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118-493: Lake View Cemetery is a privately owned , nonprofit garden cemetery located in the cities of Cleveland , Cleveland Heights , and East Cleveland in the U.S. state of Ohio. Founded in 1869, the cemetery was favored by wealthy families during the Gilded Age , and today the cemetery is known for its numerous lavish funerary monuments and mausoleums . The extensive early monument building at Lake View helped give rise to

236-673: A streetcar line, proposed a line to reach Lake View's main gate in July 1874. However, as built in 1876, the line followed Superior Avenue to Euclid Avenue before proceeding east—reaching Euclid east of Lake View Cemetery. The first streetcar to reach Lake View Cemetery was the East Cleveland Railway's Euclid Avenue Line in 1886. The company extended its tracks from its existing terminus at E. 107th Street up Euclid Avenue to Rosedale Avenue in East Cleveland (just short of

354-489: A title or a certificate of ownership. The rights to a property may be transferred from one "owner" to another. A transfer tax is a tax on the passing of title to property from one person (or entity) to another. An owner may request that, after death, private property be transferred to family members, through inheritance . In certain cases, ownership may be lost to the public interest. Private real estate may be confiscated or used for public purposes, for example, to build

472-463: A $ 1,000 par value, and be payable in 50 years. Interest for the last six months of 1892 would be paid in cash at a 7 percent annual rate. The new bonds would carry coupons for all other past-due interest, to be paid at a 6 percent annual rate. Additionally, redeemed bondholders would receive an income debenture equal to 20 percent of the bond's face value. Only $ 100,000 ($ 3.39 million in 2023 dollars) in income debentures would be issued, carrying

590-431: A 3 by 3 inches (76 by 76 mm) piece of Georgia marble or slate. Hatch also hired landscape architect Ernest W. Bowditch to finish laying out the cemetery's 300 acres (120 ha). Bowditch retained the garden cemetery design begun in 1869, and began planting large numbers of ornamental trees, including bald cypress , copper beech , gingko , oriental plane , pin oak , and purple beech . Importantly, he also planned

708-399: A 3-foot (0.91 m) walkway between tiers. Any section deeper than 150 feet (46 m) in depth also needs to have an 8-foot (2.4 m) wide service road bisecting it. All ground was roughly graded before the construction of infrastructure and roads; wet ground was drained after rough grading. Section and lot corners were marked with cornerstones, and all permanent fixtures were recorded on

826-487: A 7 percent (or less) annual interest rate. To ensure payment of the interest on the debentures, the cemetery agreed to establish a sinking fund whose proceeds would pay the interest. Lake View Cemetery agreed that revenues would go toward maintenance and cemetery expenses first. Excess revenues would be applied first to the income debentures, second to interest on the 1878 and refunding bonds, third to sinking fund payments, and lastly to any reasonable improvements to be made to

944-408: A bundle is composed of a set of rights that allows the owner of the asset to control it and decide on its use, claim the value generated by it, exclude others from using it, and the right to transfer the ownership (set of rights over the asset) of it to another holder. In Marxian economics and socialist politics, a distinction is made between "private property" and " personal property ". The former

1062-524: A component of the development of a post-capitalist economic system . In response to the socialist critique, the Austrian School economist Ludwig Von Mises argued that private property rights are a requisite for what he called "rational" economic calculation and that the prices of goods and services cannot be determined accurately enough to make efficient economic calculation without having clearly defined private-property rights. Mises argued that

1180-448: A given period. Marx's conception of private property has proven influential for many subsequent economic theories and for communist , socialist , and anarchist political movements, and led to the widespread association of private property—particularly private property in the means of production —with capitalism . Private property is a legal concept defined and enforced by a country's political system . The area of law that deals with

1298-438: A grand tomb to be erected at the highest point in the cemetery. The popularity of the garden-like cemetery and the public's desire to see Garfield's resting place were such that large crowds began thronging Lake View every Sunday. Roughly 50,000 people a year were visiting the crypt. The cemetery received no revenues from the memorial committee despite the wear and tear on its property. Cemetery officials began requiring tickets in

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1416-525: A legal definition in the 17th century. Private property defined as property owned by commercial entities emerged with the great European trading companies of the 17th century. The issue of the enclosure of agricultural land in England, especially as debated in the 17th and 18th centuries, accompanied efforts in philosophy and political thought—by Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), James Harrington (1611–1677) and John Locke (1632–1704), for example—to address

1534-615: A new cemetery. Thirty of them showed up to the meeting on May 24. The group of 30 formed the nonprofit Lake View Cemetery Association on July 28, 1869. The trustees were William Bingham (owner of the W. Bingham Co. hardware company), Hinman B. Hurlbut (banking executive), Henry B. Payne (railroad investor), Joseph Perkins (banking and railroad executive), U.S. District Court Judge Charles Taylor Sherman , Amasa Stone (steelmaker and railroad investor), Worthy S. Streator (railroad executive and investor), Jeptha Wade (co-founder of Western Union ), and Stillman Witt (railroad investor). Wade

1652-488: A new entrance for Lake View Cemetery on Euclid Avenue, with a new circle just inside the cemetery gate. The new office building at the entrance was designed by noted local architect Charles F. Schweinfurth , and the cost of its construction donated by Hatch. Neoclassical in style, it was faced with Ohio sandstone . The $ 6,000 ($ 200,000 in 2023 dollars) rectangular structure was 25 by 51 feet (7.6 by 15.5 m) in size. The floors and wainscoting were hardwood . Ground for

1770-494: A relatively shallow average depth of just 62 feet (19 m). From the beginning of recordkeeping in the early 1800s to 1921, the average rainfall on the plain was about 34 inches (86 cm) a year, with the rainiest months being June and July and the driest October. Prior to human settlement, the combination of landform and rainfall left the Erie Plain with typical prairie plants. Marshes and shallow lakes formerly dotted

