Misplaced Pages

#994005

99-525: The biosphere reserve was part of the UNESCO-MAB project "Biosphere Reserves for Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Development in Anglophone Africa (BRAAF)" which had the objective to ensure the long-term conservation of biodiversity in including local population in its sustainable use. Several BRAAF projects aimed to promote income-generating activities such as bee-keeping or to control

198-645: A Nilotic ethnic group inhabiting northern, central and southern Kenya and northern Tanzania , near the African Great Lakes region. Their native language is the Maasai language , a Nilotic language related to Dinka , Kalenjin and Nuer . Except for some elders living in rural areas, most Maasai people speak the official languages of Kenya and Tanzania— Swahili and English . The Maasai population has been reported as numbering 1,189,522 in Kenya in

297-481: A dorsal slit ), which remains until blood flow has stopped. Finally, the foreskin is amputated . For older babies and adults, circumcision is often performed surgically without specialized instruments, and alternatives such as Unicirc or the Shang ring are available. The circumcision procedure causes pain, and for neonates this pain may interfere with mother-infant interaction or cause other behavioral changes, so

396-528: A 2014 review, the effect of circumcision on sexual partners' experiences is unclear as this has not been well studied. According to a policy statement from the Canadian Paediatric Society that was reaffirmed in 2021, "medical studies do not support circumcision as having an impact on sexual function or satisfaction for partners of circumcised individuals". There are popular misconceptions that circumcision benefits or adversely impacts

495-569: A contributing cause of the Bar Kokhba revolt . According to Silverman (2006), these restrictions were part of a "broad campaign" by the Romans to "civilize" the Jewish people, viewing the practice as repulsive and analogous to castration . His successor, Antoninus Pius , altered the edict to permit Brit Milah . During this period in history, Jewish circumcision called for the removal of only

594-568: A dance". ) Traditionally, the Maasai diet consisted of raw meat, raw milk, honey and raw blood from cattle —note that the Maasai cattle are of the Zebu variety. Most of the milk is consumed as fermented milk or buttermilk (a by-product of butter making). Milk consumption figures are very high by any standards. The Maasai herd goats and sheep, including the Red Maasai sheep , as well as

693-664: A descending scale, and singers responding to their verses are characteristic of singing by women. When many Maasai women gather together, they sing and dance among themselves. Eunoto, the coming-of-age ceremony of the warrior, can involve ten or more days of singing, dancing and ritual. The warriors of the Il-Oodokilani perform a kind of march-past as well as the Adumu , or aigus, sometimes referred to as "the jumping dance" by non-Maasai. (Both adumu and aigus are Maa verbs meaning "to jump" with adumu meaning "To jump up and down in

792-583: A dual nature, represented by two colours: Engai Narok (Black God) is benevolent, and Engai Na-nyokie (Red God) is vengeful. There are also two pillars or totems of Maasai society: Oodo Mongi, the Red Cow and Orok Kiteng, the Black Cow with a subdivision of five clans or family trees . The Maasai also have a totemic animal, which is the lion. The killing of a lion is used by the Maasai in the rite of passage ceremony. The "Mountain of God", Ol Doinyo Lengai ,

891-509: A form of preventive healthcare , as a religious obligation , or as a cultural practice . It is also an option for cases of phimosis , other pathologies that do not resolve with other treatments, and chronic urinary tract infections (UTIs). The procedure is contraindicated in cases of certain genital structure abnormalities or poor general health. The procedure is associated with reduced rates of sexually transmitted infections and urinary tract infections . This includes reducing

990-668: A mark of distinction for the elite: the Egyptian Book of the Dead describes the sun god Ra as having circumcised himself. Circumcision is prominent in the Hebrew Bible . In addition to proposing that circumcision was adopted by the Israelites purely as a religious mandate, scholars have suggested that Judaism's patriarchs and their followers adopted circumcision to make penile hygiene easier in hot, sandy climates; as

1089-425: A multitude of ways including being boiled in soups and ingested to improve digestion and cleanse the blood. Some of these remedies can also be used in the treatment or prevention of diseases. The Maasai people also add herbs to different foods to avoid stomach upsets and give digestive aid. The use of plant-based medicine remains an important part of Maasai life. Maasai clothing symbolises ethnic group membership,

SECTION 10

#1732787360995

1188-408: A part of the prepuce, and Hellenized Jews often attempted to look uncircumcised by stretching the extant parts of their foreskins. This was considered by the Jewish leaders to be a serious problem, and during the second century CE they changed the requirements of Jewish circumcision to call for the complete removal of the foreskin, emphasizing the Jewish view of circumcision as intended to be not just

