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137-661: The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness . The Earth has a vast range of landscapes including the icy landscapes of polar regions , mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands , and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying

274-508: A folly , a picturesque recreation of an Ionic temple set in a theatre of trees. Between 1733 and 1736, he redesigned the garden, adding lawns sloping down to the edge of the river and a small cascade. For the first time the form of a garden was inspired not by architecture, but by an idealized version of nature. Rousham House in Oxfordshire is considered by some as the most accomplished and significant of William Kent's work. The patron

411-473: A rotunda (1720–21) designed by Vanbrugh. In the 1730s, William Kent and James Gibbs were appointed to work with Bridgeman, who died in 1738. Kent remade the lake in a more natural shape, and created a new kind of garden, which took visitors on a tour of picturesque landscapes. It eventually included a Palladian bridge (1738); a Temple of Venus (1731) in the form of a Palladian villa; a Temple of Ancient Virtues (1737), with statues of famous Greeks and Romans;

548-639: A Temple of British Worthies (1734–1735), with statues of British heroes; and a Temple of Modern Virtues, which was deliberately left in ruins, which contained a headless statue of Robert Walpole , Cobham's political rival. The garden attracted visitors from all over Europe, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau . It became the inspiration for landscape gardens in Britain and on the Continent. Stourhead , in Wiltshire (1741–1780), created by banker Henry Hoare ,

685-413: A broader sense is used, particularly in medical fields such as neurology . An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude . Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field. A topographic study may be made for

822-624: A classic and much-imitated status within the Chinese tradition. Both the Roman and Chinese traditions typically show grand panoramas of imaginary landscapes, generally backed with a range of spectacular mountains – in China often with waterfalls and in Rome often including sea, lakes or rivers. These were frequently used to bridge the gap between a foreground scene with figures and a distant panoramic vista,

959-648: A cultural group. Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result. A cultural landscape, as defined by the World Heritage Committee , is the "cultural properties [that] represent the combined works of nature and of man." The World Heritage Committee identifies three categories of cultural landscape, ranging from (i) those landscapes most deliberately 'shaped' by people, through (ii) full range of 'combined' works, to (iii) those least evidently 'shaped' by people (yet highly valued). The three categories extracted from

1096-567: A distant view from above of the impressive ruins of Fountains Abbey . At Stowe, Capability Brown followed the new fashion between 1740 and 1753 by adding a new section to the park, called Hawkwelle Hill or the Gothic promenade, with a Gothic revival building. Walpole had decided in 1751 "to go Gothic", as he put it in a letter, and thereafter was a leading propagandist for the style, with his own house, Strawberry Hill in Twickenham , still

1233-486: A few miles above Tintern Abbey is an obvious example. More recently, Matthew Arnold 's " The Scholar Gipsy " (1853) praises the Oxfordshire countryside, and W. H. Auden 's " In Praise of Limestone " (1948) uses a limestone landscape as an allegory. Subgenres of topographical poetry include the country house poem , written in 17th-century England to compliment a wealthy patron, and the prospect poem , describing

1370-589: A kilometre-wide scale; instead, he defines 'landscape'—regardless of scale—as "the template on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes". Some define 'landscape' as an area containing two or more ecosystems in close proximity. The discipline of landscape science has been described as "bring[ing] landscape ecology and urban ecology together with other disciplines and cross-disciplinary fields to identify patterns and understand social-ecological processes influencing landscape change". A 2000 paper entitled "Geography and landscape science" states that "The whole of

1507-528: A landscape is a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout, whereby they list woods, meadows, marshes and villages as examples of a landscape's ecosystems, and state that a landscape is an area at least a few kilometres wide. John A. Wiens opposes the traditional view expounded by Carl Troll , Isaak S. Zonneveld, Zev Naveh, Richard T. T. Forman/Michel Godron and others that landscapes are arenas in which humans interact with their environments on

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1644-626: A landscape or place. John Denham 's 1642 poem "Cooper's Hill" established the genre, which peaked in popularity in 18th-century England. Examples of topographical verse date, however, to the Late Classical period, and can be found throughout the Medieval era and during the Renaissance . Though the earliest examples come mostly from continental Europe, the topographical poetry in the tradition originating with Denham concerns itself with

1781-496: A landscape or scenery, topographical poetry often, at least implicitly, addresses a political issue or the meaning of nationality in some way. The description of the landscape therefore becomes a poetic vehicle for a political message. For example, in John Denham's "Cooper's Hill", the speaker discusses the merits of the recently executed Charles I . The Vision on Mount Snowdon .................................and on

1918-456: A landscape that brings together multiple stakeholders, who collaborate to integrate policy and practice for their different land use objectives, with the purpose of achieving sustainable landscapes. It recognises that, for example, one river basin can supply water for towns and agriculture, timber and food crops for smallholders and industry, and habitat for biodiversity; the way in which each one of these sectors pursues its goals can have impacts on

2055-405: A landscape was Joseph Addison in 1712. The term landscape architecture was invented by Gilbert Laing Meason in 1828 and was first used as a professional title by Frederick Law Olmsted in 1863. During the latter 19th century, the term landscape architect became used by professional people who designed landscapes. Frederick Law Olmsted used the term 'landscape architecture' as a profession for

2192-420: A mental construct but as an objectively given 'organic entity', a harmonic individuum of space . Ernst Neef defines landscapes as sections within the uninterrupted earth-wide interconnection of geofactors which are defined as such on the basis of their uniformity in terms of a specific land use, and are thus defined in an anthropocentric and relativistic way. According to Richard Forman and Michael Godron ,

2329-589: A narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain , the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms ; this is also known as geomorphometry . In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form ( DEM ). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of cartographic relief depiction techniques, including contour lines , hypsometric tints , and relief shading . The term topography originated in ancient Greece and continued in ancient Rome , as

