhan . To convince him into joining the plot, Shi Zun offered Shi Min the position of Crown Prince, which he accepted. Just a month into his reign, Shi Zun's forces overthrew Shi Shi, his regent and the empress dowager at Ye. However, after ascending the throne, Shi Zun reneged on his promise and appointed another nephew as

11136-594: Was a series of coups and civil wars among kings/princes (Chinese: wáng 王) of the Chinese Western Jin dynasty from 291 to 306 AD. The key point of contention in these conflicts was the paramountcy over the empire in light of the developmentally disabled Emperor Hui of Jin . The name of the conflict is derived from the biographies of the eight princes collected in Chapter 59 of the Book of Jin . The "War of

11252-460: Was captured and killed. Sima Ai seized control of the capital but deferred authority to his half-brother, Sima Ying . The outcome of the conflict put a halt to Sima Yong and Ying's plans, which frustrated the two princes. Ying in particular was unhappy with his restricted control over the state as he shared power with Ai, and the relationship between the brothers deteriorated over time. Ai's administration failed to deal with rebel movements in

11368-459: Was captured and killed. Ai held out in Luoyang until March 304, and by this point, Zhang Fang had given up hope of taking Luoyang and was planning to withdraw. Despite this fact, the Minister of Works , Sima Yue feared that Ai would not succeed in the long run. On March 17, he and a group of officials kidnapped and put Ai under house arrest. The next day, they opened the gates and surrendered to

11484-447: Was caught by surprise and was unable to decide on his next move. Empress Dowager Yang Zhi tried to get the soldiers to turn on Empress Jia, but failed and implicated herself in the process. Soon, the soldiers advanced and set fire to the residence. Yang Jun's soldiers were routed, and he was killed while trying to escape. His families, supporters were all rounded up and executed as the extermination of all third degree relatives . Yang Zhi

11600-557: Was colluding with Ying, who he had good relations with, and plotting to rebel. Xin was killed in battle by the rebels, and Zhang Chang's rebellion spread throughout the southern provinces. Ai also employed Huangfu Shang as an advisor, putting Li Han at unease. Shang had a brother, Huangfu Zhong , who was the Inspector of Qin province , which placed him in a position to threaten Sima Yong's rear in Guanzhong . Yong and Li Han conspired to have him arrested, but he saw through their plans and led his troops to attack Li Han. Ai tried to defuse

11716-404: Was defeated in a surprise attack. Zhang Fang momentarily broke through the city walls and carried out a mass plundering before withdrawing. Meanwhile, Emperor Hui was constantly on the move and shifting his base before he defeated Ying's troops at Goushi (緱氏; in present-day Yanshi District , Henan ) on 22 October. However, when Shi Chao threatened his position at Goushi, he returned to the palace

11832-457: Was founded. When the Later Zhao was founded by former Han-Zhao general Shi Le , the capital was at Xiangguo (襄國, in modern Xingtai , Hebei ), but in 335 Shi Hu moved the capital to Yecheng (鄴城, in modern Handan , Hebei ), where it would remain for the rest of the state's history (except for Shi Zhi 's brief attempt to revive the state at Xiangguo). After defeating the Han-Zhao in 329,

11948-408: Was killed. Prior to that, Liu Yao had also renamed the state from Han to Zhao. To distinguish the two states, historiographers refer to Liu Yao’s state as Former Zhao and Shi Le’s state as Later Zhao. In his early reign, Shi Le expanded eastwards while Liu Yao dealt with matters in the west. By 323, he defeated Duan Pidi , one of the last remaining Jin powers in the north and conquered Shandong from

12064-400: Was known to be "avaricious and false" as well as "simple and stupid," heeding only the advice of Sun Xiu . Yu's arrest sparked outrage among many officials, and a few of them approached Lun for his military strength to overthrow Empress Jia. Lun had long wished to betray the empress, but Sun Xiu convinced him to wait until Yu was out of the way, arguing that because of Lun's reputed loyalty to

12180-481: Was one of the miscellaneous hu (胡; "barbarian") tribes; these tribes did not fall under the umbrella of the major ethnic groups like the Xiongnu or Xianbei . In 303, when a great famine broke out in Bing that displaced many of the Jie and other hu tribes in the region, the provincial inspector, Sima Teng , had these people captured and sold into slavery to fund his army. The Jie and hu people were scattered throughout Hebei and Shandong , including Shi Le who