1287-554: A particularly low prevalence of circumcised males. This region has a disproportionately high HIV infection rate, with a significant number of those infections stemming from heterosexual transmission. As a result, the promotion of prophylactic circumcision has been a priority intervention in that region since the WHO's 2007 recommendations. The International Antiviral Society–USA also suggests circumcision be discussed with men who have insertive anal sex with men , especially in regions where HIV

1386-423: A pastoralist lifestyle, as well as an individual's social position. From this they can decide the roles they undertake for the tribe. Jewellery also can show an individual's gender, relationship status, and age. Maasai traditional clothing is both a means of tribal identification and symbolism: young men, for example, wear black for several months following their circumcision. Circumcision Circumcision

1485-671: A placebo, but the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) states that such methods are insufficient alone and should be used to supplement more effective techniques. A quicker procedure reduces duration of pain; use of the Mogen clamp was found to result in a shorter procedure time and less pain-induced stress than the use of the Gomco clamp or the Plastibell. The available evidence does not indicate that post-procedure pain management

1584-722: A prophylactic or treatment option in healthcare, circumcision plays a major role in many of the world's cultures and religions, most prominently Judaism and Islam . Circumcision is among the most important commandments in Judaism . It is widespread in Australia, Canada, the United States, South Korea, most of Africa, and parts of Asia. It is relatively rare for non-religious reasons in parts of Southern Africa, Latin America, Europe, and parts of Asia. The origin of circumcision

1683-436: A reduced risk of cervical cancer (which is caused by a type of HPV) in female partners of men. There is some evidence that circumcision is associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer . A 2017 systematic review found consistent evidence that male circumcision prior to heterosexual contact was associated with a decreased risk of cervical cancer, cervical dysplasia , HSV-2, chlamydia, and syphilis among women. The evidence

1782-560: A reputation as fearsome warriors and cattle rustlers. The Maasai and other groups in East Africa have adopted customs and practices from neighbouring Cushitic-speaking groups, including the age-set system of social organisation, circumcision , and vocabulary terms. Many ethnic groups that had already formed settlements in the region were forcibly displaced by the incoming Maasai. Other, mainly Southern Cushitic groups, were assimilated into Maasai society. The Nilotic ancestors of

1881-606: A rite of passage into adulthood; or as a form of blood sacrifice. Historical campaigns of ethnic, cultural, and religious persecution frequently included bans on circumcision as a means of forceful assimilation, conversion, and ethnocide . Alexander the Great conquered the Middle East in the fourth century BCE, and in the following centuries ancient Greek cultures and values came to the Middle East. The Greeks abhorred circumcision, making life for circumcised Jews living among

1980-428: A spiritual concept, arguing literal circumcision to be unnecessary for Gentile converts to Christianity. The teaching that circumcision was unnecessary for membership in a divine covenant was instrumental to the separation of Christianity from Judaism. While the circumcision of Jesus is celebrated as a feast day in the liturgical calendar of many Christian denominations . Although it is not explicitly mentioned in

2079-423: A strong protective effect against penile cancer in later life. Penile cancer is a rare disease in the developed world but much more prevalent in the developing world . The penile tissue removed during circumcision is a potential origin for penile cancer. Risk-benefit considerations around the use of circumcision as a cancer-preventive measure are a source of debate. Penile cancer development can be detected in

SECTION 20

#1732787360995

2178-506: Is shaved off ; elders must wear their hair short. Warriors who do not have sexual relations with women who have not undergone the "Emuatare" ceremony are especially honoured at the Eunoto gathering. This would symbolise the healing of the woman. Two days before boys are circumcised, their heads are shaved. When warriors go through the Eunoto and become elders, their long plaited hair

2277-405: Is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis . In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps , then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised . Topical or locally injected anesthesia is generally used to reduce pain and physiologic stress . Circumcision is generally electively performed , most commonly done as

2376-473: Is a risk that the circumcision scar may be tender. There is no good evidence that circumcision affects cognitive abilities. Circumcision is the oldest known surgical procedure. Depictions of circumcised penises are found in Paleolithic art , predating the earliest signs of trepanation . The history of the migration and evolution of circumcision is known mainly from the cultures of two regions. In

2475-405: Is also used to treat various pathologies. These include pathological phimosis , refractory balanoposthitis and chronic or recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs). Circumcision is contraindicated in certain cases. These include infants with certain genital structure abnormalities, such as a misplaced urethral opening (as in hypospadias and epispadias ), curvature of the head of

2574-460: Is common. There is evidence that circumcision is associated with a reduced risk of HIV infection for such men, particularly in low-income countries. The finding that circumcision significantly reduces female-to-male HIV transmission has prompted medical organizations serving communities affected by endemic HIV/AIDS to promote circumcision as an additional method of controlling the spread of HIV. Major medical organizations hold varying positions on