2466-483: A number of Romantic elements. Always present is a pond or small lake with a pier or bridge. Overlooking the pond is a round or hexagonal pavilion , often in the shape of a monopteros , a Roman temple. Sometimes the park also has a "Chinese" pavilion . Other elements include a grotto and imitation ruins . A second style of English garden, which became popular during the 20th century in France and northern Europe,

2603-476: A parenthesis; there I end it with a period and start on another theme." Brown designed 170 gardens. The most important were: Humphry Repton (21 April 1752 – 24 March 1818) was the last great English landscape designer of the eighteenth century, often regarded as the successor to Capability Brown. Repton hit upon the idea of becoming a "landscape gardener" (a term he himself coined) after failing at various ventures and, sensing an opportunity after Brown's death,

2740-575: A persistent problem for landscape artists. A major contrast between landscape painting in the West and East Asia has been that while in the West until the 19th century it occupied a low position in the accepted hierarchy of genres , in East Asia the classic Chinese mountain-water ink painting was traditionally the most prestigious form of visual art. However, in the West, history painting came to require an extensive landscape background where appropriate, so

2877-511: A reaction against urbanism and industrialisation and a new emphasis on the beauty and value of nature and landscape. However, it was also a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment , as well a reaction against the scientific rationalisation of nature. The poet William Wordsworth was a major contributor to the literature of landscape, as was his contemporary poet and novelist Walter Scott . Scott's influence

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3014-486: A remote sensing technique that uses a laser instead of radio waves, has increasingly been employed for complex mapping needs such as charting canopies and monitoring glaciers. Terrain is commonly modelled either using vector ( triangulated irregular network or TIN) or gridded ( raster image ) mathematical models. In the most applications in environmental sciences , land surface is represented and modelled using gridded models. In civil engineering and entertainment businesses,

3151-731: A revolt against the architectural garden and drew inspiration from landscape paintings by Salvator Rosa , Claude Lorrain , and Nicolas Poussin , as well as from the classic Chinese gardens of the East, which had recently been described by European travellers and were realized in the Anglo-Chinese garden. The English garden usually included a lake, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins , bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. The work of Lancelot "Capability" Brown

3288-467: A series of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll of landscape paintings. The English landscape garden , also called English landscape park or simply the 'English garden', is a style of parkland garden intended to look as though it might be a natural landscape, although it may be very extensively re-arranged. It emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe, replacing

3425-419: A series of views and tableaux decorated with allegorical statues of Apollo, a wounded gladiator, a lion attacking a horse, and other subjects. He placed eyecatchers , pieces of classical architecture, to decorate the landscape, and made use of the ha-ha , a concealed ditch that kept grazing animals out of the garden while giving an uninterrupted vista from within. Finally, he added cascades modelled on those of

3562-576: A sloping "Alpine Valley" of conifers , as one of the best of the new style of "forest or savage gardens". This was a style of woodland aiming at the sublime , a newly-fashionable concept in literature and the arts, or at the least to be picturesque , another new term. It really required steep slopes, even if not very high, along which paths could be made revealing dramatic views, by which contemporary viewers who had read Gothic novels like Walpole's The Castle of Otranto (1764) were very ready to be impressed. The appropriate style of garden buildings

3699-585: A strong sense of place, but the emphasis is on individual plant forms and human and animal figures rather than the overall landscape setting. For a coherent depiction of a whole landscape, some rough system of perspective, or scaling for distance, is needed, and this seems from literary evidence to have first been developed in Ancient Greece in the Hellenistic period, although no large-scale examples survive. More ancient Roman landscapes survive, from

3836-420: A surface or extract land surface objects. The contour data or any other sampled elevation datasets are not a DLSM. A DLSM implies that elevation is available continuously at each location in the study area, i.e. that the map represents a complete surface. Digital Land Surface Models should not be confused with Digital Surface Models, which can be surfaces of the canopy, buildings and similar objects. For example, in

3973-405: A variety of reasons: military planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information about terrain and surface features is essential for the planning and construction of any major civil engineering , public works , or reclamation projects. There are a variety of approaches to studying topography. Which method(s) to use depends on

4110-413: Is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area. Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features and more general land-cover features. Certainly they have become more and more a part of geovisualization , whether maps or GIS systems. False-color and non-visible spectra imaging can also help determine

4247-469: Is a style of " landscape " garden which emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe , replacing the more formal, symmetrical French formal garden which had emerged in the 17th century as the principal gardening style of Europe. The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. Created and pioneered by William Kent and others, the "informal" garden style originated as

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4384-463: Is annexed, a Description of their Temples, Houses, Gardens, &c. published in 1757. In 1761 he built the Great Pagoda , London, as part of Kew Gardens , a park with gardens and architecture symbolizing all parts of the world and all architectural styles. Thereafter Chinese pagodas began to appear in other English gardens, then in France and elsewhere on the continent. French observers coined

4521-435: Is based on the style of the late 19th-century English cottage garden , with abundant mixed planting of flowers, intended to appear largely unplanned. Topographic Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces . The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and

4658-427: Is causing a loss of cultural identity, as many modern buildings share similar palettes, diluting local characteristics. Researchers have proposed more unified cityscape approaches to address these color landscape issues and help cities preserve their distinctive identities and create vibrant, emotionally engaging urban environments. The word landscape ( landscipe or landscaef ) arrived in England —and therefore into

4795-524: Is characteristically on a smaller scale; many are in or on the edge of cities, rather than in the middle of the countryside. Such gardens usually lack the sweeping vistas of gently rolling ground and water, which in England tend to be set against a woodland background with clumps of trees and outlier groves. Instead, they are often more densely studded with "eye-catchers", such as grottoes , temples , tea-houses , belvederes , pavilions , sham ruins , bridges, and statues. The name English garden – not used in

