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133-503: Old La Veta Pass (officially La Veta Pass ), elevation 9,380 ft (2,860 m), was at one time a main travel route between the San Luis Valley and Walsenburg , first on the narrow gauge Denver and Rio Grande Railway , and later on a wagon road and then highway following the same alignment. The route featured two tight curves on the eastern approach to the summit, making the grade feasible for railroad operation, but leaving

266-628: A Mexican territory), and Texas by any means, with the 1845 annexation of Texas furthering that goal. However, the boundary between Texas and Mexico was disputed, with the Republic of Texas and the U.S. asserting it to be the Rio Grande and Mexico claiming it to be the more-northern Nueces River . Polk sent a diplomatic mission to Mexico in an attempt to buy the disputed territory, together with California and everything in between for $ 25   million (equivalent to $ 778 million in 2023), an offer

399-545: A choice. Indigenous soldiers who volunteered to fight with the Mexican Army were often abandoned and compensated unfairly. By raiding, indigenous populations were also able to acquire horses and properly tame them to move efficiently during battles. Captive-taking methods, especially that of the Comanche tribe, were also used to the advantage of the Mexican Army as captives would end up assisting indigenous populations in

532-700: A common feature of the Rio Grande Delta area where the Rio Grande enters the valley are large piles of potato-sized rocks screened from the soil. The area supports a wide variety of wildlife. Sandhill cranes migrate through the valley every spring and fall. The Monte Vista Crane Festival takes place in March, centering on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge located six miles (9.7 km) south of town. The valley

665-406: A court order requiring the restoration of 400,000 acre-feet of water to the groundwater aquifer, as well as the forecast for reduced Rio Grande flows in future years. Predominantly agricultural in nature, the area is also one of the poorest rural areas of Colorado, with a poverty rate estimated at between 20 and 25% in 2019. The San Luis Valley Regional Medical Center is the largest employer in

798-498: A creek called Rito Seco , was established as a campground in the 1970s. However, it lacked hiking trails. Then in 2022, after more than a decade of planning, Costilla County and an organization called San Luis Valley Great Outdoors built three hiking trails and one single track mountain bike trail in the park. The San Louis Valley is also home to the Colorado Gator Reptile Rescue. The Reptile rescue

931-453: A large contingent of Irish- and German-born soldiers, nearly all European states and principalities were represented. It is estimated that the U.S. Army further included 1,500 men from British North America, including French Canadians. Although Polk hoped to avoid a protracted war over Texas, the extended conflict stretched regular army resources, necessitating the recruitment of volunteers with short-term enlistments. Some enlistments were for

1064-538: A loss of national prestige, as it suffered large losses of life in both its military and civilian population, had its financial foundations undermined, and lost more than half of its territory. Mexico obtained independence from the Spanish Empire with the Treaty of Córdoba in 1821 after a decade of conflict between the royal army and insurgents for independence, with no foreign intervention. The conflict ruined

1197-449: A military that regularly intervened in politics, the U.S. generally kept its political divisions within the bounds of the institutions of governance. Since Mexico fought the war on its home territory, a traditional support system for troops were women, known as soldaderas . They did not participate in conventional fighting on battlefields, but some soldaderas joined the battle alongside the men. These women were involved in fighting during

1330-500: A new route over Veta Pass, completing the project in 1899. In 2003 the San Luis and Rio Grande Railroad took over operation of the line. The Rio Grande Scenic Railroad operated steam excursion trains between Alamosa and La Veta over the pass before it went into receivership in 2019. San Luis Valley The San Luis Valley is a region in south-central Colorado with a small portion overlapping into New Mexico . The valley

1463-634: A number of smaller locations. A few other counties of Colorado have some land in the Rio Grande Basin including Archuleta County , Hinsdale County and San Juan County . Blanca Peak is prominent in the Sierra Blanca at the southern end of the northernmost section of the mountains, which is known as the Sangre de Cristo Range . There are several passes, with elevations between 9,000 and 10,000 feet (2,700 and 3,000 m), giving access to

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1596-462: A period of months, sometimes just weeks, or even days. Just before the outbreak of the war, liberal General José Joaquín de Herrera was president (December 1844 – December 1845) and willing to engage in talks so long as he did not appear to be caving to the U.S., but he was accused by many Mexican factions of selling out his country ( vendepatria ) for considering it. He was overthrown by Conservative Mariano Paredes (December 1845 – July 1846), who left

1729-520: A policy of colonization to more effectively control the territory. After independence, the Mexican government implemented the policy, granting Moses Austin , a banker from Missouri, a large tract of land in Texas. Austin died before he could bring his plan of recruiting American settlers for the land to fruition, but his son, Stephen F. Austin , brought over 300 American families into Texas. This started

1862-526: A proposal by Tessera Solar (affiliated with Stirling Energy Systems ) to install 8,000 parabolic mirrors, 40 feet each, on 1,500 acres (6.1 km ) near Saguache, Colorado . At issue was the noise expected to be generated by the numerous stirling engine generators, and the wisdom of industrial solar facilities in general. The application for a permit was withdrawn on 11 July 2011. There has also been controversy regarding proposed transmission lines over both Poncha and La Veta passes, which would open

1995-766: A regional road network, the Luther Bean Museum at Adams State University . Multiple Hot springs the Sand Dunes Swimming Pool Hot Spring and Joyful Journey Hot Springs. The Firedworks Gallery on Main Street in Alamosa for regional history and art, and regional Mexican food . Also recommended near Alamosa for wildlife viewing are The Alamosa Ranch north of town and the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge to

2128-523: A shorter growing season and less access to water rights tend to be devoted to alfalfa and grazing . Broad areas, especially in Saguache County, Colorado have a high water table or are even flooded part of the year. Uncultivated land is often covered with "chico", low brush such as rabbitbrush , greasewood and other woody species. Cropland is typically irrigated with large ( 1 ⁄ 4  mile radius) center-pivot irrigation systems, and

2261-663: A significant advantage over their Mexican counterparts, such as the Springfield 1841 rifle of the Mississippi Rifles and the Colt Paterson revolver of the Texas Rangers . In the later stages of the war, the U.S. Mounted Rifles were issued Colt Walker revolvers, of which the U.S. Army had ordered 1,000 in 1846. Most significantly, throughout the war, the superiority of the U.S. artillery often carried