1888-496: A road. The legal framework of a country or society defines some of the practical implications of private property. There are no expectations that these rules will define a rational and consistent model of economics or social system. Although contemporary neoclassical economics —currently the dominant school of economics—rejects some of the assumptions of the early philosophers underpinning classical economics, it has been argued that neoclassical economics continues to be influenced by

2006-674: A series of slight terraces; the boundary between each marks ancient lake shorelines. Cushing, Leverett, and Van Horn identify at least three moraines between Erie, Pennsylvania , and Ohio's Rocky River: The Cleveland, the Euclid, and the Defiance. West of the Rocky River are three ridges (the North, Middle, and Butternut) roughly paralleling the modern lakeshore, ancient beaches formed by proglacial expansions of Early Lake Erie. In Indiana ,

2124-462: A single-burial lot had more than doubled since the cemetery opened, to ($ 14 to $ 17 in 2023 dollars) a square foot. By late 1888, Lake View Cemetery was nearing bankruptcy. Mismanagement was part of the problem, and The Plain Dealer newspaper said the cemetery's financial records were in "deplorable" shape. Lake View had outstanding debt of $ 432,980 ($ 14.7 million in 2023 dollars), and interest on

2242-575: A small percentage of the cemetery's roads were paved, and the remainder, all dirt roads, were heavily eroded and rutted. Lake View's finances were so poor that many residents believed it was close to bankruptcy. The association needed revenue so badly that its trustees considered lowering the price of lots so that the poor could afford to be buried there. The cemetery generated so little revenue that it had incurred about $ 365,700 ($ 12.4 million in 2023 dollars) in debt above and beyond interest and principal owed on bonds. With revenues extraordinarily low and

2360-503: A social relationship in which the property owner takes possession of anything that another person or group produces with that property and capitalism depends on private property. The socialist critique of private ownership is heavily influenced by the Marxist analysis of capitalist property forms as part of its broader critique of alienation and exploitation in capitalism. Although there is considerable disagreement among socialists about

2478-424: A socialist system, which by definition would lack private property in the factors of production, would be unable to determine appropriate price valuations for the factors of production. According to Mises, this problem would make rational socialist calculation impossible. In capitalism , ownership can be viewed as a "bundle of rights" over an asset that entitles its holder to a strong form of authority over it. Such

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2596-428: A square foot. The cemetery's distance from Cleveland's population center and the price of its plots meant that only those with a middle class income or better could afford to be buried at Lake View. It's not clear when the first interments at Lake View Cemetery were made, but several plots were in use by October 21, 1870. Improvements to and expansion of the cemetery continued over the next few years. The first ravine

2714-421: A square foot; the surge in lot-buying, it was believed would raise $ 2 million ($ 67.8 million in 2023 dollars). In addition, spending on cemetery improvements would be cut back sharply. The reaction of the bondholders was not reported, but area businesspeople began suggesting that the city of Cleveland purchase the cemetery. The plan was amended at the end of April 1889 so that all interest coming due that year

2832-443: A year, the cemetery encompassed 211 acres (85 ha).) This gave the cemetery about 0.75 miles (1.21 km) of frontage on the avenue. The combined cost of the two purchases was $ 148,821.84 ($ 3.59 million in 2023 dollars). Located in what was then East Cleveland Township , the site was somewhat isolated. With the city pushing eastward at a swift pace, city and county government officials were already planning additional roads in

2950-528: Is about 12,000 square miles (31,000 km ). The Erie Plain drains into Lake Erie, except for that portion east of Buffalo (which drains into Lake Ontario). Water on the Appalachian Plateau, on the other hand, drains to the Gulf of Mexico . In Ohio, brooks generally cut into the plain 10 to 40 feet (3.0 to 12.2 m), while rivers dig channels 40 to 100 feet (12 to 30 m) deep. The plain

3068-412: Is another name for monopoly and can hamper allocative efficiency. Through the use of taxation and modified Vickrey auctions , they argue that partial common property ownership is a more efficient and just way to organize the economy. The justifications for private property rights have also been critiqued as tools of empire that enable land appropriation. According to academic commentator Brenna Bhandar,

3186-470: Is defined as the means of production about private ownership over an economic enterprise based on socialized production and wage labor whereas the latter is defined as consumer goods or goods produced by an individual. Prior to the 18th century, private property usually referred to land ownership . Private property in the means of production is the central element of capitalism criticized by socialists. In Marxist literature, private property refers to

3304-542: Is distinguished from private property ownership and Western understandings of land law . Erie Plain The Erie Plain is a lacustrine plain that borders Lake Erie in North America . From Buffalo, New York , to Cleveland , Ohio , it is quite narrow (at best only a few miles/kilometers wide), but broadens considerably from Cleveland around Lake Erie to Southern Ontario , where it forms most of

3422-542: Is now Section 26 be small and affordable like those at Woodland Cemetery. Unsold large lots in what is now Section 1 were subdivided into smaller lots as well. Terra cotta markers were placed to mark section boundaries, and new maps of the cemetery produced for the first time in several years. Cemetery-wide improvements included the laying of 600 feet (180 m) of fresh water pipe for irrigation purposes, 2,400 feet (730 m) of drainage pipe to reclaim soggy land for burial purposes, 800 feet (240 m) of new fencing around

3540-611: Is so narrow in Ohio that it has no watershed distinct from that which forms in the Portage Escarpment. The Erie Plain in extreme northwest Ohio is not as well-drained as that in the rest of the state, as glacial moraines partially block water in the area. This area was previously known as the Great Black Swamp , until drained by white settlers in the 1800s. Much of the Erie Plain lies beneath Lake Erie, which has

