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114-623: The land of the Lezgins has been subject to multiple invaders throughout history. Its isolated terrain and the strategic value outsiders have placed on the areas settled by Lezgins has contributed much to the Lezgin community ethos and helped shape its national character. Due to constant attacks from the invaders, the Lezgins have developed a national code of honor and conduct, Lezgiwal , passed down from generation to generation by parents and society. It implies moral and ethical behaviour, generosity and

228-460: A Lezgin should be an example of high morals, wisdom and courage for the younger generation. A Lezgin must be compassionate towards the weak and powerless. He should be compassionate not only for people, but also for animals who have no reason and cannot protect themselves from human cruelty. If possible, a Lezgin should avoid fighting with someone weaker than himself, because such a fight will not bring him glory. But he should never hesitate to fight

342-400: A Lezgin, a woman's honor and dignity are sacred. Lezgins always stand up when an elder comes, even if they do not recognize him or her. In communicating with people, a Lezgin must be extremely polite, reserved and modest, regardless of their social status or age. At the same time, he or she should be respectful both in joy and in sorrow, and keep calm no matter what the situation. The life of

456-613: A large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu 's expedition in the Middle East in 1256–1257. One of the Jochid princes who joined Hulagu's army was accused of witchcraft and sorcery against Hulagu. After receiving permission from Berke, Hulagu executed him. After that two more Jochid princes died suspiciously. According to some Muslim sources, Hulagu refused to share his war booty with Berke in accordance with Genghis Khan's wish. Berke

570-776: A large portion of Cumans were driven out of the Crimean peninsula , and it became one of the appanages of the Mongol Empire. The remnants of the Crimean Cumans survived in the Crimean mountains , and they would, in time, mix with other groups in the Crimea (including Greeks, Goths, and Mongols) to form the Crimean Tatar population. Moving north, Batu began the Mongol invasion of Rus' and spent three years subjugating

684-649: A more moderate organization called Samur was formed, advocating more cultural autonomy for Lezgins in Azerbaijan. Lezgins traditionally suffered from unemployment and a shortage of land. A major consequence of the outbreak of the war in Chechnya in 1994 was the closure of the border between Russia and Azerbaijan: as a result, the Lezgins were for the first time in their history separated by an international border restricting their movement. The high tide of Lezgin mobilization in Azerbaijan appeared to have passed towards

798-477: A partial calque of Turkic Altan Orda . Золотая ( Zolotáya ) was translated to 'Golden', while Орда ( Ordá ) was transliterated to 'Horde'. The Turkic word orda means 'palace', 'camp' or 'headquarters', in this case the headquarters of the khan, being the capital of the khanate, metonymically extended to the khanate itself. The English word horde , in the sense of a large (and often threatening) group, emerged later, metaphorically extended from

912-462: A part—together with Iberia (East Georgia) and (Caucasian) Albania, where other Arsacid branches reigned—of a pan-Arsacid family federation. Culturally, the predominance of Hellenism, as under the Artaxiads, was now followed by again a predominance of "Iranianism", and, symptomatically, instead of Greek, as before, Parthian became the language of the educated of the region. An incursion in this era

1026-507: A punitive expedition led by his brother, Dyuden , to punish those stubborn subjects, leading to the sacking of a number of cities in 1293, including Vladimir and Moscow, finally forcing Dmitry to abdicate. Only the city of Tver offered stiff resistance to the Mongol invaders, leading to another Mongol army being sent to attack the city. Nogai did not choose to intervene in Russian affairs but

1140-521: A region of high, rugged mountains and the piedmont (foothills). Most of the Lezgin territory is in the mountainous zone, where a number of peaks (like Baba Dagh) reach over 3,500 meters in elevation. There are deep and isolated canyons and gorges formed by the tributaries of the Samur and Gulgeri Chai rivers. In the mountainous zones the summers are very hot and dry, with drought conditions a constant threat. There are few trees in this region aside from those in