2394-610: A sovereign nation, deepened those sectional divisions. Polk had narrowly won the popular vote in the 1844 presidential election and decisively won the Electoral College, but with the annexation of Texas in 1845 and the outbreak of war in 1846, Polk's Democrats lost the House of Representatives to the Whig Party, which opposed the war. Unlike Mexico, which had weak formal state institutions, chaotic changes in government, and

2527-434: A year, but others were for 3 or 6 months. The best volunteers signed up for a year's service in the summer of 1846, with their enlistments expiring just when General Winfield Scott 's campaign was poised to capture Mexico City. Many did not re-enlist, deciding that they would rather return home than place themselves in harm's way of disease, threat of death or injury on the battlefield, or in guerrilla warfare. Their patriotism

2660-519: Is a flyway for many migrating birds including avocets , bald eagles , goldfinches , and a plethora of hawk species. Agriculture in the San Luis Valley is enabled by irrigation, since average annual precipitation is just 7–10 inches (18–25 cm) whereas most ag crop production requires at least twice that much water. Surface water rights in the Valley began to be allocated in 1852, with

2793-718: Is a section of the Rio Grande Rift and is drained to the south by the Rio Grande, which rises in the San Juan Mountains to the west of the valley and flows south into New Mexico. The San Luis Valley has a cold desert climate but has substantial water resources from the Rio Grande and groundwater . The San Luis Valley was ceded to the United States by Mexico following the Mexican–American War . Hispanic settlers began moving north and settling in

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2926-724: Is also home to the Monte Arts Council as well as several festivals and an art tour that attracts artists from as far away as California and North Carolina. The arts of the San Luis Valley draw from traditions of the early Utes, Apaches, and Comanches and the later Spanish-speaking immigrants. The San Luis Valley is home to five active live theaters, two at Adams State University, The Creede Repertory Theater, The Old Spanish Trails Theatre Company and Rocky Mountain Stage in Monte Vista. In August there are two major Music Festivals,

3059-467: Is an endorheic basin ; surface water does not exit this area. Irrigated agriculture is possible in the area due to groundwater and streams fed by the average 100 inches of snow the surrounding mountain ranges receive. The southern portion is drained by the Rio Grande . There is no clear southern boundary but the term is generally used to include the San Luis Hills of southern Colorado and

3192-486: Is approximately 122 miles (196 km) long and 74 miles (119 km) wide, extending from the Continental Divide on the northwest rim into New Mexico on the south. It contains 6 counties and portions of 3 others. It is an extensive high-elevation depositional basin of approximately 8,000 square miles (21,000 km ) with an average elevation of 7,664 feet (2,336 m) above sea level. The valley

3325-413: Is generally concentrated around the towns of Alamosa, Monte Vista and Center. Principal crops include potatoes , head lettuce , wheat, and barley . The barley grown here is the main supplier for Coors beer company. In 1982, quinoa was successfully grown for the first time outside of South America in the San Luis Valley of Colorado, and commercial growth has occurred since 1987. Less favored areas with

3458-553: Is now the American Southwest . The U.S. sought to purchase territory from Mexico, starting in 1825, in order to settle some of these issues. U.S. President Andrew Jackson made a sustained effort to acquire northern Mexican territory, with no success. Historian Peter Guardino states that in the war "the greatest advantage the United States had was its prosperity." With the Industrial Revolution across

3591-534: Is oil trapped in Dakota Formation sandstones lying beneath Mancos Shale to the west of the Sangre de Cristo fault at the western base of the Sangre de Cristo Range southwest of Crestone. Drilling at the base of the range during gold exploration in the vicinity showed small amounts of oil and evidence of the existence of those formations as well as the underlying Morrison Formation . Prior to this discovery it

3724-592: Is open to the public to view and interact with many different types of reptiles from Gators to Tortoises. The rescue uses thermal hot springs water to maintain the gators through the winter months and is home to Morris the Movie Star Gator There are over 500 known artists living in the San Luis Valley as evidenced by an ongoing directory maintained by Monte Vista artists' group, The Art Thing, The Art Thing's membership boasts several nationally recognized artists working in various media. Monte Vista

3857-470: Is thus better suited to modern highway traffic. These two passes should not be confused with yet another Sangre de Cristo crossing with a very similar name: Veta Pass , elevation 9,220 ft (2,810 m), lies about 7.7 miles southeast of Old La Veta Pass. When the Denver and Rio Grande Railway decided to convert its line over the Sangre de Cristo from narrow gauge to standard gauge, it elected to follow

3990-707: The Alamosa River and the Conejos River and Culebra Creek from the east. Most of the northern valley is an endorheic basin called the San Luis Closed Basin . Generally, within the Closed Basin the major streams such as Saguache Creek , San Luis Creek , and the streams from the west face of the Sangre de Cristos flow only a short distance onto the valley floor as surface streams. Only in very wet years, perhaps every 20 years, does

4123-602: The California Battalion following the outbreak of the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma. In November 1845, Polk sent John Slidell , a secret representative, to Mexico City with an offer to the Mexican government of $ 25 million for the Rio Grande border in Texas and Mexico's provinces of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México. U.S. expansionists wanted California to thwart any British interests in

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4256-641: The Comancheria . However, rather than settling in the dangerous central and western parts of the province, Anglos preferred to settle in East Texas with its rich farmland contiguous with the southern U.S. slave states . As settlers poured in from the U.S., the Mexican government discouraged further migration with its 1829 abolition of slavery. During the Spanish colonial era, the Californias (i.e.,

4389-638: The Precambrian basement rock and the Eocene alluvial deposits in the San Luis Valley is considered evidence that much of southern Colorado, including the western portion of the San Luis Valley, was highlands in the period prior to the Eocene Epoch, 56 to 34 million years ago. There were lowlands to the north in central Colorado, the Colorado sag , an east–west basin. It is from those highlands to

4522-708: The Stations of the Cross . From San Luis, the National Geographic road trip suggests traveling west on State Highway 142 through Manassa, Colorado , then south on U.S. Highway 285 past Conejos, Colorado then west on State Highway 17 over Cumbres Pass to Chama, New Mexico paralleling the route of the narrow gauge Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroad . Rock climbing and camping are available at Penitente Canyon and other locations. Rito Seco Park, located east of San Luis and named for