3658-728: Is the Ontario Plain , followed by the Huron Plain and then the Erie Plain. Escarpments separate the plains from one another. Between the Erie Plain and the Appalachian Plateau is the Portage Escarpment . The Erie Plain begins just east of Auburn, New York , where the Onondaga Escarpment meets the Portage Escarpment. The Onondaga Escarpment sharply distinguishes the Erie Plain from

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3776-597: The Cuyahoga River and the Rocky River , and to 17 miles (27 km) west of the Rocky River around the southwest and western sides of Lake Erie. All told, the Erie Plain covers about one-fourth of the state of Ohio. The Erie Plain extends into Michigan where the Marshall Escarpment forms the inland boundary between the Erie Plain and the interior uplands. The Erie Plain also covers most of

3894-547: The Industrial Revolution , the moral philosopher and economist Adam Smith (1723–1790), in contrast to Locke, distinguished between the "right to property" as an acquired right, and natural rights . Smith confined natural rights to "liberty and life". Smith also drew attention to the relationship between employee and employer and identified that property and civil government were dependent upon each other, recognizing that "the state of property must always vary with

4012-538: The Little Italy neighborhood, but over-expansion nearly bankrupted the burial ground in 1888. Financial recovery only began in 1893, and took several years. Lake View grew and modernized significantly from 1896 to 1915 under the leadership of president Henry R. Hatch. The cemetery's cautious management allowed it to avoid retrenchment and financial problems during the Great Depression . Two sites within

4130-460: The Silurian and Devonian periods. Due to its lacustrine origin, much of the soil of the Erie Plain contains abundant clay , although in some areas it is quiet sandy where ancient beaches formed. Beneath this relatively thin layer of soil is unconsolidated moraine , soil and rock left behind as the glaciers retreated. Three geologically distinct plains border Lake Erie. The lowest of these

4248-781: The Wisconsin glaciation (the last ice age). The largest of these was Lake Whittlesey . In some places in Pennsylvania and Ohio, the Erie Plain is broken by the very slight former shoreline of Lake Warren . This glacial sediment was laid atop the Chagrin and the Cleveland shales created in the late Devonian Period (382.5 to 359 million years ago), as well as early Carboniferous Period shale in and west of Cleveland (laid down 359 to 346 million years ago). West of Sandusky, Ohio , these sediments lie atop limestone laid down in

4366-547: The receiving vault for use by plot-holders, designed by local architect Joseph Ireland, was almost finished. A superintendent's lodge at the front gate on Euclid Avenue was finished at the end of the year. By this time, several large, artistic funerary monuments had been erected at Lake View. The association purchased another 41 acres (17 ha) of land in October 1872 and 2.17 acres (0.88 ha) in January 1873. By June 1873,

4484-413: The working population by their claim to ownership in the form of stock or private equity. This exploitative arrangement is perpetuated due to the structure of capitalist society. Capitalism is regarded as a class system akin to historical class systems like slavery and feudalism . Private ownership has also been criticized on non-Marxist ethical grounds by advocates of market socialism . According to

4602-474: The 1875 bond issue. The trustees decided to retire both debts by issuing $ 40,000 ($ 1.26 million in 2023 dollars) in new bonds at 7 percent annual interest. Although the new bonds were sold, the old debt was inexplicably not retired. President James A. Garfield, a resident of nearby Mentor, Ohio , was shot in Washington, D.C., on July 2, 1881. He died on September 19, 1881. Garfield himself had expressed

4720-402: The 1878 issue. Houghton claimed to have been given misleading information on the amount of outstanding debt by Lake View officials, and he threatened to sue the cemetery to force it into receivership (a process which would take about six years to accomplish). Support for the cemetery's plan among the miscellaneous bondholders was about evenly split. Those in opposition argued it was unethical for

4838-554: The Atlantic seaboard. Consequently, this area is heavily populated. The city of Cleveland is largely built on sediments which form the Erie Plain. The Welland Canal cuts north–south across the Erie Plain on the Niagara Peninsula. The Deep Cut on the canal, between Allanburg , and Port Robinson , has created two distinct economic districts in the area. The northern district connects with shipping on Lake Ontario, while

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4956-626: The Babylonians in 1800 BC, as evidenced by the archeological discovery of Plimpton 322 , a clay tablet used for calculating property boundaries. However, written discussions of private property were not seen until the Persian Empire, and emerged in the Western tradition at least as far back as Plato . Before the 18th century, English speakers generally used the word "property" about land ownership . In England , "property" came to have

5074-512: The Citizens Savings and Loan Association, a local bank, in order to pay interest on its bonds. The association paid out only 4 percent of the 7 percent annual interest due on its bonds at the end of 1888, creating a severe financial hardship for bondholders who relied on the interest for their living expenses. Bonds which formerly sold for $ 108 to $ 110 (the par value was $ 100) now began selling at $ 50 to $ 75. Angry bondholders protested

5192-575: The Cleveland Electric Railway Company opened its Mayfield Road Line. This line went past Lake Views Mayfield Road gate. The line began at the East Cleveland Railway's car barn, went south down Coltman to Mayfield, and then east on Mayfield to Lee Road. This line closed in 1907. In 1902, Lake View Cemetery gave permission for the Cleveland Electric Railway to build a spur into the cemetery so that

5310-708: The Huron Plain east of Buffalo. But along the southern side of Lake Erie west of Buffalo, the Onondaga Escarpment is so slight that the Huron Plain and Erie Plain are essentially the same. At Buffalo, the plain narrows to just 2 to 3 miles (3.2 to 4.8 km) wide as the Portage Escarpment moves closer to the Lake Erie shoreline, and remains 2 to 4 miles (3.2 to 6.4 km) wide in Erie County, Pennsylvania . From Erie, Pennsylvania , to Cleveland,