2673-504: Is known about that history. It has been speculated that circumcision originated as a substitute for castration of defeated enemies or as a religious sacrifice . In many traditions, it acts as a rite of passage marking a boy's entrance into adulthood . At Oued Djerat , in Algeria , engraved rock art with masked bowmen, which feature male circumcision and may be a scene involving ritual, have been dated to earlier than 6000 BP amid

2772-408: Is located in northernmost Tanzania and can be seen from Lake Natron in southernmost Kenya. The central human figure in the Maasai religious system is the laibon whose roles include shamanistic healing , divination and prophecy , and ensuring success in war or adequate rainfall. Today, they have a political role as well due to the elevation of leaders. Whatever power an individual laibon had

2871-573: Is meatal stenosis, this is almost exclusively seen in circumcised children, it is thought to be caused by ammonia producing bacteria coming into contact with the meatus in circumcised infants. It can be treated by meatotomy . Effective pain management should be used during the procedure. Inadequate pain relief may carry the risks of heightened pain response for newborns. Newborns that experience pain due to being circumcised have different responses to vaccines given afterwards, with higher pain scores observed. For adult men who have been circumcised, there

2970-400: Is named and the head is shaved clean apart from a tuft of hair, which resembles a cockade , from the nape of the neck to the forehead. Among the men, warriors are the only members of the Maasai community to wear long hair, which they weave in thinly braided strands. Graduation from warrior to junior elder takes place at a large gathering known as Eunoto. The long hair of the former warriors

3069-417: Is needed. For adults, topical anesthesia , ring block, dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB) and general anesthesia are all options, and the procedure requires four to six weeks of abstinence from masturbation or intercourse to allow the wound to heal. Male circumcision reduces the risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission from HIV positive women to men in high risk populations. In 2020,

Lake Manyara Biosphere Reserve - Misplaced Pages Continue

3168-458: Is not known with certainty, but the oldest documentation comes from ancient Egypt . Around half of all circumcisions worldwide are performed for reasons of prophylactic healthcare. There is a consensus among the world's major medical organizations and in the academic literature that circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention in high-risk populations if carried out by medical professionals under safe conditions. In 2007,

3267-425: Is not uncommon for bodies to be covered in fat and blood from a slaughtered ox . Traditional Maasai lifestyle centres around their cattle , which constitute their primary source of food. In a patriarchal culture that views women as property, a man's wealth is measured in cattle, wives and children. A herd of 50 cattle is respectable, and the more wives and children the better. A man who has plenty of one but not

3366-515: Is now Tanzania. Maasai are pastoralists and have resisted the urging of the Tanzanian and Kenyan governments to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. They have demanded grazing rights to many of the national parks in both countries. The Maasai people stood against slavery and never condoned the traffic of human beings, and outsiders looking for people to enslave avoided the Maasai. Essentially there are twenty-two geographic sectors or sub-tribes of

3465-467: Is shaved off. Maasai music traditionally consists of rhythms provided by a chorus of vocalists singing harmonies while a song leader, or olaranyani, sings the melody. Unlike most other African tribes, Maasai widely use drone polyphony . Women chant lullabies, humming songs, and songs praising their sons. Nambas, the call-and-response pattern, repetition of nonsensical phrases, monophonic melodies, repeated phrases following each verse being sung on

3564-407: Is the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans penis. At birth, the foreskin cannot be retracted due to adhesions between the foreskin and glans, and this is considered normal (physiological phimosis). Over time the foreskin naturally separates from the glans, and a majority of boys are able to retract the foreskin by age three. Less than one percent are still having problems at age 18. If

3663-532: The Arabian Peninsula , and later spread this ancestry component southwards into certain Khoisan groups roughly 2,000 years ago, resulting in ~5% West-Eurasian ancestry among Southern African hunter-gatherers. A 2019 archaeogenetic study sampled ancient remains from Neolithic inhabitants of Tanzania and Kenya, and found them to have strongest affinities with modern Horn of Africa groups. They modelled

3762-966: The Bubaline Period ; more specifically, while possibly dating much earlier than 10,000 BP, rock art walls from the Bubaline Period have been dated between 9200 BP and 5500 BP. The cultural practice of circumcision may have spread from the Central Sahara , toward the south in Sub-Saharan Africa and toward the east in the region of the Nile . Based on engraved evidence found on walls and evidence from mummies , circumcision has been dated to at least as early as 6000 BCE in ancient Egypt . Some ancient Egyptian mummies , which have been dated as early as 4000 BCE, show evidence of circumcision. Evidence suggests that circumcision