4655-685: The 1820s and resisted the French in the so-called Pastry War of 1838 but the secessionists' success in Texas and the Yucatán against the centralist government of Mexico showed its political weakness as the government changed hands multiple times. The Mexican military and the Catholic Church in Mexico , both privileged institutions with conservative political views, were stronger politically than

4788-572: The 1845 American annexation of Texas , which Mexico still considered its territory because it refused to recognize the Treaties of Velasco , signed by President Antonio López de Santa Anna after he was captured by the Texian Army during the 1836 Texas Revolution . The Republic of Texas was de facto an independent country, but most of its Anglo-American citizens who had moved from the United States to Texas after 1822 wanted to be annexed by

4921-741: The Alamosa Basin, which lies at the north end of the Rio Grande rift . Deposits include the deeper alluvial strata, overlying Precambrian basement rock, Eocene alluvial deposits from a shallow Laramide depression, the Blanco Basin Formation; and Oligocene ash and lava flows associated with the Conejos Formation, is the Santa Fe formation, mixed alluvium and lava outflows from the San Juan volcanic field to

5054-528: The Atlantic increasing the demand for cotton for textile factories, there was a large external market for cotton produced by enslaved African-American labor in the southern states. This demand helped fuel expansion into northern Mexico. Although there were political conflicts in the U.S., they were largely contained by the framework of the constitution and did not result in revolution or rebellion by 1846, but rather by sectional political conflicts. Northerners in

5187-476: The Baja California peninsula and Alta California) were sparsely settled. After Mexico became independent, it shut down the missions and reduced its military presence. In 1842, the U.S. minister in Mexico, Waddy Thompson Jr. , suggested Mexico might be willing to cede Alta California to the U.S. to settle debts, saying: "As to Texas, I regard it as of very little value compared with California, the richest,

5320-619: The Capote (Kapota) band of Ute Indians lived in the valley. The Utes made a treaty of peace with the United States in 1849 after the Mexican War. Shortly thereafter settlers from New Mexico established several small settlements in what is now Colorado and in 1868 the Utes were removed to a reservation in western Colorado. They continued to play a role in Saguache in the northwestern corner of

5453-634: The Colorado average of 278. 37°12′0″N 105°25′12″W  /  37.20000°N 105.42000°W  / 37.20000; -105.42000 Mexican%E2%80%93American War Mexican Cession The Mexican–American War , also known in the United States as the Mexican War , and in Mexico as the United States intervention in Mexico , was an invasion of Mexico by the United States Army from 1846 to 1848. It followed

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5586-556: The Louisiana volunteers were there, a lawless drunken rabble. They had driven away the inhabitants, taken possession of their houses, and were emulating each other in making beasts of themselves." John L. O'Sullivan , a vocal proponent of Manifest Destiny, later recalled "The regulars regarded the volunteers with importance and contempt ... [The volunteers] robbed Mexicans of their cattle and corn, stole their fences for firewood, got drunk, and killed several inoffensive inhabitants of

5719-464: The Mexican government refused. Polk then sent a group of 80 soldiers across the disputed territory to the Rio Grande, ignoring Mexican demands to withdraw. Mexican forces interpreted this as an attack and repelled the U.S. forces on April 25, 1846, a move which Polk used to convince the Congress of the United States to declare war. Beyond the disputed area of Texas, U.S. forces quickly occupied

5852-511: The Mexican state. The United States' 1803 Louisiana Purchase resulted in an undefined border between Spanish colonial territories and the U.S. Some of the boundary issues between the U.S. and Spain were resolved with the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1818. U.S. negotiator John Quincy Adams wanted clear possession of East Florida and establishment of U.S. claims above the 42nd parallel, while Spain sought to limit U.S. expansion into what

5985-476: The Natives. In 1829, because of the large influx of American immigrants, the non-Hispanic outnumbered native Spanish speakers in Texas. President Vicente Guerrero , a hero of Mexican independence, moved to gain more control over Texas and its influx of non-Hispanic colonists from the southern U.S. and discourage further immigration by abolishing slavery in Mexico. The Mexican government also decided to reinstate

6118-598: The Nueces River, ready to take by force the disputed land. At the same time, President Polk wrote to the American consul in the Mexican territory of Alta California, disclaiming American ambitions in California but offering to support independence from Mexico or voluntary accession to the United States, and warning that the United States would oppose any European attempts to take over. To end another war scare with

6251-458: The People's Ditch, near San Luis. In the 1870s, some 50,000 acres (78 sq mi; 200 km ) of the San Luis Valley were irrigated, which rose to 800,000 acres (1,200 sq mi; 3,200 km ) in the 1880s. By the early 1900s, demand for surface water had outstripped the available supply and farmers began to use subsurface wells to supply water. Over 5,000 groundwater wells existed by

6384-547: The Regular Army officers looked down on the volunteers, whose training was poor and whose behavior was undisciplined. (see below) On the West Coast, the U.S. Navy fielded a battalion of sailors, in an attempt to recapture Los Angeles . Although the U.S. Army and Navy were not large at the outbreak of the war, the officers were generally well trained and the numbers of enlisted men fairly large compared to Mexico's. At

6517-453: The Rio Grande boundary of Texas was omitted from the U.S. Congress's annexation resolution to help secure passage after the annexation treaty failed in the Senate. President Polk claimed the Rio Grande boundary, and when Mexico sent forces over the Rio Grande, this provoked a dispute. In July 1845, Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to Texas, and by October, Taylor commanded 3,500 Americans on

6650-755: The San Luis Valley are generally part of the Rio Grande National Forest and are managed by the United States Forest Service . Large areas of private lands have either been subdivided into small "ranch" lots or have been sold or donated to the Federal government and make up portions of the Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve , other wildlife preserves, and various state wildlife sites. The San Luis Valley contains an alluvial basin ,

6783-434: The San Luis Valley has the largest native Hispanic population in Colorado; many families are directly descended from the original New Mexican settlers. The surge of immigration followed the construction by the U.S. Army of Fort Massachusetts for protection against the Utes , who had previously barred settlers. The history of the U.S. military presence in the valley is preserved at Fort Garland and other historic preserves in