5428-475: The Huron Plain in the north higher than the Erie Plain in the south. South of Georgian Bay , the Niagara Escarpment lifts the Huron Plain to more than 1,500 feet (460 m) above sea level . The Erie Plain lacks distinguishing features, except for occasional recessional moraines , and the remnants of proglacial lake beaches and lakeside cliffs. In Pennsylvania , the plain is marked only by

5546-551: The LVCA board of directors authorized issuance of the refunding bonds. Legal work took longer than usual, however, and it was not until December that the bonds were finally issued. The cemetery's financial condition improved significantly over the next few years. Although some board members felt the cemetery should still be sold to the city of Cleveland, the board rejected this proposal overwhelmingly in June 1895. The cemetery board approved

5664-529: The Lake View Granite and Monumental Works on Mayfield Road adjacent to the cemetery. Carabelli began encouraging other Italian sculptors, stonecutters, and artisans to settle in Cleveland near his works, and by 1885 a substantial enclave of Italians, mostly immigrants, had grown up there. By 1892, the neighborhood adjacent to the cemetery's southwestern corner had become known as Little Italy . It

5782-667: The Ontario peninsula . The Erie Plain was used in the United States as a natural gateway to the North American interior, and in both the United States and Canada the plain is heavily populated and provides very fertile agricultural land. The Erie Plain is a lacustrine plain consisting largely of sediment laid down by a series of proglacial lakes . These existed in the late Pleistocene Epoch, about 25,000 years ago to about 11,700 years ago, and were created by glaciers of

5900-563: The Southern Ontario peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Huron. Here, the Niagara Escarpment separates the Erie Plain from the Huron Plain to the north. In Ohio, the combined Huron-Erie Plain begins at a mean altitude of 573 feet (175 m) above sea level , and gradually rises in a series of slight, rolling hills to more than 1,000 feet (300 m) above sea level . In Ontario, post-glacial rebound has lifted

6018-739: The angel atop the Truman P. Handy memorial, the weeping woman atop the Bucher and Hanna monuments, the group of angels supporting a cross atop the Cross grave, figures carved on the upright slabs over the Johnson and Garretson plots, a sculptural group named "Hope" atop the Perkins monument, and another sculptural group atop the Chamberlain monument. Although a number of large mausoleums had been built in

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6136-422: The area, several of which would reach the new cemetery. Landscape architect Adolph Strauch , who designed Cincinnati's celebrated Spring Grove Cemetery, was hired in October 1869 to design Lake View. Joseph Earnshaw of Cincinnati was the civil engineer, and O.D. Ford was hired as the first superintendent. During the winter of 1869–1870, work crews began grading and laying down roads and paths, terracing part of

6254-622: The association not having paid any interest in cash since 1889, cemetery trustees formed a committee consisting of Daniel P. Eels, Henry R. Hatch, and Edwin R. Perkins to see what level of cash interest could be sustained. The committee proposed a new plan in February 1892: All 1871 and 1878 bondholders could turn in their bonds and receive a new "refunding bond" paying lower annual interest. To cover all outstanding debt, about $ 400,000 ($ 13.6 million in 2023 dollars) in "refunding bonds", back-dated to December 1, 1891, would be issued. They would have

6372-475: The association, hoping to raise $ 150,000 ($ 3.43 million in 2023 dollars). Within six weeks, they'd raised the money and set a new goal of $ 200,000 ($ 4.58 million in 2023 dollars), which was also reached. Selah Chamberlain (ironmaker, railroad investor, banker), Payne, Perkins, Stone, Wade, and Witt held $ 60,000 ($ 1.37 million in 2023 dollars) in bonds, while another 11 individuals held $ 55,000 ($ 1.26 million in 2023 dollars) in bonds. A committee

6490-504: The bondholders in December 1891. The cemetery's plan was tweaked to provide for even smaller par values for the refunding bonds. In total, $ 500,000 ($ 17 million in 2023 dollars) in refunding bonds were proposed, 350 at $ 1,000 par value, 50 at $ 500 par value, and 1,250 at $ 100 par value. Five months after Garfield began his lobbying effort, 75 percent of bondholders approved the plan. The remaining approvals were received in June 1892, and

6608-627: The cemetery are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The first is the James A. Garfield Memorial , erected in 1890 as the tomb of assassinated President James A. Garfield . The second is Wade Memorial Chapel , which began construction in 1898 and was completed in 1901. It honors the memory of Jeptha Wade , one of the cemetery's co-founders, and was donated by his grandson. In 1868, prominent Cleveland businessmen Jeptha Wade , Henry B. Payne , and Joseph Perkins began discussing

6726-508: The cemetery engineer's maps. With the Long Depression ending in the United States, the board believed lot sales would rise significantly. With the board's backing, Hatch began making new improvements to the cemetery and converting undeveloped land into sections 4, 10, and 26 at a cost of $ 10,000 ($ 400,000 in 2023 dollars). Realizing that lot sizes were too large and expensive for middle-class purchasers, Hatch ordered that lots in what

6844-482: The cemetery faced bankruptcy if the syndicate scheme was not adopted. Gaining acceptance from the bondholders was complicated. C.F. Houghton, a banker and bond dealer based on the East Coast , held all $ 10,000 of the outstanding 1871 bonds and $ 7,000 of the 1875 bonds. Samuel E. Williamson, a local judge, held $ 13,000 of the 1875 issue. Another 331 individuals held the remaining $ 10,000 of the 1875 and all $ 40,000 of

6962-426: The cemetery had a total of 266 acres (108 ha). It had spent $ 65,643 ($ 1.67 million in 2023 dollars) on landscaping, with eight sections landscaped, plotted, and open for burials. The cemetery even dammed Dugway Brook in places to create ponds. Plots at Lake View Cemetery in its first three years sold for half the average price of plots in established cemeteries. Plot sales generated little income initially. At