3861-486: The World Health Organization (WHO) reiterated that male circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention if carried out by medical professionals under safe conditions. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most commonly transmitted sexually transmitted infection , affecting both men and women. While most infections are asymptomatic and are cleared by the immune system , some types of

3960-453: The ethnogenesis of the Maasai people. Genetic genealogy , a tool that uses the genes of modern populations to trace their ethnic and geographic origins, has also helped clarify the possible background of modern Maasai. The Maasai's autosomal DNA has been examined in a comprehensive study by Tishkoff et al. (2009) on the genetic affiliations of various populations in Africa. According to

4059-413: The prophylactic efficacy of the elective circumcision of minors in the context of developed countries . Literature on the matter is polarized, with the cost-benefit analysis being highly dependent on the kinds and frequencies of health problems in the population under discussion and how circumcision affects them. The World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS , and American medical organizations take

Lake Manyara Biosphere Reserve - Misplaced Pages Continue

4158-751: The rift wall, perennial springs in the north support a ground water forest (characterized by Trichilia roka and Croton macrostachyus or the yellow fever tree ( Acacia xanthophloea ). Riverine habitats , swamps, woodland and alkaline grasslands also characterize the area. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a free content work ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from UNESCO - MAB Biosphere Reserves Directory​ , UNESCO, UNESCO. Maasai people Modern ethnicities Diaspora Performing arts Government agencies Television Radio Newspapers The Maasai ( / ˈ m ɑː s aɪ , m ɑː ˈ s aɪ / ; Swahili : Wamasai ) are

4257-455: The 111 children examined exhibited missing mandibular or maxillary deciduous canines. Traditionally, the Maasai conduct elaborate rite of passage rituals which include surgical genital mutilation to initiate children into adulthood. The Maa word for circumcision , "emorata," is applied to this ritual for both males and females. This ritual is typically performed by the elders, who use a sharpened knife and makeshift cattle hide bandages for

4356-516: The 2019 census, compared to 377,089 in the 1989 census, though many Maasai view the census as government meddling and therefore either refuse to participate or actively provide false information. The Maasai inhabit the African Great Lakes region and arrived via South Sudan . Most Nilotic speakers in the area, including the Maasai, the Turkana and the Kalenjin , are pastoralists and have

4455-506: The DPNB. They are more effective than EMLA (eutectic mixture of local anesthetics) cream, which is more effective than a placebo . Topical creams have been found to irritate the skin of low birth weight infants, so penile nerve block techniques are recommended in this group. For infants, non-pharmacological methods such as the use of a comfortable, padded chair and a sucrose or non-sucrose pacifier are more effective at reducing pain than

4554-497: The Egyptians for hygienic reasons, but also was part of their obsession with purity and was associated with spiritual and intellectual development. No well-accepted theory explains the significance of circumcision to the Egyptians, but it appears to have been endowed with great honor and importance as a rite of passage , performed in a public ceremony emphasizing the continuation of family generations and fertility. It may have been

4653-733: The Greeks and later the Romans very difficult. Restrictions on the Jewish practice by European governments have occurred several times in world history, including the Seleucid Empire under Antiochus IV and the Roman Empire under Hadrian , where it was used as a means of forceful assimilation and conversion . Antiochus IV's restriction on Jewish circumcision was a major factor in the Maccabean Revolt . Hadrian 's prohibition has also been considered by some to have been

4752-840: The Kalenjin likewise absorbed some early Cushitic populations. The Maasai territory reached its largest size in the mid-19th century and covered almost all of the Great Rift Valley and adjacent lands from Mount Marsabit in the north to Dodoma in the south. At this time the Maasai, as well as the larger Nilotic group they were part of, raised cattle as far east as the Tanga coast in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania). Raiders used spears and shields but were most feared for throwing clubs (orinka) which could be accurately thrown from up to 70 paces (approx. 100 metres). In 1852, there

4851-474: The Maasai as goat leaves). One common misconception about the Maasai is that each young man is supposed to kill a lion before he can be circumcised and enter adulthood. Lion hunting was an activity of the past, but it has been banned in East Africa – yet lions are still hunted when they maul Maasai livestock. Nevertheless, killing a lion gives one great value and celebrity status in the community. The piercing and stretching of earlobes are common among

4950-401: The Maasai as with other tribes, and both men and women wear metal hoops on their stretched earlobes. Various materials have been used to both pierce and stretch the lobes, including thorns for piercing, twigs, bundles of twigs, stones, the cross-section of elephant tusks and empty film canisters. Women wear various forms of beaded ornaments in both the ear lobe and smaller piercings at the top of