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6916-418: The San Luis Valley lay on the shore of or beneath the Western Interior Seaway , a shallow sea which divided North America into two parts. As the sea deepened and expanded sand and gravel eroded from mountains in the west was deposited in the Dakota Formation ; later, when the sea was deeper mud and sand were deposited in the Mancos Shale . The Lexam oil play near Crestone is based on the hypothesis that there

7049-445: The Sangre de Cristo Mountains. The dunes can reach 750 feet (230 m) high. The Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve is now in place to protect both the dunes and the numerous archeological sites found in the area. The natural valley aquifer is close to the surface in this part of the valley, and helps with maintenance of water levels in the San Luis Lakes, just to the west of the sand dunes. Elevation rises as you go north in

7182-422: The Spanish Trails Music Festival and Mexican Rodeo, and Rhythms on the Rio. Music in the valley is sponsored by the South Fork Music Association and the Alamosa Live Music Association. The San Luis Valley is an alpine desert environment which is conducive to solar energy production. It has the highest per capita concentration of home-based solar energy systems in the United States. Colorado law requires that 30% of

7315-667: The Taos Plateau of northern New Mexico. About 50 miles from east to west and about 150 miles from north to south, the valley is bounded on the east by the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and on the west by the San Juan Mountains . Within Colorado the San Luis Valley is generally considered to comprise six Colorado counties: Saguache , Alamosa , Rio Grande , Conejos , Costilla and Mineral . The principal towns are: Alamosa , Monte Vista , Del Norte , South Fork , Creede , Saguache , Center , Fort Garland , San Luis , Antonito , La Jara , Capulin , Manassa , Sanford , Crestone , Villa Grove , Hooper , Mosca , San Acacio and

7448-581: The Texians in the Battle of the Alamo , he was defeated by the Texian Army commanded by General Sam Houston and was captured at the Battle of San Jacinto . In exchange for his life Santa Anna signed a treaty with Texas President David Burnet ending the war and recognizing Texian independence. The treaty was not ratified by the Mexican Congress as it had been signed by a captive under duress. Although Mexico refused to recognize Texian independence, Texas consolidated its status as an independent republic and received official recognition from Britain, France, and

7581-413: The Treaties of Velasco made after Texans captured General Santa Ana after the Battle of San Jacinto, the southern border of Texas was placed at the "Rio Grande del Norte." The Texans claimed this placed the southern border at the modern Rio Grande . The Mexican government disputed this placement on two grounds: first, it rejected the idea of Texas independence; and second, it claimed that the Rio Grande in

7714-579: The U.S. sought to develop the country's existing resources and expand the industrial sector without expanding the nation's territory. The existing balance of sectional interests would be disrupted by the expansion of slavery into new territory. The Democratic Party , to which President Polk belonged, in particular strongly supported expansion. Neither colonial Mexico nor the newly sovereign Mexican state effectively controlled Mexico's far north and west. Mexico's military and diplomatic capabilities declined after it attained independence from Spain in 1821 and left

7847-429: The United Kingdom over the Oregon Country , Polk signed the Oregon Treaty dividing the territory, angering Northern Democrats who felt he was prioritizing Southern expansion over Northern expansion. In the winter of 1845–46, the federally commissioned explorer John C. Frémont and a group of armed men appeared in Alta California. After telling both the Mexican governor and the American Consul Thomas O. Larkin that he

7980-427: The United States, which all advised Mexico not to try to reconquer the new nation. Most Texians wanted to join the United States, but the annexation of Texas was contentious in the U.S. Congress, where Whigs and Abolitionists were largely opposed. In 1845, Texas agreed to the offer of annexation by the U.S. Congress and became the 28th state on December 29, 1845, which set the stage for the conflict with Mexico. By

8113-420: The United States. Sectional politics over slavery in the United States had previously prevented annexation because Texas would have been admitted as a slave state, upsetting the balance of power between Northern free states and Southern slave states. In the 1844 United States presidential election , Democrat James K. Polk was elected on a platform of expanding U.S. territory to Oregon , California (also

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8246-402: The United States. The victory and territorial expansion Polk envisioned inspired patriotism among some sections of the United States, but the war and treaty drew fierce criticism for the casualties, monetary cost, and heavy-handedness. The question of how to treat the new acquisitions intensified the debate over slavery in the United States. Although the Wilmot Proviso that explicitly forbade

8379-432: The Ute agency was in the mountains west of Saguache. Mount Otto on the east side of the valley is named after him. Cumbres Pass is a 10,015 ft. pass between Antonito, Colorado and Chama, New Mexico . The pass is traversed by State Highway 17 and the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad (originally built as the San Juan Extension of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad that ran to Durango, Colorado ). From

8512-437: The Valley. It is supplemented by a campus of Trinidad State College in Alamosa. San Luis Valley Regional Medical Center is a full service Acute-Care hospital and specialty physician clinic. A locally conducted survey of public health statistics showed a considerable deficiency with respect to most measures of public health. There is a deficiency of medical providers, for example, 106 physicians per 100,000 compared to

8645-509: The area and to gain a port on the Pacific Ocean. Polk authorized Slidell to forgive the $ 3 million owed to U.S. citizens for damages caused by the Mexican War of Independence and pay another $ 25 to $ 30 million for the two territories. Mexico was neither inclined nor able to negotiate. In 1846 alone, the presidency changed hands four times, the war ministry six times, and the finance ministry sixteen times. Despite that, Mexican public opinion and all political factions agreed that selling

8778-486: The army did their best to train the rough men who volunteered, but they could do little to inspire them with patriotism for the glorious country they were honored to serve." According to the leading Mexican conservative politician, Lucas Alamán , the "money spent on arming Mexican troops merely enabled them to fight each other and 'give the illusion' that the country possessed an army for its defense." However, an officer criticized Santa Anna's training of troops, "The cavalry

8911-438: The battles of Palo Alto and Resaca-de-la-Palma, General Taylor had a small army, but it was composed exclusively of regular troops, under the best of drill and discipline. Every officer, from the highest to the lowest, was educated in his profession, not at West Point necessarily, but in the camp, in garrison, and many of them in wars with Natives. The rank and file were probably inferior, as material out of which to make an army, to