4932-527: Is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief , but also natural , artificial, and cultural features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings. In the United States, topography often means specifically relief , even though the USGS topographic maps record not just elevation contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on. Topography in

5069-460: Is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface, rather than with identifiable surface features. The digital elevation model (DEM) is a raster -based digital dataset of the topography ( hypsometry and/or bathymetry ) of all or part of the Earth (or a telluric planet ). The pixels of the dataset are each assigned an elevation value, and a header portion of the dataset defines

5206-621: Is found in Australian aboriginal myths (also known as Dreamtime or Dreaming stories, songlines , or Aboriginal oral literature ), the stories traditionally performed by Aboriginal peoples within each of the language groups across Australia. All such myths variously tell significant truths within each Aboriginal group's local landscape . They effectively layer the whole of the Australian continent's topography with cultural nuance and deeper meaning, and empower selected audiences with

5343-525: Is raw and uninterpreted. It may contain holes (due to cloud cover for example) or inconsistencies (due to the timing of specific image captures). Most modern topographic mapping includes a large component of remotely sensed data in its compilation process. In its contemporary definition, topographic mapping shows relief. In the United States, USGS topographic maps show relief using contour lines . The USGS calls maps based on topographic surveys, but without contours, "planimetric maps." These maps show not only

5480-421: Is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy. Landscape is a central concept in landscape ecology. It is, however, defined in quite different ways. For example: Carl Troll conceives of landscape not as

5617-422: Is to something else). Topography has been applied to different science fields. In neuroscience , the neuroimaging discipline uses techniques such as EEG topography for brain mapping . In ophthalmology , corneal topography is used as a technique for mapping the surface curvature of the cornea . In tissue engineering , atomic force microscopy is used to map nanotopography . In human anatomy , topography

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5754-658: The English country house , and many examples in the United Kingdom are popular visitor attractions today. The predecessors of the landscape garden in England were the great parks created by Sir John Vanbrugh (1664–1726) and Nicholas Hawksmoor at Castle Howard (1699–1712), Blenheim Palace (1705–1722), and the Claremont Landscape Garden at Claremont House (1715–1727). These parks featured vast lawns, woods, and pieces of architecture, such as

5891-480: The English language —after the fifth century, following the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons ; these terms referred to a system of human-made spaces on the land. The term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery. Land (a word from Germanic origin) may be taken in its sense of something to which people belong (as in England being

6028-634: The Essonne department, (1784–1786). Even at Versailles, the home of the most classical of all French gardens, a small English landscape park with a Roman temple was built and a mock village, the Hameau de la Reine (1783–1789), was created for Marie Antoinette . The new style also spread to Germany. The central English Grounds of Wörlitz , in the Principality of Anhalt , was laid out between 1769 and 1773 by Leopold III, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau , based on

6165-616: The United Kingdom , where "landscape garden" serves – differentiates it from the formal Baroque design of the garden à la française . One of the best-known English gardens in Europe is the Englischer Garten in Munich . The dominant style was revised in the early 19th century to include more " gardenesque " features, including shrubberies with gravelled walks, tree plantations to satisfy botanical curiosity, and, most notably,

6302-561: The Urlandschaft (transl. original landscape) or landscape that existed before major human induced changes and the Kulturlandschaft (transl. 'cultural landscape') a landscape created by human culture. The major task of geography was to trace the changes in these two landscapes. It was Carl O. Sauer , a human geographer , who was probably the most influential in promoting and developing the idea of cultural landscapes. Sauer

6439-741: The fine arts , architecture , industrial design , geology and the earth sciences , environmental psychology , geography , and ecology . The activities of a landscape architect can range from the creation of public parks and parkways to site planning for campuses and corporate office parks, from the design of residential estates to the design of civil infrastructure and the management of large wilderness areas or reclamation of degraded landscapes such as mines or landfills . Landscape architects work on all types of structures and external space – large or small, urban , suburban and rural , and with "hard" (built) and "soft" (planted) materials, while paying attention to ecological sustainability . For

6576-651: The "Topographical Bureau of the Army", formed during the War of 1812 , which became the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1838. After the work of national mapping was assumed by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1878, the term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard. In the 20th century, the term topography started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where mapping in

6713-495: The 'meagre genius of the bare and bald', criticizing Brown's smooth, serpentine curves as bland and unnatural and championing rugged and intricate designs, composed according to ' picturesque theory' that designed landscapes should be composed like landscape paintings, with a foreground, a middle ground and a background. Early in his career, Repton defended Brown's reputation during the 'picturesque controversy'. However, as his career progressed Repton came to apply picturesque theory to

6850-626: The 16th through the 20th centuries—from Edmund Spenser to Sylvia Plath —correspondent to each type, from "Walks and Surveys", to "Mountains, Hills, and the View from Above", to "Violation of Nature and the Landscape", to "Spirits and Ghosts." Common aesthetic registers of which topographical poetry makes use include pastoral imagery, the sublime , and the picturesque , which include images of rivers, ruins, moonlight, birdsong, and clouds, peasants, mountains, caves, and waterscapes. Though describing

6987-463: The 1st century BCE onwards, especially frescos of landscapes decorating rooms that have been preserved at archaeological sites of Pompeii , Herculaneum and elsewhere, and mosaics . The Chinese ink painting tradition of shan shui ("mountain-water"), or "pure" landscape, in which the only sign of human life is usually a sage, or a glimpse of his hut, uses sophisticated landscape backgrounds to figure subjects, and landscape art of this period retains

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7124-403: The Anglo-Chinese garden, and the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778). The English garden usually included a lake, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. The work of Lancelot "Capability" Brown and Humphry Repton