5049-440: The Maasai community as having ancestry that is ~47% Pastoral Neolithic Cushitic-related and ~53% Sudanese Dinka-related. A Y chromosome study by Wood et al. (2005) tested various Sub-Saharan populations, including 26 Maasai men from Kenya, for paternal lineages. The authors observed haplogroup E1b1b -M35 (not M78) in 35% of the studied Maasai. E1b1b-M35-M78 in 15%, their ancestor with the more northerly Cushitic men, who possess

SECTION 50

#1732787360995

5148-585: The Maasai community, each one having its customs, appearance, leadership and dialects. These subdivisions are known as 'nations' or 'iloshon' in the Maa language : the Keekonyokie , Ildamat, Purko, Wuasinkishu, Siria, Laitayiok, Loitai, Ilkisonko, Matapato, Dalalekutuk, Ilooldokilani, Ilkaputiei, Moitanik, Ilkirasha, Samburu , Ilchamus, Laikipiak , Loitokitoki, Larusa, Salei, Sirinket and Parakuyo . Recent advances in genetic analyses have helped shed some light on

5247-472: The USA. These follow the same basic procedure. First, the amount of foreskin to be removed is estimated. The practitioner opens the foreskin via the preputial orifice to reveal the glans underneath and ensures it is normal before bluntly separating the inner lining of the foreskin ( preputial epithelium ) from its attachment to the glans. The practitioner then places the circumcision device (this sometimes requires

5346-518: The United States. Minor complications are reported to occur in three percent of procedures. Severe complications are rare. A specific complication rate is difficult to determine due to scant data on complications and inconsistencies in their classification. Complication rates are greater when the procedure is performed by an inexperienced operator, in unsterile conditions, or when the child is at an older age. Significant acute complications happen rarely, occurring in about 1 in 500 newborn procedures in

5445-579: The United States. Severe to catastrophic complications, including death, are so rare that they are reported only as individual case reports. Where a Plastibell device is used, the most common complication is the retention of the device occurring in around 3.5% of procedures. Other possible complications include buried penis , chordee , phimosis, skin bridges , urethral fistulas, and meatal stenosis . These complications may be partly avoided with proper technique, and are often treatable without requiring surgical revision. The most common long-term complication

5544-498: The WHO and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) stated that they recommended adolescent and adult circumcision as part of a comprehensive program for prevention of HIV transmission in areas with high endemic rates of HIV, as long as the program includes " informed consent , confidentiality , and absence of coercion " — known as voluntary medical male circumcision, or VMMC. In 2010, this

5643-673: The carcinoma in situ (CIS) cancerous precursor stage and at the more advanced invasive squamous cell carcinoma stage. There is an association between adult circumcision and an increased risk of invasive penile cancer; this is believed to be from men being circumcised as a treatment for penile cancer or a condition that is a precursor to cancer rather than a consequence of circumcision itself. Penile cancer has been observed to be nearly eliminated in populations of males circumcised neonatally. Important risk factors for penile cancer include phimosis and HPV infection, both of which are mitigated by circumcision. The mitigating effect circumcision has on

5742-544: The ceremony that initiates young Maasai girls into adulthood through ritual mutilation and then into early arranged marriages. The Maasai believe that female genital mutilation is necessary and Maasai men may reject any woman who has not undergone it as either not marriageable or worthy of a much-reduced bride price. In Eastern Africa, uncircumcised women, even highly educated members of parliament like Linah Kilimo , can be accused of not being mature enough to be taken seriously. The Maasai activist Agnes Pareyio campaigns against

5841-408: The development of phimosis. Phimosis is also a complication that can result from circumcision. An inflammation of the glans penis and foreskin is called balanoposthitis, and the condition affecting the glans alone is called balanitis . Most cases of these conditions occur in uncircumcised males, affecting 4–11% of that group. The moist, warm space underneath the foreskin is thought to facilitate

5940-480: The ear. Among Maasai males, circumcision is practised as a ritual of transition from boyhood to manhood. Women are also circumcised (as described below in social organisation ). This belief and practice are not unique to the Maasai. In rural Kenya, a group of 95 children aged between six months and two years were examined in 1991/92. 87% were found to have undergone the removal of one or more deciduous canine tooth buds. In an older age group (3–7 years of age), 72% of

6039-441: The fertile lands between Mount Meru and Mount Kilimanjaro , and most of the fertile highlands near Ngorongoro in the 1940s. More land was taken to create wildlife reserves and national parks: Amboseli National Park , Nairobi National Park , Maasai Mara , Samburu National Reserve , Lake Nakuru National Park and Tsavo in Kenya; and Lake Manyara , Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tarangire and Serengeti National Park in what