1254-640: A severe punitive expedition. But after Alexander Nevsky begged Berke not to punish his people, and the cities of Vladimir-Suzdal agreed to pay a large indemnity, Berke relented. Alexander died on his trip back in Gorodets on the Volga. He was well loved by the people and called the "sun of Suzdal". When the former Seljuk Sultan Kaykaus II was arrested in the Byzantine Empire , his younger brother Kayqubad II appealed to Berke. An Egyptian envoy

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1368-589: A short period of time, until it was regained by the Safavids under king Abbas I (r. 1588–1629). A notable Lezgin from the Safavid Iranian era was Fath-Ali Khan Daghestani , who served as Safavid grand vizier from 1716 to 1720, during the reign of king ( shah ) Sultan Husayn (1694–1722). By the early course of the 18th century, the Safavid Empire was in a state of heavy decline. In 1721,

1482-406: A show religion.” The most precious thing in a Lezgin is his honor and dignity. All other goods of this world can be regained once lost, but lost honor and dignity can only be regained through an honorable death. Therefore, he does not covet the honor of others. A Lezgin treats a woman with respect and honor. Under no circumstances will he ever allow himself or others to insult or humiliate her. For

1596-507: A stronger opponent. A Lezgin must develop his body and mind through regular exercise. He must have the strength and knowledge to adequately defend the honor of his nation and religion when necessary. Because there needs to be enough strength and knowledge to achieve true faith, unity and justice. Golden Horde The Golden Horde , self-designated as Ulug Ulus ( lit.   ' Great State ' in Kipchak Turkic ),

1710-468: A vassal of Nogai. Daniel , Alexander Nevsky's youngest son, failed to appear at the court of Toqta. The division of the authority of the Golden Horde led to the creation of two rival groups of Russian princes. Toqta attempted to reassert his authority over northern Russia ; he confirmed Andrey as the grand prince and authorized him to depose Dmitry, who refused to surrender his throne. Toqta sent

1824-574: A victory banquet during the Mongol occupation of Eastern Europe. He sent his brothers to the kurultai, and the new Khagan of the Mongols was elected in 1246. All the senior princes of Rus', including Yaroslav II of Vladimir , Daniel of Galicia , and Sviatoslav III of Vladimir , acknowledged Batu's supremacy. Originally Batu ordered Daniel to turn the administration of Galicia over to the Mongols, but Daniel personally visited Batu in 1245 and pledged allegiance to him. After returning from his trip, Daniel

1938-461: Is a Code of honor and conduct passed down from generation to generation by parents and society. It implies moral and ethical behaviour, generosity and the will to safeguard the honor of women. The legendary Abrek Kiri Buba before he was killed by the Russians said "Better a knife in the chest than honor in the dirt." Lezgins like other Northeast Caucasian majority are Muslims, although, due to

2052-831: Is around 180,000, the Lezgins claim that the number of Lezgins registered as Azerbaijan is many times higher than this figure, some accounts showing over 700,000 Lezgins in Azerbaijan. These figures are denied by the Azerbaijani government, but in private many Azeris acknowledge the fact that the Lezgins—and for that matter the Talysh or the Kurdish —population is far higher than the official figures. Lezgins also live in Central Asia , mainly due to Stalin 's deportation policies. Lezgins are, "generally speaking", well integrated into

2166-469: Is divided into quarters. Distributed large geographically related settlement (one quarter - one syhil). Each village had a rural area - Kim, a gathering of residents (male part) at the village assembly to address the most important issues of public life of the village. Lezgiwal ( Lezgian : Лезгивал ) an unwritten code of honor used as a set of ethical rules for Lezghins. It covers all spheres of life of any member of society, starting from childhood. Lezgival

2280-593: Is now Xinjiang , at about the age of 42. Although some modern historians believe that he died of natural causes because of deteriorating health, he may have succumbed to the combined effects of alcoholism and gout , or he may have been poisoned. William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicler state that Batu killed the imperial envoy, and one of his brothers murdered the Great Khan Güyük, but these claims are not completely corroborated by other major sources. Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish took over as regent, but she