7261-549: The Committee's Operational Guidelines, are as follows: The Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which has evolved over three thousand years. It includes both the vast gardens of the Chinese emperors and members of the Imperial Family, built for pleasure and to impress, and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, poets, former government officials, soldiers and merchants, made for reflection and escape from

7398-604: The Continental U.S., for example), the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as USGS DEM data. This data must often be "cleaned" to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it still forms a valuable set of information for large-scale analysis. The original American topographic surveys (or the British "Ordnance" surveys) involved not only recording of relief, but identification of landmark features and vegetative land cover. Remote sensing

7535-550: The English garden was invented by landscape designers William Kent and Charles Bridgeman , working for wealthy patrons, including Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham ; Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington ; and banker Henry Hoare . These men had large country estates, were members of the anti-royalist Whig Party, had classical educations, were patrons of the arts, and had taken the Grand Tour to Italy, where they had seen

7672-425: The English landscape found in the works of John Constable , J. M. W. Turner and Samuel Palmer . However all these had difficulty establishing themselves in the contemporary art market, which still preferred history paintings and portraits. In Europe, as John Ruskin said, and Sir Kenneth Clark confirmed, landscape painting was the "chief artistic creation of the nineteenth century", and "the dominant art", with

7809-583: The Great adapted the new style in the park of her palace at Tsarskoe Selo , complete with a mock Chinese village and a Palladian bridge , modeled after that at Wilton House . A much larger park was created for her son Paul in the neighbouring estate of Pavlovsk . The Monrepos Park is sited on the rocky island of Linnasaari in the Vyborg Bay and is noted for its glacially deposited boulders and granite rocks. The continental European "English garden"

7946-570: The Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757) was also an influential text, as was Longinus ' On the Sublime (early A.D., Greece), which was translated into English from the French in 1739. From the 18th century, a taste for the sublime in the natural landscape emerged alongside the idea of the sublime in language; that is elevated rhetoric or speech. A topographical poem that influenced

8083-552: The Palladian architecture of the houses he built. Charles Bridgeman (1690–1738) was the son of a gardener and an experienced horticulturist, who became the Royal Gardener for Queen Anne and Prince George of Denmark , responsible for tending and redesigning the royal gardens at Windsor , Kensington Palace , Hampton Court , St. James's Park and Hyde Park . He collaborated with Kent on several major gardens, providing

8220-569: The Roman ruins and Italian landscapes they reproduced in their gardens. William Kent (1685–1748) was an architect, painter and furniture designer who introduced Palladian -style architecture to England. Kent's inspiration came from Palladio 's buildings in the Veneto and the landscapes and ruins around Rome – he lived in Italy from 1709 to 1719, and brought back many drawings of antique architecture and landscapes. His gardens were designed to complement

8357-513: The Romantics, was James Thomson 's The Seasons (1726–30). The changing landscape, brought about by the industrial and agricultural revolutions , with the expansion of the city and depopulation of the countryside, was another influences on the growth of the Romantic movement in Britain. The poor condition of workers, the new class conflicts, and the pollution of the environment all led to

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8494-458: The accumulated wisdom and knowledge of Australian Aboriginal ancestors back to time immemorial . In the West pastoral poetry represent the earliest form of landscape literature, though this literary genre presents an idealized landscape peopled by shepherds and shepherdesses, and creates "an image of a peaceful uncorrupted existence; a kind of prelapsarian world". The pastoral has its origins in

8631-669: The area of coverage, the units each pixel covers, and the units of elevation (and the zero-point). DEMs may be derived from existing paper maps and survey data, or they may be generated from new satellite or other remotely sensed radar or sonar data. A geographic information system (GIS) can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something

8768-455: The basis for much derived topographic work. Digital Elevation Models, for example, have often been created not from new remote sensing data but from existing paper topographic maps. Many government and private publishers use the artwork (especially the contour lines) from existing topographic map sheets as the basis for their own specialized or updated topographic maps. Topographic mapping should not be confused with geologic mapping . The latter

8905-399: The botanical expertise which allowed Kent to realize his architectural visions. Kent created one of the first true English landscape gardens at Chiswick House for Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington . The first gardens that he laid out between 1724 and 1733 had many formal elements of a garden à la française , including alleys forming a patte d'oie and canals, but they also featured

9042-747: The case of surface models produces using the lidar technology, one can have several surfaces – starting from the top of the canopy to the actual solid earth. The difference between the two surface models can then be used to derive volumetric measures (height of trees etc.). Topographic survey information is historically based upon the notes of surveyors. They may derive naming and cultural information from other local sources (for example, boundary delineation may be derived from local cadastral mapping). While of historical interest, these field notes inherently include errors and contradictions that later stages in map production resolve. As with field notes, remote sensing data (aerial and satellite photography, for example),

9179-465: The classical mausoleum designed by Hawksmoor at Castle Howard. At the centre of the composition was the house, behind which were formal and symmetrical gardens in the style of the garden à la française , with ornate carpets of floral designs and walls of hedges, decorated with statues and fountains. These gardens, modelled after the gardens of Versailles , were designed to impress visitors with their size and grandeur. The new style that became known as

9316-454: The classics, and many of the various types of topographical verse, such as river, ruin, or hilltop poems were established by the early 17th century. Alexander Pope 's "Windsor Forest" (1713) and John Dyer 's " Grongar Hill ' (1762) are two other familiar examples. George Crabbe , the Suffolk regional poet, also wrote topographical poems, as did William Wordsworth , of which Lines written

9453-414: The common points are identified on each image . A line of sight (or ray ) can be built from the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of its rays ( triangulation ) which determines the relative three-dimensional position of the point. Known control points can be used to give these relative positions absolute values. More sophisticated algorithms can exploit other information on