9044-468: The beginning of the war, Mexican forces were divided between the permanent forces ( permanentes ) and the active militiamen ( activos ). The permanent forces consisted of 12 regiments of infantry (of two battalions each), three brigades of artillery, eight regiments of cavalry, one separate squadron and a brigade of dragoons. The militia amounted to nine infantry and six cavalry regiments. In the northern territories, presidial companies ( presidiales ) protected

9177-550: The beginning of the war, the U.S. Army had eight regiments of infantry (three battalions each), four artillery regiments and three mounted regiments (two dragoons, one of mounted rifles). These regiments were supplemented by 10 new regiments (nine of infantry and one of cavalry) raised for one year of service by the act of Congress from February 11, 1847. A large portion of this fighting force consisted of recent immigrants. According to Tyler V. Johnson, foreign-born men amounted to 47 percent of General Taylor's total forces. In addition to

9310-400: The borders of the valley (generally adjacent to National Forest Lands) are managed by the Bureau of Land Management , BLM, a division of the United States Department of the Interior . This land is usually leased to neighboring ranches for grazing for a nominal fee. Part of the value of a ranch is its continuing lease of BLM or National Forest lands. Public lands in the mountains surrounding

9443-481: The capital to sort out the political mess. Santa Anna briefly held the presidency again, from March 21, 1847 – April 2, 1847. His troops were deprived of support that would allow them to continue the fight. The conservatives demanded the removal of Gómez Farías, and this was accomplished by abolishing the office of vice president. Santa Anna returned to the field, replaced in the presidency by Pedro María de Anaya (April 2 – May 20, 1847). Santa Anna returned to

9576-481: The capital, Mexico City , in September 1847. Although Mexico was defeated on the battlefield, negotiating peace was a politically fraught issue. Some Mexican factions refused to consider any recognition of its loss of territory. Although Polk formally relieved his peace envoy, Nicholas Trist , of his post as negotiator, Trist ignored the order and successfully concluded the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . It ended

9709-454: The day. In his 1885 memoirs, former U.S. President Ulysses Grant , a veteran of the Mexican war, attributed Mexico's defeat to the poor quality of their army, writing: "The Mexican army of that day was hardly an organization. The private soldier was picked from the lower class of the inhabitants when wanted; his consent was not asked; he was poorly clothed, worse fed, and seldom paid. He was turned adrift when no longer wanted. The officers of

9842-425: The defense of Mexico City and Monterrey. Some women such as Doña Jesús Dosamantes and María Josefa Zozaya would be remembered as heroes. On the other hand, some Mexican women were seen as "angels" as they provided aid and comfort to the injured men on both sides. Although soldaderas were able to prove the abilities Mexican women had outside of the private sphere, Mexican women on the home front still contributed to

9975-558: The depredations of Micheltorena's army. Former Governor Alvarado organized a revolt in 1845, which culminated in the Battle of Providencia in Cahuenga Pass near Los Angeles. As a result of the actions of pioneer California rancher John Marsh , Micheltorena's forces were defeated. In 1800, Spain's colonial province of Texas (Tejas) had few inhabitants, with only about 7,000 non-native settlers. The Spanish crown developed

10108-560: The door to much more industrial solar development. Opposition to a proposed transmission line has resulted in possible delays in development of solar facilities by Xcel Energy which together with Tri-State Generation and Transmission Association serves the valley. In 2012, the United States Department of Interior designated several Solar Energy Zones on BLM lands in the valley, although no projects have yet been announced to be in development. A significant portion of

10241-612: The extension of slavery into conquered Mexican territory was not adopted by Congress, debates about it heightened sectional tensions. Some scholars see the Mexican–American War as leading to the American Civil War . Many officers who had trained at West Point gained experience in the war and later played prominent leadership roles during the Civil War. In Mexico, the war worsened domestic political turmoil and led to

10374-484: The family of Carlos Beaubien . The area was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican–American War in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . Extensive settlement began in the San Luis Valley, primarily by Hispanic farmers and ranchers from New Mexico, in the 1850s. Early settlers built a church in the village that is now called San Luis and dedicated it on the Feast of Saint Louis , 21 June 1851. At present,

10507-577: The federal system, replacing it with a unitary central government that removed power from the states. Leaving politics to those in Mexico City, General Santa Anna led the Mexican army to quash the semi-independence of Texas. He had done that in Coahuila (in 1824, Mexico had merged Texas and Coahuila into the enormous state of Coahuila y Tejas ). Austin called Texians to arms and they declared independence from Mexico in 1836. After Santa Anna defeated

10640-547: The headwaters of the Rio Grande Wolf Creek Pass is the route of U.S. Highway 160 between Del Norte, Colorado and Pagosa Springs, Colorado , while Spring Creek Pass is the route of State Highway 149 between U.S. Highway 160 and Lake City, Colorado . Stony Pass, sometimes spelled Stoney Pass, a historic wagon road to the mining camps of the San ;Juans , is now a jeep trail . At

10773-484: The heartland of Mexico and provinces such as Alta California and New Mexico increasingly difficult. As a result, at the outbreak of the war, New Mexico was economically dependent on trade with the United States via the eastern branch of the Santa Fe Trail . The Mexican government's policy of allowing the settlement of U.S. citizens in its province of Tejas was aimed at expanding control into Comanche lands,

10906-484: The lower grades were but little superior to the men. With all this I have seen as brave stands made by some of these men as I have ever seen made by soldiers. Now Mexico has a standing army larger than the United States. They have a military school modeled after West Point. Their officers are educated and, no doubt, very brave. The Mexican war of 1846–48 would be an impossibility in this generation." There were significant political divisions in Mexico which seriously impeded

11039-520: The magnificent Territory of Upper California", saying that "no part of the World offering greater natural advantages for the establishment of an English colony ... by all means desirable ... that California, once ceasing to belong to Mexico, should not fall into the hands of any power but England ... there is some reason to believe that daring and adventurous speculators in the United States have already turned their thoughts in this direction." By