SECTION 60

#1732787360995

6138-598: The fulfillment of a Biblical commandment but also an essential and permanent mark of membership in a people. A narrative in the Christian Gospel of Luke makes a brief mention of the circumcision of Jesus , but physical circumcision is not part of the received teachings of Jesus. Circumcision has played an important role in Christian history and theology . Paul the Apostle reinterpreted circumcision as

6237-445: The growth of pathogens, particularly when hygiene is poor. Yeasts, especially Candida albicans , are the most common penile infection and are rarely identified in samples taken from circumcised males. Both conditions are usually treated with topical antibiotics (metronidazole cream) and antifungals (clotrimazole cream) or low-potency steroid creams. Circumcision is a treatment option for refractory or recurrent balanoposthitis, but in

6336-570: The haplogroup at high frequencies lived more than 13,000 years ago. The second most frequent paternal lineage among the Maasai was Haplogroup A3b2 , which is commonly found in Nilotic populations, such as the Alur ; it was observed in 27% of Maasai men. The third most frequently observed paternal DNA marker in the Maasai was E1b1a1-M2 (E-P1), which is very common in the Sub-Saharan region; it

6435-559: The immigrants in the region depend on tourism. Poaching of wildlife for meat and trophies, illegal fishing , selling of firewood and charcoal constitute threats to the biodiversity in the biosphere reserve. The reserve's surface area is 2,833,000 hectares (10,940 sq mi). The core area is 33,000 hectares (130 sq mi), of which Lake Manyara is 10,000 hectares (39 sq mi), surrounded by buffer zone(s) of 1,000,000 hectares (3,900 sq mi) and transition area(s) of 1,800,000 hectares (6,900 sq mi). Below

6534-454: The inability to do so becomes problematic (pathological phimosis) circumcision is a treatment option. This pathological phimosis may be due to scarring from the skin disease balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), repeated episodes of balanoposthitis or forced retraction of the foreskin. Steroid creams are also a reasonable option and may prevent the need for surgery including in those with mild BXO. The procedure may also be used to prevent

6633-437: The incidence of cancer-causing forms of human papillomavirus (HPV) and significantly reducing HIV transmission among heterosexual men in high-risk populations; its prophylactic efficacy against HIV transmission in the developed world or among men who have sex with men is debated. Neonatal circumcision decreases the risk of penile cancer . Complication rates increase significantly with age. Bleeding, infection, and

6732-513: The incidence of UTIs in boys under two years of age, and there is fair evidence that the reduction in incidence is by a factor of 3–10 times (100 circumcisions prevents one UTI). Circumcision is most likely to benefit boys who have a high risk of UTIs due to anatomical defects, and may be used to treat recurrent UTIs. There is a plausible biological explanation for the reduction in UTI risk after circumcision. The orifice through which urine passes at

6831-771: The lands south and east of the Mediterranean, starting with Central Sahara, Sudan and Ethiopia, the procedure was practiced by the ancient Egyptians and the Semites , and then by the Jews and Muslims. In Oceania, circumcision is practiced by the Australian Aboriginals and Polynesians . There is also evidence that circumcision was practiced among the Aztec and Mayan civilizations in the Americas, but little

6930-413: The likelihood of multiple infections. As of 2012 , there was no strong evidence that it reduces the rate of new HPV infection, but the procedure is associated with increased clearance of the virus by the body, which can account for the finding of reduced prevalence. Although genital warts are caused by a type of HPV, there is no statistically significant relationship between being circumcised and

7029-442: The more prized cattle. Although consumed as snacks, fruits constitute a major part of the food ingested by children and women looking after cattle as well as morans in the bush. Medicine The Maasai people traditionally used the environment when making their medicines, and many still do, due to the high cost of Western treatments. These medicines are derived from trees, shrubs, stems, roots, etc. These can then be used in

7128-559: The neonatal period when it is less expensive and has a lower risk of complications. The American Academy of Pediatrics and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stated that the potential benefits of circumcision outweigh the risks. The World Health Organization in 2010 stated: There are significant benefits in performing male circumcision in early infancy, and programmes that promote early infant male circumcision are likely to have lower morbidity rates and lower costs than programmes targeting adolescent boys and men. Circumcision

7227-486: The other is considered to be poor. All of the Maasai's needs for food are met by their cattle. They eat their meat, drink their milk daily, and drink their blood on occasion. Bulls, goats, and lambs are slaughtered for meat on special occasions and ceremonies. Though the Maasai's entire way of life has historically depended on their cattle, more recently with their cattle dwindling, the Maasai have grown dependent on food such as sorghum , rice, potatoes and cabbage (known to

7326-564: The past 3000 years and with the high frequency of a shared East African–specific mutation associated with lactose tolerance." Maasai display significant West-Eurasian admixture at roughly ~20%. This type of West-Eurasian ancestry reaches up to 40-50% among specific populations of the Horn of Africa , specifically among Amharas . Genetic data and archeologic evidence suggest that East African pastoralists received West Eurasian ancestry (~25%) through Afroasiatic-speaking groups from Northern Africa or