9590-419: The construction of the first Chinese-style building in an English garden, in the garden of Stowe House , at a time when chinoiserie was popular in most forms of the decorative arts across Europe. The style became even more popular thanks to William Chambers (1723–1796), who lived in China from 1745 to 1747, and wrote a book, Designs of Chinese Buildings, Furniture, Dresses, Machines, and Utensils. To which

9727-454: The contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water, forest cover , built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest. While not officially "topographic" maps, the national surveys of other nations share many of the same features, and so they are often called "topographic maps." Existing topographic survey maps, because of their comprehensive and encyclopedic coverage, form

9864-520: The detailed description of a place. The word comes from the Greek τόπος ( topos , "place") and -γραφία ( -graphia , "writing"). In classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places, what is now largely called ' local history '. In Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense. Detailed military surveys in Britain (beginning in

10001-620: The development of extremely subtle realist techniques for depicting light and weather. The popularity of landscapes in the Netherlands was in part a reflection of the virtual disappearance of religious painting in a Calvinist society, and the decline of religious painting in the 18th and 19th centuries all over Europe combined with Romanticism to give landscapes a much greater and more prestigious place in 19th-century art than they had assumed before. In England, landscapes had initially been mostly backgrounds to portraits, typically suggesting

10138-618: The disciplines involved in landscape research will be referred to as landscape science, although this term was used first in 1885 by the geographers Oppel and Troll". A 2013 guest editorial defines landscape science as "research that seeks to understand the relationship between people and their environment, with a focus on land use change and data pertaining to land resources at the landscape scale". The Great Soviet Encyclopedia of 1979 defines landscape science as "the branch of physical geography that deals with natural territorial complexes (or geographic complexes, geosystems) as structural parts of

10275-434: The earth's geographic mantle" and states that "The basis of landscape science is the theory that the geographic landscape is the primary element in the physicogeo-graphical differentiation of the earth. Landscape science deals with the origin, structure, and dynamics of landscapes, the laws of the development and arrangement of landscapes, and the transformation of landscapes by the economic activity of man.", and asserts that it

10412-516: The end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, French noblemen were able to voyage to England and see the gardens for themselves, and the style began to be adapted in French gardens. The new style also had the advantage of requiring fewer gardeners, and was easier to maintain, than the French garden. One of the first English gardens on the continent was at Ermenonville , in France, built by marquis René Louis de Girardin from 1763 to 1776 and based on

10549-576: The eye and create beautiful compositions, with an understatement criticizing the formal compositions of the gardens at the Palace of Versailles of Louis XIV of France . His observations on the Chinese garden were cited by the essayist Joseph Addison in an essay in 1712, who used them to attack the English gardeners who, instead of imitating nature, tried to make their gardens in the French style, as far from nature as possible. The novelty and exoticism of Chinese art and architecture in Europe led in 1738 to

10686-413: The field. The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of surface processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence , and shape the coastal geography . Surface processes comprise the action of water , wind , ice , fire , and living things on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form soils and alter material properties,

10823-698: The first great poet associated with the Fields and Gardens poetry genre. Many landscape photographs show little or no human activity and are created in the pursuit of a pure, unsullied depiction of nature devoid of human influence, instead featuring subjects such as strongly defined landforms, weather, and ambient light. As with most forms of art, the definition of a landscape photograph is broad, and may include urban settings, industrial areas, and nature photography . Notable landscape photographers include Ansel Adams , Galen Rowell , Edward Weston , Ben Heine , Mark Gray and Fred Judge . The earliest forms of art around

10960-495: The first time when designing Central Park , New York City , US. Here the combination of traditional landscape gardening and the emerging field of city planning gave landscape architecture its unique focus. This use of the term landscape architect became established after Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and others founded the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) in 1899. Possibly the earliest landscape literature

11097-485: The first topographic maps was begun in France by Giovanni Domenico Cassini , the great Italian astronomer. Even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances, the direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or GIS -based. In areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program (most of Europe and

11234-589: The focus of the Sustainable Development Goals . Integrated landscape management is increasingly taken up at the national, local and international level, for example the UN Environment Programme states that "UNEP champions the landscape approach de facto as it embodies the main elements of integrated ecosystem management ". Landscape archaeology or landscape history is the study of the way in which humanity has changed

11371-551: The formation of deep sedimentary basins where the surface of Earth drops and is filled with material eroded from other parts of the landscape. The Earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic , and biologic action with geologic processes. Desert , Plain , Taiga , Tundra , Wetland , Mountain , Mountain range , Cliff , Coast , Littoral zone , Glacier , Polar regions of Earth , Shrubland , Forest , Rainforest , Woodland , Jungle , Moors , Steppe , Valley . Landscape ecology

11508-510: The garden of Villa Aldobrandini and Villa di Pratolino in Italy, to add movement and drama. Stowe Gardens , in Buckinghamshire , (1730–1738), was an even more radical departure from the formal French garden. In the early 18th century, Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham , had commissioned Charles Bridgeman to design a formal garden, with architectural decorations by John Vanbrugh . Bridgeman's design included an octagonal lake and

11645-533: The general being that which can be seen by an observer. An example of this second usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer : There are several words that are frequently associated with the word landscape: Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look

11782-742: The genre of landscape painting . When people deliberately improve the aesthetic appearance of a piece of land—by changing contours and vegetation, etc.—it is said to have been landscaped , though the result may not constitute a landscape according to some definitions. Color landscapes blend artificial elements like buildings, roads, and pavements with natural features such as mountains, forests, plants, sky, and rivers. These compositions of distant and near views can significantly impact people's emotions. As urbanization rapidly advances, urban color landscape design has become essential for cities to differentiate and symbolize their unique character and atmosphere. However, this transformation has created challenges. First,