11172-770: The most beautiful, and the healthiest country in the world ... with the acquisition of Upper California we should have the same ascendency on the Pacific ;... France and England both have had their eyes upon it." U.S. President John Tyler 's administration suggested a tripartite pact to settle the Oregon boundary dispute and provide for the cession of the port of San Francisco from Mexico. Lord Aberdeen declined to participate but said Britain had no objection to U.S. territorial acquisition there. The British minister in Mexico, Richard Pakenham , wrote in 1841 to Lord Palmerston urging "to establish an English population in

11305-399: The north end of the valley, North Pass is the route of State Highway 114 between Saguache, Colorado and Gunnison, Colorado , bypassing the original route over Cochetopa Pass , now a county road. The Rio Grande follows a course through the southern valley from Del Norte southeastward via Alamosa to New Mexico. South of Alamosa it is joined by several streams from the west including

11438-454: The northern countryside outside of the scattered towns. The raids after 1821 resulted in many deaths, halted most transportation and communications, and decimated the ranching industry that was a mainstay of the northern economy. As a result, the demoralized civilian population of northern Mexico put up little resistance to the invading U.S. army. Furthermore, distance and hostile activity by Native Americans made communications and trade between

11571-547: The northern half of the country vulnerable to attacks by Comanche , Apache , and Navajo Native Americans. The Comanche, in particular, took advantage of the weakness of the Mexican state to undertake large-scale raids hundreds of miles into the country to acquire livestock for their own use and to supply an expanding market in Texas and the U.S. The northern area of Mexico was sparsely settled because of its challenging climate and topography. Mostly high desert with scarce rainfall, it supported little sedentary agriculture during

11704-482: The power used in the state be generated from renewable sources by 2020. It also requires that 3% of the power generated be used at or near where it is generated; i.e. distributed generation . There are also a number of utility-scale photovoltaic power stations in the valley, and an active market in selling or leasing land to be used for solar facilities. In 2007, SunEdison constructed the 7.7 megawatt Alamosa Photovoltaic Power Plant on about 80 acres near

11837-493: The pre-Hispanic and colonial periods. After independence, Mexico became preoccupied with internal struggles that sometimes verged on civil war, and the worsening situation on the northern frontier was largely neglected. In northern Mexico, the end of Spanish rule was marked by the end of financing for garrisoned presidios and the pay-offs to Native Americans to maintain peace. In the absence of effective governance, Comanche and Apache took to raiding for livestock and looted much of

11970-466: The presidency on May 20, 1847, when Anaya left to fight the invasion, serving until September 15, 1847. Preferring the battlefield to administration, Santa Anna left office again, leaving the office to Manuel de la Peña y Peña (September 16 – November 13, 1847). With U.S. forces occupying the Mexican capital and much of the heartland, negotiating a peace treaty was an exigent matter, and Peña y Peña left office to do that. Pedro María Anaya returned to

12103-518: The presidency on November 13, 1847 – January 8, 1848. Anaya refused to sign any treaty that ceded land to the U.S., despite the situation on the ground with Americans occupying the capital. Peña y Peña resumed the presidency January 8, 1848 – June 3, 1848, during which time the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, bringing the war to an end. Polk had pledged to seek expanded territory in Oregon and Texas, as part of his campaign in 1844 , but

12236-460: The presidency to fight the invading U.S. Army and was replaced by his vice president Nicolás Bravo (July 28, 1846 – August 4, 1846). The conservative Bravo was overthrown by federalist liberals who re-established the federal Constitution of 1824 . José Mariano Salas (August 6, 1846 – December 23, 1846) served as president and held elections under the restored federalist system. General Antonio López de Santa Anna won those elections, but as

12369-460: The property tax and increase tariffs on shipped American goods. The settlers and many Mexican businessmen in the region rejected the demands, which led to Mexico closing Texas to additional immigration, which continued from the United States into Texas illegally. In 1834, Mexican conservatives seized the political initiative, and General Antonio López de Santa Anna became the centralist president of Mexico. The conservative-dominated Congress abandoned

12502-557: The raids of American forces. The Mexican army was using surplus British muskets (such as the Brown Bess ), left over from the Napoleonic Wars . While at the beginning of the war most American soldiers were still equipped with the very similar Springfield 1816 flintlock muskets, more reliable caplock models became increasingly popular as the conflict progressed. Some U.S. troops carried more modern weapons that gave them

12635-493: The regional capital of Santa Fe de Nuevo México along the upper Rio Grande. U.S. forces also moved against the province of Alta California and then turned south. The Pacific Squadron of the U.S. Navy blockaded the Pacific coast in the lower Baja California Territory . The U.S. Army, under Major General Winfield Scott , invaded the Mexican heartland via an amphibious landing at the port of Veracruz on March 9 and captured

12768-504: The regular army was not sufficiently large to sustain extended conflicts on two fronts. The Oregon dispute with Britain was settled peaceably by treaty, allowing U.S. forces to concentrate on the southern border. The war was fought by regiments of regulars bolstered by various regiments, battalions, and companies of volunteers from the different states of the Union, as well as Americans and some Mexicans in California and New Mexico. In general,

12901-525: The residents of the San Luis Valley are Hispanic with historic populations in Costilla and Conejos counties which were settled by early migrants from New Mexico. There are a few Native Americans in the valley. There are small Amish communities which were recently established. Much of the grazing land on the floor of the valley is of little value. In Costilla County, large tracts of land have been subdivided into 5 acre plots. 35 acre plots are also common in

13034-419: The route less than satisfactory as a highway. It is now an unpaved and lightly traveled back road. New La Veta Pass (officially North La Veta Pass ), elevation 9,413 ft (2,869 m), lies about 1.6 miles northeast of the old pass and is now the principal highway route through this part of the mountain range, carrying U.S. Highway 160 . While this new route is slightly higher, it has no sharp curves and

13167-531: The scattered settlements. Indigenous populations in Mexico played a crucial role in the defending their land. By the beginning of the war, indigenous populations were depleted of their natural resources due to an influx of American settlers . As a result, indigenous populations from the Great Plains region had to rely on raiding American camps in order to survive. Although raiding was much more lucrative than hunting, indigenous population did not have much of