7425-426: The penis ( chordee ), or ambiguous genitalia , because the foreskin may be needed for reconstructive surgery. Circumcision is contraindicated in premature infants and those who are not clinically stable and in good health. If an individual is known to have or has a family history of serious bleeding disorders such as hemophilia , it is recommended that the blood be checked for normal coagulation properties before

7524-408: The position that it carries prophylactic health benefits which outweigh the risks, while European medical organizations generally hold the belief that in these situations its medical benefits are not counterbalanced by risk. Advocates of circumcision consider it to have a net health benefit, and therefore feel that increasing the circumcision rate is "imperative". They recommend performing it during

7623-404: The practice. The female rite of passage ritual has recently seen excision replaced in rare instances with a "cutting with words" ceremony involving singing and dancing in its place. However, despite changes to the law and education drives, the practice remains deeply ingrained, highly valued, and nearly universally practised by members of the culture. Upon reaching the age of 3 "moons", the child

7722-729: The presence of genital warts. Studies evaluating the effect of circumcision on the rates of other sexually transmitted infections have, generally, found it to be protective. A 2006 meta-analysis found that circumcision was associated with lower rates of syphilis , chancroid , and possibly genital herpes . A 2010 review found that circumcision reduced the incidence of HSV -2 (herpes simplex virus, type 2) infections by 28%. The researchers found mixed results for protection against trichomonas vaginalis and chlamydia trachomatis , and no evidence of protection against gonorrhea or syphilis. It may also possibly protect against syphilis in MSM. Phimosis

7821-513: The procedure is attempted. The foreskin is the double-layered fold of tissue at the distal end of the human penis that covers the glans and the urinary meatus . For adult medical circumcision, superficial wound healing takes up to a week, and complete healing 4 to 6 months. For infants, healing is usually complete within one week. For infant circumcision, devices such as the Gomco clamp , Plastibell and Mogen clamp are commonly used in

7920-583: The procedure. The male ceremony refers to the excision of the prepuce (foreskin). In the male ceremony, the boy is expected to endure the operation in silence. Expressions of pain bring dishonour upon him, albeit only temporarily. Importantly, any exclamations or unexpected movements on the part of the boy can cause the elder to make a mistake in the delicate and tedious process, which can result in severe lifelong scarring, dysfunction, and pain. Young women also undergo female genital mutilation as part of an elaborate rite of passage ritual called "Emuatare,"

8019-488: The region, such as the Samburu . Most of the tested Maasai belonged to various macro-haplogroup L sub-clades, including L0 , L2 , L3 , L4 and L5 . Some maternal gene flow from North and Northeast Africa was also reported, particularly via the presence of mtDNA haplogroup M lineages in about 12.5% of the Maasai samples. The monotheistic Maasai worship a single deity called Enkai , Nkai , or Engai . Engai has

8118-456: The removal of either too much or too little foreskin are the most common acute complications, while meatal stenosis is the most common long-term. There are various cultural, social , and ethical views on circumcision. Major medical organizations hold variant views on the strength of circumcision's prophylactic efficacy in developed countries. Some medical organizations take the position that it carries prophylactic health benefits which outweigh

8217-675: The result of smallpox. This period coincided with drought. Rains failed in 1897 and 1898. The Austrian explorer Oscar Baumann travelled in Maasai lands between 1891 and 1893 and described the old Maasai settlement in the Ngorongoro Crater in the 1894 book Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle ("Through the lands of the Maasai to the source of the Nile"). By one estimate two-thirds of the Maasai died during this period. Maasai in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania) were displaced from

8316-407: The risk factor introduced by the possibility of phimosis is secondary, in that the removal of the foreskin eliminates the possibility of phimosis. This can be inferred from study results that show uncircumcised men with no history of phimosis are equally likely to have penile cancer as circumcised men. Circumcision is also associated with a reduced prevalence of cancer-causing types of HPV in men and

8415-488: The risks, while other medical organizations generally hold the belief that in these situations its medical benefits are not counterbalanced by risk. Circumcision is one of the world's most common and oldest medical procedures. Prophylactic usage originated in England during the 1850s and subsequently widely spread, becoming predominately established as a way to prevent sexually transmitted infections. Beyond use as

8514-403: The sexual pleasure of the circumcised person. Neonatal circumcision is generally a safe, low-risk procedure when done by an experienced practitioner. The most common acute complications are bleeding, infection and the removal of either too much or too little foreskin. These complications occur in approximately 0.13% of procedures, with bleeding being the most common acute complication in