12296-401: Was promoted to Empress Dowager . However, Yang Jun was not well-received by his ministers due to his apparent attempts at consolidating power and refusal to take advice. He also tried to assassinate Sima Liang without success and rejected suggestions to cooperate with him. Meanwhile, the new empress, Jia Nanfeng , was unhappy with the little control she has over state affairs due to Yang Jun and

12412-533: Was quickly defeated by the alliance, and Jin Zhun and his family were all killed. With the rebellion crushed, tension arose between Liu Yao and Shi Le. As Shi Le had cultivated a powerful base on the North China Plain, Liu Yao was convinced that he would take advantage of Han's vulnerability to launch a surprise rebellion. When Shi Le sent his envoy to congratulate him, Liu Yao had the envoy executed, which prompted Shi Le to declare independence. The empire

12528-449: Was rejected, Liu Cong took the throne for himself while still appointing Ai as his Crown Prince. He then intensified his attack on Luoyang, which had been left exposed by the departure of the Jin imperial army and a deadly famine. In 311, Shi Le annihilated the Jin imperial army at the Battle of Ningping , depriving Jin of its main force in the north. Han forces led by Wang Mi , Huyan Yan and Liu Yao then descended upon Luoyang, capturing

12644-432: Was reluctant to follow through his supporters' advices. The minister, Wang Bao , was concerned about the various princes' military power, believing that they would one day use it against Jiong just as they did with his predecessors. In a letter to Jiong, Wang Bao urged him to send the princes back to their respective fiefs and to divide control over the state between him and Sima Ying. Jiong was initially convinced, but when

12760-425: Was sold to a wealthy family in Shandong but soon attained his freedom. By 305, Shi Le had made a name for himself by becoming a bandit, and raised a personal army with his friend, Ji Sang . Taking advantage of growing resentment against the Jin government, the two joined the rebel general Gongshi Fan to avenge the Prince of Chengdu, Sima Ying and later took leadership after Fan’s death, going as far as to sacking

12876-492: Was spared but confined inside the palace, where she remained until her death in 292. On 4 May 291, Sima Liang and Wei Guan were installed as the new regents of Emperor Hui . Now that he was in power, Liang asserted his authority by freely handing out new appointments and titles to around 1,081 people to garner support. At the same time, Empress Jia began placing her relatives and allies into positions of power. Liang and Wei Guan were wary of Sima Wei . Despite his role in

12992-481: Was tempted to join him. Yong sent Li Han and Zhang Fang to campaign against Jiong, and they sent a proclamation to ordering Ai to attack Jiong. Believing that Ai was involved, Jiong sent troops to kill him, who fled to the imperial palace for protection. There, using both imperial guards and his own personal forces, Ai defended the palace against Jiong within Luoyang for three days, bringing Emperor Hui along with him. On 27 January, Jiong's own officers betrayed him and he

13108-403: Was thus divided into two, with Liu Yao controlling the west and Shi Le controlling the east. As Pingyang had been devastated by the rebellion, Liu Yao shifted the capital to his base in Chang'an. Unlike his predecessors, Liu Yao distanced the state away from the framing of Han restoration and appealed more to his Xiongnu ancestry. He renamed the state to Zhao (since one of Liu Yao's previous title

13224-425: Was ultimately put down in 299, it sparked an influx of refugees fleeing south to Yi province . It also allowed a Di leader, Yang Maosou to set up the state of Chouchi south of Tianshui in 296. Empress Jia deemed the Crown Prince , Sima Yu as a threat to her power should he ascend the throne, since he was not her biological son. In early 300, she orchestrated his arrest by convincing him while drunk to copy

13340-466: Was unhappy with the positions he received under Lun's administration. Sensing his discontent, Lun had Jiong assigned away to Xuchang . After Yun's rebellion, Lun was granted the Nine Bestowments . The following year, he claimed in a report that the spirit of his father, Sima Yi , had ordered him to move into the Western Palace (西宮), the residence of Emperor Hui. He then forged an edict stating

13456-503: Was unsatisfied with the content of the original edict, as he was not included among the princes who had to raise their troops. Without the empress's knowledge, Wei forged an edict which made him Commander over all military forces and granted himself full control over the operation. On 26 July 291, he sent his subordinates and soldiers to arrest Liang and Wei Guan in Luoyang . Both men gave no resistance and were put to death. The forged edict meant that Sima Wei held significant control over

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