11919-684: The ideals of Jean Jacques Rousseau , who was buried within the park. Rousseau and the garden's founder had visited Stowe a few years earlier. Other early examples were the Désert de Retz , Yvelines (1774–1782); the Gardens of the Château de Bagatelle in the Bois de Boulogne , west of Paris (1777–1784); The Folie Saint James , in Neuilly-sur-Seine , (1777–1780); and the Château de Méréville , in

12056-484: The land of the English). The suffix -scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix -ship. The roots of -ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan , meaning to shape . The suffix -schaft is related to the verb schaffen , so that -ship and shape are also etymologically linked. The modern form of the word, with its connotations of scenery, appeared in the late sixteenth century when

12193-400: The landscape seem even larger. "He sought to create an ideal landscape out of the English countryside." He created artificial lakes and used dams and canals to transform streams or springs into the illusion that a river flowed through the garden. He compared his own role as a garden designer to that of a poet or composer. "Here I put a comma, there, when it's necessary to cut the view, I put

12330-459: The late eighteenth century) were called Ordnance Surveys , and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps. The earliest scientific surveys in France were the Cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations. The term "topographic surveys" appears to be American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by

12467-450: The later development of the English landscape garden was Lancelot "Capability" Brown (1716–1783), who began his career in 1740 as a gardener at Stowe Gardens under Charles Bridgeman , then succeeded William Kent in 1748. Brown's contribution was to simplify the garden by eliminating geometric structures, alleys, and parterres near the house and replacing them with rolling lawns and extensive views out to isolated groups of trees, making

12604-456: The lie of the land by delineating vegetation and other land-use information more clearly. Images can be in visible colours and in other spectrum. Photogrammetry is a measurement technique for which the co-ordinates of the points in 3D of an object are determined by the measurements made in two photographic images (or more) taken starting from different positions, usually from different passes of an aerial photography flight. In this technique,

12741-751: The main example of this style is Łazienki Park in Warsaw . The garden scheme owes its shape and appearance mainly to the last king of the country Stanisław August Poniatowski . In another part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth the Sofiyivka Park (Zofiówka), now Ukraine , was designed by Count Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki so as to illustrate the Odyssey and the Iliad . The style also spread rapidly to Russia , where in 1774 Catherine

12878-524: The models of Claremont , Stourhead and Stowe Landscape Gardens . Another notable example was The Englischer Garten in Munich , Germany , created in 1789 by Sir Benjamin Thompson (1753–1814). In the Netherlands the landscape-architect Lucas Pieters Roodbaard (1782–1851) designed several gardens and parks in this style. The style was introduced to Sweden by Fredrik Magnus Piper . In Poland

13015-455: The more formal, symmetrical jardin à la française of the 17th century as the principal style for large parks and gardens in Europe. The English garden (and later French landscape garden ) presented an idealized view of nature. It drew inspiration from paintings of landscapes by Claude Lorraine and Nicolas Poussin , and from the classic Chinese gardens of the East, which had recently been described by European travellers and were realized in

13152-559: The most extreme example of 18th-century "Gothick" style. According to some writers, especially French ones, the Far East inspired the origins of the English landscape garden, via Holland. In 1685, the English writer, formerly a diplomat at The Hague , Sir William Temple wrote an essay Upon the garden of Epicurus (published in 1690), including a passage which contrasted European symmetrical and formal gardens with asymmetrical compositions from China, for which he introduced (as Chinese)

13289-479: The most representations of land surface employ some variant of TIN models. In geostatistics , land surface is commonly modelled as a combination of the two signals – the smooth (spatially correlated) and the rough (noise) signal. In practice, surveyors first sample heights in an area, then use these to produce a Digital Land Surface Model in the form of a TIN . The DLSM can then be used to visualize terrain, drape remote sensing images, quantify ecological properties of

13426-454: The new style was making woodland more interesting and ornamental, leading to the establishment of the woodland garden as a distinct type. This took several forms, one of which was helped by the developing Gothic revival . Horace Walpole , a great promoter of the English landscape garden style, praised Painshill in Surrey, whose varied features included a shrubbery with American plants, and

13563-867: The nineteenth century. Repton published four major books on garden design: Sketches and Hints on Landscape Gardening (1795), Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening (1803), An Inquiry into the Changes of Taste in Landscape Gardening (1806) and Fragments on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening (1816). These drew on material and techniques used in the Red Books. These works greatly influenced other landscape-designers including John Claudius Loudon , John Nash , Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand , Hermann Ludwig Heinrich Pückler-Muskau and Frederick Law Olmsted . One aspect of

13700-421: The others. The intention is to minimise conflict between these different land use objectives and ecosystem services . This approach draws on landscape ecology, as well as many related fields that also seek to integrate different land uses and users, such as watershed management . Proponents of integrated landscape management argue that it is well-suited to address complex global challenges, such as those that are

13837-428: The outside world. They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is meant to express the harmony that should exist between man and nature. A typical Chinese garden is enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds, scholar's rocks , trees and flowers, and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the garden, connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries. By moving from structure to structure, visitors can view

13974-464: The parks or estates of a landowner, though mostly painted in London by an artist who had never visited the site. the English tradition was founded by Anthony van Dyck and other, mostly Flemish , artists working in England. By the beginning of the 19th century the English artists with the highest modern reputations were mostly dedicated landscapists, showing the wide range of Romantic interpretations of

14111-459: The people in their paintings to figures subsumed within broader, regionally specific landscapes. The geographer Otto Schlüter is credited with having first formally used "cultural landscape" as an academic term in the early 20th century. In 1908, Schlüter argued that by defining geography as a Landschaftskunde (landscape science) this would give geography a logical subject matter shared by no other discipline. He defined two forms of landscape:

14248-427: The period before 1800, the history of landscape gardening (later called landscape architecture) is largely that of master planning and garden design for manor houses , palaces and royal properties, religious complexes, and centers of government. An example is the extensive work by André Le Nôtre at Vaux-le-Vicomte and at the Palace of Versailles for King Louis XIV of France . The first person to write of making

14385-512: The physical appearance of the environment - both present and past. Landscape generally refers to both natural environments and environments constructed by human beings. Natural landscapes are considered to be environments that have not been altered by humans in any shape or form. Cultural landscapes , on the other hand, are environments that have been altered in some manner by people (including temporary structures and places, such as campsites, that are created by human beings). Among archaeologists,

14522-435: The practice of landscape design. He believed that the foreground should be the realm of art (with formal geometry and ornamental planting), that the middle ground should have a parkland character of the type created by Brown and that the background should have a wild and 'natural' character. Repton re-introduced formal terraces, balustrades , trellis work and flower gardens around the house in a way that became common practice in

14659-509: The result that in the following period people were "apt to assume that the appreciation of natural beauty and the painting of landscape is a normal and enduring part of our spiritual activity" English landscape park The English landscape garden , also called English landscape park or simply the English garden ( French : Jardin à l'anglaise , Italian : Giardino all'inglese , German : Englischer Landschaftsgarten , Portuguese : Jardim inglês , Spanish : Jardín inglés ),

14796-406: The return of flowers, in skirts of sweeping planted beds. This is the version of the landscape garden most imitated in Europe in the 19th century. The outer areas of the "home park" of English country houses retain their naturalistic shaping. English gardening since the 1840s has been on a more restricted scale, closer and more allied to the residence. The canonical European English park contains

14933-425: The scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys. Surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between them using leveling instruments such as theodolites , dumpy levels and clinometers . GPS and other global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are also used. Work on one of

15070-462: The scene known a priori (for example, symmetries in certain cases allowing the rebuilding of three-dimensional co-ordinates starting from one only position of the camera). Satellite RADAR mapping is one of the major techniques of generating Digital Elevation Models (see below). Similar techniques are applied in bathymetric surveys using sonar to determine the terrain of the ocean floor. In recent years, LIDAR ( LI ght D etection A nd R anging),

15207-629: The scroll itself. Many painters also wrote poetry, especially in the scholar-official or literati tradition. Landscape images were present in the early Shijing and the Chuci , but in later poetry the emphasis changed, as in painting to the Shan shui ( Chinese : 山水 lit. "mountain-water") style featuring wild mountains, rivers and lakes, rather than landscape as a setting for a human presence. Shanshui poetry traditional Chinese : 山水詩 ; simplified Chinese : 山水诗 developed in China during

15344-615: The shore I found myself of a huge sea of mist, Which meek and silent rested at my feet. A hundred hills their dusky backs upheaved All over this still ocean, and beyond, Far, far beyond, the vapours shot themselves In headlands, tongues, and promontory shapes, Into the sea, the real sea, that seemed To dwindle and give up its majesty, Usurped upon as far as sight could reach. from The Prelude (1805), Book 13, lines 41-51. by William Wordsworth One important aspect of British Romanticism  – evident in painting and literature as well as in politics and philosophy –

15481-407: The stability and rate of change of topography under the force of gravity , and other factors, such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate . Geologic processes include the uplift of mountain ranges , the growth of volcanoes , isostatic changes in land surface elevation (sometimes in response to surface processes), and

15618-606: The term sharawadgi , in fact probably a mangled Japanese word for "irregularity". Temple had never visited the Far East, but he was in contact with the Dutch and their discourse on irregularity in design, had spoken to a merchant who had been in the Far East for a long time, and read the works of European travellers there. He noted that Chinese gardens avoided formal rows of trees and flower beds, and instead placed trees, plants, and other garden features in irregular ways to strike

15755-498: The term Jardin Anglo-Chinois (Anglo-Chinese garden) for this style of garden. Descriptions of English gardens were first brought to France by Jean-Bernard, abbé Le Blanc , who published accounts of his voyage in 1745 and 1751. A treatise, and tour guide, on the English garden, Observations on Modern Gardening , written by Thomas Whately and published in London in 1770, was translated into French and German in 1771. After

15892-399: The term landschap was introduced by Dutch painters who used it to refer to paintings of inland natural or rural scenery. The word landscape , first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters' term. The popular conception of the landscape that is reflected in dictionaries conveys both a particular and a general meaning, the particular referring to an area of the Earth's surface and

16029-545: The term landscape can refer to the meanings and alterations people mark onto their surroundings. As such, landscape archaeology is often employed to study the human use of land over extensive periods of time. Landscape archaeology can be summed up by Nicole Branton's statement: The concept of cultural landscapes can be found in the European tradition of landscape painting . From the 16th century onwards, many European artists painted landscapes in favor of people, diminishing

16166-404: The theory did not entirely work against the development of landscape painting – for several centuries landscapes were regularly promoted to the status of history painting by the addition of small figures to make a narrative scene, typically religious or mythological. Dutch Golden Age painting of the 17th century saw the dramatic growth of landscape painting, in which many artists specialized, and

16303-495: The third and fourth centuries AD and left most of the varied landscapes of China largely unrepresented. Shan shui painting and poetry shows imaginary landscapes, though with features typical of some parts of South China; they remain popular to the present day. Fields and Gardens poetry ( simplified Chinese : 田园诗 ; traditional Chinese : 田園詩 ; pinyin : tiányuán shī ; Wade–Giles : t'ien-yuan-shih ; lit. 'fields and gardens poetry'), in poetry )