7080-511: The cemetery to create a financial crisis which caused bond interest to cease and bond prices to collapse, and then turn around and offer to buy those bonds back at the new low price. A recession hit the U.S. economy in 1890 followed by a brief depression in 1891, further depressing lot sales. By 1892, the grounds at Lake View Cemetery were seriously neglected. Sections ready for sale were unmown, weeds and other plants grew wild, and erosion and drought had left some areas bare of vegetation. Only

7198-432: The cemetery's acreage totalled 304 acres (123 ha) in 1876. Euclid Avenue was paved up to Lake View Cemeteryn in 1874. Lake View Cemetery purchased another 100 acres (40 ha) of land in 1875, issuing $ 150,000 ($ 4.16 million in 2023 dollars) in 6 percent annual interest bonds to pay for it. By 1877, The Plain Dealer estimated, more than $ 100,000 ($ 2.86 million in 2023 dollars) in funerary monuments dotted

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7316-488: The cemetery's cash flow, and by the end of 1889 it could not pay any interest in cash. Income was so negatively impacted by the exchange of bonds for lots that cemetery trustees admitted on June 1, 1889, that no cash interest would be paid at the end of the year; all interest would be paid in scrip. The trustees also warned that scrip might not be issued unless bondholders agreed to the cemetery's financial rescue plan. Angry bondholders began to threaten lawsuits to personally hold

7434-406: The cemetery, the newspaper noted that the most elaborate of these was the tomb being erected by H.J. Wilcox. Wilcox had visited Italy , where he employed artisans to design a vault that mimicked the look of an Italian Renaissance chapel. With lots selling quickly, cemetery officials used the revenue to redeem debt. By 1878, only $ 10,000 of the 1871 bond issue remained unredeemed, and just $ 30,000 of

7552-470: The cemetery. The cemetery staff believed that only about $ 4,000 ($ 100,000 in 2023 dollars) a year was needed to maintain the cemetery. Interest on the 1875 bond issue (of which only $ 35,000 was outstanding) amounted to $ 2,100 a year ($ 100,000 in 2023 dollars), while interest on the refunding bonds would amount to $ 16,000 a year ($ 500,000 in 2023 dollars). About half the outstanding bondholders approved of Lake View's plan, but it needed 90 percent to do so before

7670-509: The close of the 1872–1873 fiscal year, the cemetery was technically bankrupt, with more debt (about $ 198,000 [$ 5.04 million in 2023 dollars]) than assets. Plot sales were brisk, however, and the cemetery was proving extremely popular with local residents. As much as 40 percent of all burials at Lake View Cemetery between 1870 and 1873 were removals from Woodland Cemetery. Another 21.8 acres (8.8 ha) of land were purchased in August 1873, and

7788-1023: The co-founder and largest stockholder in Standard Oil and one of the wealthiest men in the United States, began the erection of a funerary monument in Lake View Cemetery. Some time before 1882, Rockfeller purchased a 17,000-square-foot (1,600 m) family plot on one of the cemetery's highest points, slightly northeast of the Garfield Memorial. Three people were buried in the John D. Rockefeller plot. Two of them were children of Frank Rockefeller , John's brother. They were William Scofield Rockefeller (81 days old, died on March 17, 1878) and Myra Rockefeller, 2 years and 81 days old, died on August 23, 1886). Rockefeller's mother, Eliza Rockefeller, died on March 28, 1889, in New York City. She

7906-616: The crypt level, closed off by marble doors. Ground for the new chapel was broken on February 19, 1898. The hillside was excavated 25 feet (7.6 m) down to bedrock , and the foundations and crypt level finished in late December 1898. Completing the interior took much longer than expected, and the chapel was not finished until 1901. The cost was variously reported to be $ 350,000 ($ 12.8 million in 2023 dollars), $ 150,000 ($ 5.49 million in 2023 dollars), $ 140,000 ($ 5.13 million in 2023 dollars), and "more than $ 100,000" ($ 3.66 million in 2023 dollars). In 1898, John D. Rockefeller ,

8024-399: The debt consumed $ 23,031 a year ($ 800,000 in 2023 dollars). Maintenance of the few open sections cost another $ 9,676 ($ 300,000 in 2023 dollars) a year, yet income was only $ 23,875 ($ 800,000 in 2023 dollars) a year on average. The cemetery superintendent had spent $ 150,000 to $ 200,000 ($ 5.09 million to $ 6.78 million in 2023 dollars) on improvements, a figure officials privately admitted

8142-463: The design for the chapel and commissioned Hubbell & Benes to finalize the blueprints. The association did not formally accept the new chapel until the plans were done. The site chosen for the chapel was between two existing lakes, diagonally across a road from the existing public vault. The exterior walls were clad in near-white Barre granite from Barre, Vermont . The interior decor was designed and manufactured by Tiffany & Co. The commission

8260-466: The economist James Yunker, the ethical case for market socialism is that because passive property income requires no mental or physical exertion on the part of the recipient, and its appropriation by a small group of private owners is the source of the vast inequalities in contemporary capitalism, social ownership in a market economy would resolve the major cause of social inequality and its accompanying social ills. Weyl and Posner argue that private property

8378-418: The erection of a crematorium in 1900, but no action was taken on the plan. In 1896, Lake View Cemetery's entrance was unprepossessing. Located next to Mayfield Road about 200 feet (61 m) southwest of the current entrance, it consisted of a small wooden gate, a two-room office in a wooden shack just inside the gate, and a small wood-frame home for the superintendent adjacent to the office. Henry R. Hatch

8496-456: The exchange of bonds for lots would impact revenues, cemetery officials believed that only $ 7,000 to $ 8,000 in bonds would be redeemed. The initial plan to save Lake View Cemetery, proposed by association officials, paid bondholders 3 percent of interest due in cash and the remainder in scrip . The cemetery would also create a sinking fund to redeem scrip. To generate revenue, the cost of lots would be halved to just 25 cents ($ 8 in 2023 dollars)