13300-480: The silver-mining districts of Zacatecas and Guanajuato . Mexico began as a sovereign nation with its future financial stability from its main export destroyed. Mexico briefly experimented with monarchy , but became a republic in 1824. This government was characterized by instability, and it was ill-prepared for a major international conflict when war broke out with the U.S. in 1846. Mexico had successfully resisted Spanish attempts to reconquer its former colony in

13433-825: The southeast. To the northeast of Alamosa lie the San Luis Lakes State Wildlife Area , the San Luis Lakes and the Great Sand Dunes National Park At Fort Garland, Colorado south of the Great Sand Dunes on U.S. Highway 160 the Fort Garland Museum is recommended and further south on State Highway 159 at San Luis, Colorado , the oldest town in Colorado, the bronze sculptures by Huberto Maestas, depicting

13566-597: The steady trend of migration from the United States into the Texas frontier. Austin's colony was the most successful of several colonies authorized by the Mexican government. The Mexican government intended the new settlers to act as a buffer between the Tejano residents and the Comanches, but the non-Hispanic colonists tended to settle in areas with decent farmland and trade connections with Louisiana rather than farther west where they would have been an effective buffer against

13699-491: The stream system in the Closed Basin flow as a contiguous unit into San Luis Lake at the low point of the Closed Basin west of the Great Sand Dunes. About 50% of the 2,000,000 acres (810,000 ha) in the San Luis Valley is privately owned. Much of the land in the south part of the Valley, in Conejos and Costilla counties, was originally part of large Mexican land grants and is private land. 500,000 acres (200,000 ha) on

13832-432: The territories to the United States would tarnish the national honor. Mexicans who opposed direct conflict with the United States, including President José Joaquín de Herrera , were viewed as traitors. Military opponents of de Herrera, supported by populist newspapers, considered Slidell's presence in Mexico City an insult. When de Herrera considered receiving Slidell to settle the problem of Texas annexation peacefully, he

13965-492: The time of World War I . By the early 1970s, water availability began to be limited, with the State enforcing a moratorium on new wells in much of the valley in 1972, and then completely ending new appropriations of water throughout the valley in 1981. The 1980s and 90s saw relatively bountiful water years in the valley, with drought conditions becoming the norm in the 2010s. As of 2021 , water use cutbacks are anticipated due to

14098-481: The time the letter reached London, though, Sir Robert Peel 's Tory government, with its Little England policy, had come to power and rejected the proposal as expensive and a potential source of conflict. Pío Pico , the last governor of Alta California, advocated that California achieve independence from Mexico and become a British protectorate . In 1842, Mexico forcibly replaced California Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado with Manuel Micheltorena . Micheltorena

14231-630: The town in the streets." Many of the volunteers were unwanted and considered poor soldiers. The expression "Just like Gaines's army" came to refer to something useless, the phrase having originated when a group of untrained and unwilling Louisiana troops was rejected and sent back by General Taylor at the beginning of the war. In his 1885 memoirs, Ulysses Grant assesses the U.S. armed forces facing Mexico more favorably. The victories in Mexico were, in every instance, over vastly superior numbers. There were two reasons for this. Both General Scott and General Taylor had such armies as are not often got together. At

14364-550: The town of Mosca, Colorado . It was the largest grid-connected solar electric facility in the United States at that time. It was followed in 2010 by the 19 megawatt Greater Sandhill Solar Plant , in 2011 by the 30 megawatt San Luis Valley Solar Ranch , in 2012 by the 30 megawatt Alamosa Solar Generating Project , and in 2015 by the 50 megawatt Hooper Solar PV Power Plant . All are located on previously developed agricultural lands near Mosca. On 11 December 2009, more than 125 people gathered to respond to

14497-481: The treaty was actually the Nueces River , since the current Rio Grande has always been called "Rio Bravo" in Mexico. The latter claim belied the full name of the river in Mexico, however: "Rio Bravo del Norte." The ill-fated Texan Santa Fe Expedition of 1841 attempted to realize the claim to New Mexican territory east of the Rio Grande, but its members were captured by the Mexican Army and imprisoned. Reference to

14630-468: The valley after the United States made a treaty with the Utes and established a fort in the early 1850s. Prior to the Mexican war the Spanish and Mexican governments had reserved the valley to the Utes . Later in the 19th century Anglo settlers began to settle in the valley and engaged in mining, ranching, and irrigated agriculture. Today the valley has a diverse Anglo and Hispanic population. Prior to 1868

14763-401: The valley as a 35-acre plot allows drilling a well to water a garden and livestock. These have been sold to homesteaders who often live off-the-grid . La Puente, headquartered in Alamosa offers social services to the homeless and others in the valley. Adams State University , a four-year state college at Alamosa, with approximately 3,500 students, is the major educational institution in

14896-532: The valley from the Los Pinos Agency to the west of Saguache until they lost their extensive reservation as the result of the Meeker Massacre in 1879. The area was administered as part of the Spanish, later Mexican, province of Nuevo Mexico . In 1843, the government of New Mexico created the Sangre de Cristo Land Grant consisting of 1,000,000 acres (4,000 km ) of the valley and granted

15029-523: The valley to Poncha Pass , used now by U.S. Highway 285 and historically by the narrow gauge tracks of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad . Otto Mears , then of Saguache, built and operated a historic toll road over Poncha Pass at the north end of the valley into the San Luis Valley during Colorado's 19th century mining era when the valley was the gateway to the San Juan and Gunnison country and

15162-499: The valley, with over 600 employees. Tourism has become a more important part of the economy in recent years, coupled with attempts to develop the area as a retirement destination. The arts are becoming an increasing force in expanding the economy of the San Luis Valley. Tourist attractions suggested by National Geographic Traveler include the Monte Vista Crane Festival in March, Los Caminos Antiguos,

15295-585: The valley. The San Luis Valley became part of the Territory of Colorado in 1861. The original Ute population was confined to the Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Indian reservations in the late 19th century. The San Luis Valley is the broad, generally flat, valley at the headwaters of the Rio Grande in south central Colorado and far north central New Mexico. The northern portion of the San Luis Valley

15428-492: The valley. North La Veta Pass , through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, is used by U.S. Highway 160 and by the Colorado Pacific Rio Grande Railroad (formerly a branch of the Denver & Rio Grande Western ) tracks. Other passes used historically were Medano, Mosca and Sangre de Cristo Passes. The Great Sand Dunes are a famous feature of the valley. They lie directly to the west of