8613-521: The study's authors, the Maasai "have maintained their culture in the face of extensive genetic introgression". Tishkoff et al. also indicate that: "Many Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations in East Africa, such as the Maasai, show multiple cluster assignments from the Nilo-Saharan [...] and Cushitic [...] AACs, in accord with linguistic evidence of repeated Nilotic assimilation of Cushites over

8712-568: The tick infestation in the livestock of the pastoralist communities. As of 1999, the human population in the biosphere reserve is estimated to over 250,000 people. With most indigenous people practicing pastoralism and agriculture, these are the most important socio-economic activities in the area. Ethnic groups of the Lake Manyara region are the Maasai , the Iraqw and the Barabaig . Most of

8811-432: The tip of the penis (the urinary meatus ) hosts more urinary system disease-causing bacteria in uncircumcised boys than in circumcised boys, especially in those under six months of age. As these bacteria are a risk factor for UTIs, circumcision may reduce the risk of UTIs through a decrease in the bacterial population. Not being circumcised is the primary risk factor for penile cancer . Pre-adolescent circumcision has

8910-404: The twenty-first century the availability of the other treatments has made it less necessary. A UTI affects parts of the urinary system including the urethra , bladder , and kidneys . There is about a one percent risk of UTIs in boys under two years of age, and the majority of incidents occur in the first year of life. There is good but not ideal evidence that circumcision of babies reduces

9009-407: The use of analgesia is advocated. Ordinary procedural pain may be managed in pharmacological and non-pharmacological ways. Pharmacological methods, such as localized or regional pain-blocking injections and topical analgesic creams, are safe and effective. The ring block and dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB) are the most effective at reducing pain, and the ring block may be more effective than

9108-492: The virus cause genital warts , and other types, if untreated, cause various forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and penile cancer . Genital warts and cervical cancer are the two most common problems resulting from HPV. Circumcision is associated with a reduced prevalence of oncogenic types of HPV infection, meaning that a randomly selected circumcised man is less likely to be found infected with cancer-causing types of HPV than an uncircumcised man. It also decreases

9207-469: Was a function of personality rather than position. Many Maasai have also adopted Christianity or Islam . The Maasai produce intricate jewellery and sell these items to tourists. Educating Maasai women to use clinics and hospitals during pregnancy has enabled more infants to survive. The exception is found in extremely remote areas. A corpse rejected by scavengers is seen as having something wrong with it, and liable to cause social disgrace; therefore, it

9306-459: Was a report of a concentration of 800 Maasai warriors on the move in what is now Kenya. In 1857, after having depopulated the "Wakuafi wilderness" in what is now southeastern Kenya, Maasai warriors threatened Mombasa on the Kenyan coast. Because of this migration, the Maasai are the southernmost Nilotic speakers. The period of expansion was followed by the Maasai "Emutai" of 1883–1902. This period

9405-544: Was expanded to routine neonatal circumcision, as long as those undergoing the procedure received assent from their parents. In 2020, the World Health Organization again concluded that male circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention and that the promotion of male circumcision is an essential strategy, in addition to other preventive measures, for the prevention of heterosexually acquired HIV infection in men. Eastern and southern Africa had

9504-423: Was found in 12% of the Maasai samples. Haplogroup B-M60 was also observed in 8% of the studied Maasai, which is also found in 30% (16/53) of Southern Sudanese Nilotes. According to an mtDNA study by Castri et al. (2008), which tested Maasai individuals in Kenya, the maternal lineages found among the Maasai are quite diverse but similar in overall frequency to that observed in other Nilo-Hamitic populations from

9603-470: Was less consistent in regards to the potential association of circumcision with women's risk of HPV and HIV. The accumulated data show circumcision does not have an adverse physiological effect on sexual pleasure, function, desire, or fertility. There is some evidence that circumcision has no effect on pain with intercourse , premature ejaculation , intravaginal ejaculation latency time , erectile dysfunction or difficulties with orgasm . According to

9702-399: Was marked by epidemics of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia , rinderpest (see 1890s African rinderpest epizootic ), and smallpox . The estimate first put forward by a German lieutenant in what was then northwest Tanganyika , was that 90% of cattle and half of wild animals perished from rinderpest. German doctors in the same area claimed that "every second" African had a pock-marked face as

9801-568: Was practiced in the Middle East by the fourth millennium BCE, when the Sumerians and the Semites moved into the area that is modern-day Iraq from the North and West. The earliest historical record of circumcision comes from Egypt, in the form of an image of the circumcision of an adult carved into the tomb of Ankh-Mahor at Saqqara , dating to about 2400–2300 BCE. Circumcision was possibly done by

#994005