8614-533: The extent to which an owner will be able to exercise rights over the same. The rights to private property often come with limitations. For example, local government may enforce rules about what kind of building may be built on private land ( building code ), or whether a historical building may be demolished or not. Theft is common in many societies, and the extent to which central administration will pursue property crime varies enormously. Some forms of private property are uniquely identifiable and may be described in

8732-575: The exterior of the cemetery, 1,017 feet (310 m) of new concrete sidewalks, and extensive graveling of dirt roads. Cemetery staff were given uniforms to wear for the first time, and a marquee purchased to provide cover for funeral attendees during inclement weather. In sections with large lots intended for funerary monuments, Hatch ordered that lot corners by marked with a 6 by 6 inches (150 by 150 mm) piece of polished dark Quincy granite with lot numbers carved into each corner. Where section lots contained just two to six graves, corners were marked with

8850-444: The financial recovery plan could be implemented. The cemetery association tried and failed to get bondholder approval for its plan, and then turned for assistance to Harry A. Garfield , son of President James A. Garfield and a local attorney who represented several cemetery bondholders. Garfield felt the association's plan was needed to ensure the cemetery's financial stability, and began sending personalized and form letters to all

8968-526: The foothills of the Portage Escarpment . Dugway Brook (which bisected the site) and several small streams ran south-to-north through the area, carving out a number of ravines The Dugway Brook ravine was particularly deep, and Euclid bluestone (a bluish-colored sandstone) had once been quarried there. By late September 1869, the Lake View Association had purchased 175 acres (71 ha) of land on this ridge adjacent to Euclid Avenue. (Within

9086-411: The form of government". Smith further argued that civil government could not exist without property, as the government's main function was to define and safeguard property ownership. In the 19th century, the economist and philosopher Karl Marx (1818–1883) provided an influential analysis of the development and history of property formations and their relationship to the technical productive forces of

9204-413: The government requests that owners pay for the privilege of ownership. A property tax is an ad valorem tax on the value of a property, usually levied on real estate . The tax is levied by the governing authority of the jurisdiction in which the property is located. It may be imposed annually or at the time of a real estate transaction , such as in real estate transfer tax . Under a property-tax system,

9322-429: The government requires or performs an appraisal of the monetary value of each property, and tax is assessed in proportion to that value. The four broad types of property taxes are land , improvements to land (immovable human-made objects, such as buildings), personal property (movable human-made objects), and intangible property . The social and political context in which private property is administered will determine

9440-494: The highest point in the cemetery in June 1883 for the president's final resting place. Lake View Cemetery built a road around the memorial in early 1885, and began work on cutting a road from the Euclid Gate to the memorial site in the fall of that year. The cemetery also began work on making improvements to the landscape, water, and drainage around the site. The Garfield Memorial was dedicated on May 30, 1890. Lucretia Garfield,

9558-686: The lack of distinguishing features allows the plain to merge with the Mississippi River basin lowlands. On the Niagara Peninsula , morainic ridges interrupt the Erie Plain close to the Niagara Escarpment, as well as a few east–west flowing river valleys. The Erie Plain connects with the Mohawk Valley in the east, and provides the only natural, low-lying route north of the Gulf Coast to the North American interior from

9676-517: The land will be put to productive use and its value protected by the landowner . If the owners must pay property taxes , this forces the owners to maintain a productive output from the land to keep taxes current. Private property also attaches a monetary value to land, which can be used to trade or as collateral . Private property thus is an important part of capitalization within the economy . Socialist economists are critical of private property as socialism aims to substitute private property in

9794-749: The landscape at Lake View Cemetery. These included the highly visible obelisks and shafts over the Doan, Kelley, McDermott, Potter, and Tisdale plots; the Goodrich and Jaynes memorials; the Keynes column (topped with a funerary urn); the Jeptha Wade shaft, which was topped by an angel ; and the Hurlbut pillar topped with a weeping figure. There were also a number of monuments with well-designed, expertly carved bas-relief or freestanding sculptures. These included

9912-524: The landscape here, but human-caused drainage since 1800 has largely erased these and left highly fertile plains behind. Southeastern Michigan, however, still contains many of these distinctive hardwood forest swamps and marshy prairies. The relatively flat nature of the plain presents little inhibition to wind and the flow of weather across the plain. However, the large cities which line Lake Erie tend to create urban heat islands which can cause local instabilities. Lake Erie itself, however, tends to lessen

10030-586: The language implemented in property legislation dictates colonized peoples as unable to effectively own and utilize their land. It is suggested that personal rights are interchangeable with property rights, therefore communities that utilize communal methods of land ownership are not equally validated by private property ideals. It is also argued by critical race theorist Cheryl Harris that race and property rights have been conflated over time, with only those qualities unique to white settlement recognized legally. Indigenous use of land, focusing on common ownership,

10148-430: The legacy of natural moral theory and the concept of natural rights , which has led to the presentation of private market exchange and private property rights as "natural rights" inherent in nature. Economic liberals (defined as those who support a private sector -driven market economy) consider private property to be essential for the construction of a prosperous society. They believe private ownership of land ensures

10266-473: The major thoroughfare of Noble Road). The East Cleveland Railway opened a second set of tracks, an extension of its Cedar Avenue Line, in 1889. This line began at the company's car barn at the intersection of Euclid Avenue and Coltman Road. The line traveled south on Coltman to reach Mayfield Road, then south down Murray Hill Road to Cedar Avenue. A year after the Cedar Avenue Line extension opened,