16440-409: The traditional color landscapes in some cities have been heavily influenced by natural geography, climate, local materials, ethnic culture, religion, and socioeconomic factors. Second, the growing problem of "color pollution" - through bright, solid-colored buildings, billboards, and lighting clusters - adversely affects people physically and psychologically. Third, homogenization of colors between cities

16577-410: The view from a distance or a temporal view into the future, with the sense of opportunity or expectation. When understood broadly as landscape poetry and when assessed from its establishment to the present, topographical poetry can take on many formal situations and types of places. Kenneth Baker, in his "Introduction to The Faber Book of Landscape Poetry , identifies 37 varieties and compiles poems from

16714-403: The visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping . There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context. In common usage however, a landscape refers either to all the visible features of an area of land (usually rural), often considered in terms of aesthetic appeal, or to a pictorial representation of an area of countryside, specifically within

16851-408: The way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling . Geomorphology is practiced within physical geography , geology , geodesy , engineering geology , archaeology and geotechnical engineering . This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within

16988-456: The works of the Greek poet Theocritus (c. 316 - c. 260 BC). The Romantic period poet William Wordsworth created a modern, more realistic form of pastoral with Michael, A Pastoral Poem (1800). An early form of landscape poetry, Shanshui poetry , developed in China during the third and fourth centuries A.D. Topographical poetry is a genre of poetry that describes, and often praises,

17125-463: The world depict little that could really be called landscape , although ground-lines and sometimes indications of mountains, trees or other natural features are included. The earliest "pure landscapes" with no human figures are frescos from Minoan Greece of around 1500 BCE. Hunting scenes, especially those set in the enclosed vista of the reed beds of the Nile Delta from Ancient Egypt, can give

17262-470: Was Gothic rather than Neoclassical , and exotic planting was more likely to be evergreen conifers rather than flowering plants, replacing "the charm of bright, pleasant scenery in favour of the dark and rugged, gloomy and dramatic". A leading example of the style was Studley Royal in North Yorkshire , which had the great advantage, at what was known as "The Surprise View", of suddenly revealing

17399-529: Was General James Dormer , who commissioned Bridgeman to begin the garden in 1727, then brought in Kent to recreate it in 1737. Bridgeman had built a series of garden features including a grotto of Venus on the slope along the River Cherwell , connected by straight alleys. Kent turned the alleys into winding paths, built a gently turning stream, used the natural landscape features and slopes, and created

17536-456: Was a change in the way people perceived and valued the landscape. In particular, after William Gilpin 's Observations on the River Wye was published in 1770, the idea of the picturesque began to influence artists and viewers. Gilpin advocated approaching the landscape "by the rules of picturesque beauty," which emphasized contrast and variety. Edmund Burke 's A Philosophical Enquiry into

17673-432: Was a contrasting poetic movement which lasted for centuries, with a focused on the nature found in gardens, in backyards, and in the cultivated countryside. Fields and Gardens poetry is one of many Classical Chinese poetry genres . One of the main practitioners of the Fields and Gardens poetry genre was Tao Yuanming (also known as Tao Qian (365–427), among other names or versions of names). Tao Yuanming has been regarded as

17810-410: Was ambitious to fill the gap and sent circulars round his contacts in the upper classes advertising his services. To help clients visualize his designs, Repton produced 'Red Books' (so called for their binding) with explanatory text and watercolors with a system of overlays to show 'before' and 'after' views. In 1794 Richard Payne Knight and Uvedale Price simultaneously published vicious attacks on

17947-406: Was determined to stress the agency of culture as a force in shaping the visible features of the Earth's surface in delimited areas. Within his definition, the physical environment retains a central significance, as the medium with and through which human cultures act. His classic definition of a 'cultural landscape' reads as follows: The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by

18084-525: Was felt throughout Europe, as well as on major Victorian novelists in Britain, such as Emily Brontë , Mrs Gaskell , George Eliot , and Thomas Hardy , as well as John Cowper Powys in the 20th-century. Margaret Drabble in A Writer's Britain suggests that Thomas Hardy "is perhaps the greatest writer of rural life and landscape" in English. Among European writers influenced by Scott were Frenchmen Honoré de Balzac and Alexandre Dumas and Italian Alessandro Manzoni . Manzoni's famous novel The Betrothed

18221-511: Was founded in Russia in the early 20th century by L. S. Berg and others, and outside Russia by the German S. Passarge. The conception of landscape as the relationship between various components of natural environments and geochemisty was devoted by soviet scientist Viktor Sochava, based on the ideas of american geographer George Van Dyne Integrated landscape management is a way of managing

18358-565: Was inspired by Walter Scott 's Ivanhoe . Also influenced by Romanticism's approach to landscape was the American novelist Fenimore Cooper , who was admired by Victor Hugo and Balzac and characterized as the "American Scott ." Landscape in Chinese poetry has often been closely tied to Chinese landscape painting, which developed much earlier than in the West. Many poems evoke specific paintings, and some are written in more empty areas of

18495-499: Was one of the first 'picturesque' gardens, inspired to resemble the paintings of Claude Lorrain . Hoare had travelled to Italy on the Grand Tour and had returned with a painting by Claude Lorrain. Hoare dammed a stream on his estate, created a lake, and surrounded the lake with landscapes and architectural constructions representing the different steps of the journey of Aeneas in the Aeneid by Virgil . The most influential figure in

18632-518: Was particularly influential. By the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden , and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk , the gardens of the future Emperor Paul . It also had a major influence on the forms of public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century. The English landscape garden was usually centred on

18769-468: Was particularly influential. By the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk , the gardens of the future Emperor Paul . It also had a major influence on the form of the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century. Landscape architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, incorporating aspects of botany , horticulture ,

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