15561-419: The valley. The deeper confined aquifers have sufficient hydrological connection with the surface waters of the valley that they are not considered for the purposes of Colorado water law "nontributary" waters which could legally be mined. Streams which flow into the valley, particularly the Rio Grande, have deposited alluvial fans where they emerge from higher terrain onto the valley floor. The gap between

15694-537: The volunteers that participated in all the later battles of the war; but they were brave men, and then drill and discipline brought out all there was in them. A better army, man for man, probably never faced an enemy than the one commanded by General Taylor in the earliest two engagements of the Mexican war. The volunteers who followed were of better material, but without drill or discipline at the start. They were associated with so many disciplined men and professionally educated officers, that when they went into engagements it

15827-433: The war effort. Inside Mexico, the conservative centralistas and liberal federalists vied for power, and at times these two factions inside Mexico's military fought each other rather than the invading U.S. Army. Santa Anna bitterly remarked, "However shameful it may be to admit this, we have brought this disgraceful tragedy upon ourselves through our interminable in-fighting." During the conflict, presidents held office for

15960-597: The war effort. After having to face the losses in their country, Mexican women were seen dressed in black and creating somber paintings. American and Mexican women shared the similarities of providing their domestic services on the battlefield. Among the most notable American women on the battlefield was Sarah Bowman . She was often seen delivering food, carrying wounded soldiers, and in close combat. In Mexico While their husbands enlisted, many American women stayed in Mexico to tend to oversee their business, making themselves factory women. However, factory woman Ann Chase

16093-428: The war, and Mexico recognized the cession of present-day Texas, California, Nevada, and Utah as well as parts of present-day Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming. The U.S. agreed to pay $ 15 million for the physical damage of the war and assumed $ 3.25 million of debt already owed by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico relinquished its claims on Texas and accepted the Rio Grande as its northern border with

16226-744: The west, in Paleozoic , Pennsylvanian , and Permian times that the coarse alluvial deposits of the Sangre de Cristo Formation such as the Crestone Conglomerate originated. The Minturn Formation, a limestone formation exemplified at Marble Mountain on the crest of the Sangre de Cristos, is evidence of a sea in the Central Colorado Trough during the era of the Ancestral Rockies . In the middle and late Cretaceous Period , about 100 million years ago,

16359-404: The west; later strata comprise the Alamosa formation, alternating layers of sand, gravel, and clay. The relatively impermeable clay layers trap ground water in the "confined aquifer " which, if tapped, supplies artesian wells . Surface waters, including the Rio Grande and other streams, are hydrologically connected to the "unconfined aquifer" a shallow ground water formation which underlies much of

16492-536: Was a basin in its western portion which may have drained west through the course historically followed by the San Juan River . Sedimentary deposits formed in that basin during Eocene times remain in place beneath the western portion of the San Luis Valley. During the Pleistocene , parts of the valley were occupied by Lake Alamosa . Much of the land in the San Luis Valley is used for grazing. Farming

16625-454: Was accused of treason and deposed. After a more nationalistic government under General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga came to power, it publicly reaffirmed Mexico's claim to Texas. The Mexican Army was a weak and divided force. Only 7 of the 19 states that formed the Mexican federation sent soldiers, armament, and money for the war effort. Many leaders expressed their concern for the country, including Santa Anna who stated that , "The leaders of

16758-594: Was assumed that these formations had eroded away during the Laramide orogeny . Building of the Rocky Mountains by folding during the Laramide orogeny 80 to 55 million years ago created a highland, the San Luis-Brazos uplift, in the area of the San Luis Valley. This process over 30 million years resulted in an elevated and highly eroded peneplain where the San Luis Valley is today. There

16891-431: Was doubted by some in the U.S., but they were not counted as deserters. The volunteers were far less disciplined than the regular army, with many committing attacks on the civilian population, sometimes stemming from anti-Catholic and anti-Mexican racial bias. Soldiers' memoirs describe cases of looting and murder of Mexican civilians, mostly by volunteers. One officer's diary records: "We reached Burrita about 5 pm, many of

17024-464: Was drilled only in regiments. The artillery hardly ever maneuvered and never fired a blank shot. The general in command was never present on the field of maneuvers, so that he was unable to appreciate the respective qualities of the various bodies under his command ... If any meetings of the principal commanding officers were held to discuss the operations of the campaign, it was not known, nor was it known whether any plan of campaign had been formed." At

17157-630: Was his practice, he left the administration to his vice president, who was again liberal Valentín Gómez Farías (December 23, 1846 – March 21, 1847). In February 1847, conservatives rebelled against the liberal government's attempt to take Church property to fund the war effort. In the Revolt of the Polkos , the Catholic Church and conservatives paid soldiers to rise against the liberal government. Santa Anna had to leave his campaign to return to

17290-558: Was merely buying supplies on the way to Oregon, he instead went to the populated area of California and visited Santa Cruz and the Salinas Valley , explaining he had been looking for a seaside home for his mother. Mexican authorities became alarmed and ordered him to leave. Frémont responded by building a fort on Gavilan Peak and raising the American flag. Larkin sent word that Frémont's actions were counterproductive. Frémont left California in March but returned and took control of

17423-521: Was sent up from lower Mexico, along with an army, that had largely been recruited from Mexico's worst jails. The Californios resented this, partly because California had previously been governed by native-born Californios, partly because Micheltorena's policies were unpopular, and also because the soldiers in Micheltorena's army got a reputation for spending much of their time stealing the local Californios' chickens. Women were not considered safe from

17556-459: Was willing enough to become a spy for U.S. forces in order to protect her home and business in the absence of her husband. In the U.S. Similarly to the Mexican women were contributed to the war efforts from their homes, women in the U.S. also protested publicly and made patriotic crafts that U.S. soldiers could carry. In addition, female journalists across multiple states took advantage of their literacy to speak up in support or in opposition of

17689-477: Was with a confidence they would not have felt otherwise. They became soldiers themselves almost at once. All these conditions we would enjoy again in case of war. The U.S. had been an independent country since the American Revolution , but it was a country that was strongly divided along sectional lines, especially in regard to slavery. Enlarging the country, particularly through armed combat against

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