10384-447: The means of production for social ownership or public property . Socialists generally argue that private property relations limit the potential of the productive forces in the economy when the productive activity becomes a collective activity, where the role of the capitalist becomes redundant (as a passive owner). Socialists generally favor social ownership either to eliminate the class distinctions between owners and workers and as

10502-408: The move, but were assured that the cemetery's financial problems were temporary. Bondholders representing about $ 50,000 out the bonds formed a committee in late March 1889 to seek more information about the cemetery's financial status. Quietly, the cemetery began accepting bonds as payment for lots. Usually, purchasers held few bonds, with those holding large amounts of bonds refusing to sell. Although

10620-404: The need for a new cemetery for the city of Cleveland. They believed that the city's then-preeminent burial ground, Woodland Cemetery , was too small for the growing city as well as overcrowded, ill-maintained, and not scenic enough. They issued an invitation on May 8, 1869, to about 40 of the city's other leading businessmen, asking them to meet at the end of the month to discuss the organization of

10738-486: The new office building was broken on October 21, 1897, and it was completed in April 1898. In 1896, Jeptha H. Wade II decided to fund the construction of a new receiving vault and chapel, dedicated to the memory of his grandfather, at Lake View Cemetery. Wade asked the newly founded Cleveland architectural firm of Hubbell & Benes to create a preliminary design. He was so happy with their work that he chose this concept as

10856-427: The passage of life to death. The left side mosaic became known as "The River of Life", while the other had the title "The River of Death". The chapel featured a casket pedestal in place of an altar . This pedestal could be lowered mechanically through the floor into crypt, where the receiving vault was located. The "public" portion of the crypt could hold as many as 96 coffins. Two private receiving vaults also existed on

10974-410: The phenomenon of property ownership . In arguing against supporters of absolute monarchy , John Locke conceptualized property as a "natural right" that God had not bestowed exclusively on the monarchy: the labor theory of property . This stated that property is a natural result of labor improving upon nature; and thus by labor expenditure, the laborer becomes entitled to its produce. Influenced by

11092-554: The plain broadens to about 4 to 6 miles (6.4 to 9.7 km) and is starkly defined by the Portage Escarpment, which rises in three terraces . The plain remains narrow until just west of Cleveland, where the Portage Escarpment moves to the south, and the definition between the plain and escarpment becomes much less distinct. The escarpment is broken in two places by the valleys of the Great Miami and Scioto rivers. The plain expands to 4 to 5 miles (6.4 to 8.0 km) between

11210-611: The president's widow, died on March 13, 1918, and was interred in the Garfield Memorial on March 21. Little Italy largely owes its inception to funerary monument maker Joseph Carabelli. In 1870, the 20-year-old northern Italian journeyman stonecarver emigrated to the United States. He spent 10 years in New York City, where he dressed stone and carved the statue Industry for the Federal Building and Post Office in Brooklyn . Carabelli relocated to Cleveland in 1880, establishing

11328-486: The purchase of lots, and said it would accept bonds for only one-third of the lot sale price. The cemetery also agreed to accept scrip for up to a third of a lot's cost as well. Local banker and cemetery trustee Daniel P. Eells proposed in November 1889 to form a syndicate to raise $ 200,000 ($ 6.78 million in 2023 dollars) and redeem two-thirds of all outstanding bonds at the current market price. A trustee would hold

11446-417: The redeemed bonds until January 1, 1893, paying interest on them from net cash income. The trustee would distribute the bonds on a pro rata basis on January 2, 1893. Subscribers to the redemption fund were essentially betting that the price of the bonds in 1893 would have risen more than enough to not only cover their investment but also offset the loss of income from the reduced interest payments. Eells said

11564-405: The rise of mercantilism , Locke argued that private property was antecedent to and thus independent of government. Locke distinguished between "common property", by which he meant common land , and property in consumer goods and producer-goods. His chief argument for property in land ownership was that it led to improved land management and cultivation over common land. In the 18th century, during

11682-567: The sinking funds, redemption of scrip, a fund to pay the next year's cash interest, and to pay other debts. Significant bondholder opposition to the plan began to emerge. In June 1889, the Lake View Cemetery Association paid only 3 percent of the 7 percent annual interest due in cash, the remainder in scrip. The cemetery was forced to redeem $ 11,000 ($ 400,000 in 2023 dollars) in bonds at par that month alone as payment for lots. The redemption of bonds significantly impacted

11800-460: The site for in-ground plots and mausoleums, and removing underbrush and unwanted trees. By February 1870, two sections were being laid out with a total of about 500 plots. The 300 plots in the first section went on sale on June 23, 1870, according to The Plain Dealer newspaper. The cost of a standard size in-ground grave was set at $ 4.00 ($ 96 in 2023 dollars). Larger sites for families, monuments, or mausoleums went for 20 cents ($ 5 in 2023 dollars)

11918-441: The southern district is much more aligned with shipping on Lake Erie. Settlement of Ohio largely occurred along the Erie Plain, following the natural barrier of the Portage Escarpment. In the far northwest of the state, settlement was inhibited by the poorly drained portion of the Erie Plain known as the Great Black Swamp . This area was heavily forested, but nearly all of this primeval forest (representing half of Ohio's woodlands)

12036-524: The streetcar firm's funeral car could be used to transport caskets and funeral parties to the cemetery. As of 1888, Lake View Cemetery had 300 acres (120 ha) of land. About 70 acres (28 ha) had been laid out, but only half had been sold. The cemetery association had spent $ 800,000 ($ 27.1 million in 2023 dollars) buying land and improving it. By the end of 1888, about 14 percent of Lake View's 300 acres (120 ha) had been sold, bringing in $ 406,000 ($ 15.6 million in 2023 dollars). The price of

12154-465: The subject is called property law . The enforcement of property law concerning private property is a matter of public expense. Defence of property is a common method of justification used by defendants who argue that they should not be held liable for any loss and injury that they have caused because they were acting to protect their property . Courts have generally ruled that the use of force may be acceptable. In many political systems,

12272-568: The summer of 1882 to enter the grounds in order to control the crowds and maintain a suitable atmosphere for mourning. Relic hunters were so willing to vandalize the Scofield tomb (they even ripped up the grass around it) that a wire fence had to be erected to keep them away. In 1891, the cemetery barred all non-lotholding visitors from the cemetery on Sundays unless they had a pass. With only about 230 Sunday passes available, hundreds of people were turned away. The Garfield Memorial Committee selected

12390-457: The trustees responsible for the payment of interest. The bonds-for-lots exchange program proved financially disastrous. Lake View sold lots worth $ 12,000 in September 1889 but received only $ 1,000 in cash as the remainder was paid in bonds. In the same month, maintenance expenses amounted to $ 5,000. At the beginning of October 1889, the association stopped accepting the full amount of bonds for

12508-446: The validity of certain aspects of Marxist analysis, the majority of socialists are sympathetic to Marx's views on exploitation and alienation. Socialists critique the private appropriation of property income because such income does not correspond to a return on any productive activity and is generated by the working class , it represents exploitation. The property-owning (capitalist) class lives off passive property income produced by

12626-472: The wish to be buried at Lake View Cemetery, and the cemetery offered a burial site free of charge to his widow, Lucretia Garfield . Mrs. Garfield agreed to bury her husband at Lake View. Garfield was temporarily interred in the cemetery's public vault on September 26, 1881, then transferred on October 22 to an empty mausoleum owned and designed by noted local architect Levi Scofield . Even before Garfield's funeral, plans were laid by his friends and admirers for

12744-424: Was bridged in November 1870, and in December the association purchased an unspecified number of acres that doubled the length of its frontage on Euclid Avenue. The cemetery sold $ 400,000 ($ 10.2 million in 2023 dollars) in bonds in 1871 to pay for more improvements. To secure the bonds, the cemetery pledged all but sold lots, roads, and water features. By August 1871, six sections of the cemetery were laid out and

12862-470: Was buried in the Rockefeller plot at Lake View on March 30. Private property Private property is foundational to capitalism , an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit . As a legal concept, private property is defined and enforced by a country's political system . The first evidence of private property may date back to

12980-401: Was clear-cut by 1900. Although the Erie Plain was Ohio's richest farmland, it was also its least forested by the start of the 20th century. Viticulture on the Erie Plain in Ohio has been extensive, both due to the fertile soil and the temperate climate. Lake Erie essentially occupies a depression in the middle of the Erie Plain, with the plain tilted toward the lake. The watershed in Ohio

13098-491: Was considered so important that Louis Comfort Tiffany personally contacted Hubbell & Benes to win the job. The chapel featured a massive stained glass window at the rear and mosaics on each side wall. The stained glass window, titled Resurrection or Flight of the Soul , was designed by Tiffany artisan Agnes Northrop. Tiffany artist Frederick Wilson designed the wall mosaics. The Favrile glass and gold tile mosaics depicted

13216-429: Was elected Lake View's president in June 1896. Lake View was in dilapidated condition, with nearly all monuments and headstones sinking or out of plumb. The cemetery's financial problems had hindered its development for years now, and Hatch implemented new, modern financial and recordkeeping systems to further improve accounting and cash flow. A new system of gravedigging orders was also implemented, and cemetery engineering

13334-470: Was formed to choose a site for the new cemetery. Its members consisted of Holden, Payne, Perkins, Sherman, and J.C. Buell (a local banking executive). The committee wanted a location on the lake shore, but found nothing suitable. While traveling on Euclid Avenue, Holden came upon the cemetery site by chance. The area was known as "Smith Run". Beginning on the Erie Plain in the northwest, the site rose into

13452-471: Was improved. Lake View had long laid out lots according to the contour of the ground. Steep slopes were avoided, and roads with storm drains laid out before a section was plotted. The new engineering standards required that all sections have a 3-foot (0.91 m) wide infrastructure border around them. The outermost tier of graves was intended for monuments, and lots were 12 feet (3.7 m) deep. All other tiers had lots just 9 feet (2.7 m) in length, with

13570-426: Was largely inhabited by Italian immigrants who worked as groundskeepers at Lake View or who worked in the funeral monument companies making headstones or memorials for placement in the cemetery. 1892 also saw the city of Cleveland annex Little Italy. The annexation included all of Lake View Cemetery west of a line running from the end of Brightwood Avenue south to Mayfield Road. Lake View, Collamer & Euclid Railway,

13688-569: Was named president, and Liberty E. Holden (owner of The Plain Dealer newspaper) the association clerk. The group resolved to build a garden cemetery in the style of Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston , Massachusetts , or Spring Grove Cemetery in Cincinnati , Ohio, and Judge Sherman chose the name: Lake View Cemetery. Lake View was "non-sectarian" and open to all, which (in the 19th century) meant that its intended clientele were Protestant . The group sold 7 percent annual interest bonds in

13806-412: Was paid in scrip. Interest due after 1889 would be paid 3 percent in cash, 4 percent in scrip. The cemetery agreed to pay 6 percent annual interest on scrip, to devote all income first to maintaining the cemetery and second to paying cash interest, and to create a second sinking fund dedicated to redeeming bonds at maturity. Excess income (after expenditures for maintenance and cash interest) would go toward

13924-488: Was too much. Lot sales fell below expectations, and the cemetery had never established a reserve fund to see the organization through difficult economic times. Cemetery trustees were aware of the worsening deficit many years earlier, and believed the cemetery should stop paying interest on its bonds to bring its finances back in order. This step was not taken because the trustees believed many bondholders relied on interest for income. The cemetery began quietly borrowing money from

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