2394-580: Is on his toes, throwing his hands in different directions. The woman moves in the form of "Swan", bewitching graceful posture and smooth hand movements. The woman increases the tempo of her dance after the man. Not surprisingly, the dance, common among all the Caucasian peoples, was named in accordance with the ancient totem of the Lezgins: the word "Lek" ( Lezgian : лекь ) means eagle. Epic-historical songs about wars are popular among Lezghins, Best-known are

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2508-481: Is structured around djamaat ( Lezgian : жамаат- unions of clans ) and about 200-300 syhils ( Lezgian : сихил - clan ). Syhils descended from a common ancestor who lived a long time ago and each syhil has its own village and mountain. Syhils are further subdivided into miresar (patronymic families). The main type of settlement in Lezghins - the village ("hur"). With regard to social groups Lezgin village, it

2622-643: Is that received over the border from Russia. In March 2006 Azerbaijani media reported that Sadval had formed an 'underground' terrorist unit carrying out operations in Dagestan. Security forces across the border in Dagestan in Russia, responded skeptically to these reports having found no evidence. According to reports Lezgins in Dagestan suffer disproportionately from unemployment, with unemployment rates in Lezgin-populated areas of southern Dagestan twice

2736-460: Is the most widespread of the three and is spoken throughout most of the Lezgin territories in Daghestan, including the town of Kurakh, which, historically, was the most important cultural, political, and economic center in the Lezgin territory in Daghestan and is the former seat of the khanate of Kurin. The Akhti dialect is spoken in southeastern Daghestan. The Kuba dialect, the most Turkicized of

2850-689: The Carpathian Mountains . Talabuga's soldiers were angered and sacked Galicia and Volhynia instead. In 1286, Talabuga and Nogai attacked Poland and ravaged the country. After returning, Talabuga overthrew Töde Möngke, who was left to live in peace. Talabuga's army made unsuccessful attempts to invade the Ilkhanate in 1288 and 1290. During a punitive expedition against the Circassians , Talabuga became resentful of Nogai, whom he believed did not provide him with adequate support during

2964-633: The Cuman language . The existence of Arabic-Mongol and Persian-Mongol dictionaries dating from the middle of the 14th century and prepared for the use of the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate suggests that there was a practical need for such works in the chancelleries handling correspondence with the Golden Horde. It is thus reasonable to conclude that letters received by the Mamluks – if not also written by them – must have been in Mongol. When

3078-611: The Nogai Horde . Toqta established the Byzantine-Mongol alliance by Maria, an illegitimate daughter of Andronikos II Palaiologos . A report reached Western Europe that Toqta was highly favourable to the Christians. According to Muslim observers, however, Toqta remained an idol-worshiper ( Buddhism and Tengerism ) and showed favour to religious men of all faiths, though he preferred Muslims. He demanded that

3192-524: The Rutul Federation . In 1813, as a result of the Treaty of Gulistan , the Russians gained control over southern Dagestan and most of what is the contemporary Azerbaijan Republic. The 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay indefinitely consolidated Russian control over Dagestan and other areas where the Lezgins lived and removed Iran from the military equation. The Russian administration subsequently created

3306-831: The Urals to the Danube in the west, and from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea in the south, while bordering the Caucasus Mountains and the territories of the Mongol dynasty known as the Ilkhanate . The khanate experienced violent internal political disorder known as the Great Troubles (1359–1381), before it briefly reunited under Tokhtamysh (1381–1395). However, soon after the 1396 invasion of Timur ,

3420-696: The Vainakh peoples , who were Northeast Caucasian language speakers were referred to as "Circassians"). In the 4th century BC, the numerous tribes speaking Lezgic languages united in a union of 26 tribes, formed in the Eastern Caucasus state of Caucasian Albania , which itself was incorporated in the Persian Achaemenid Empire in 513 BC. Under Persian and Parthian rule Caucasian Albania was divided into several areas — Lakzi, Shirvan, etc. The Lezgic speaking tribes participated in

3534-555: The Volga River . His brother Orda returned to take part in the succession. The Mongol armies would never again travel so far west. In 1242, after retreating through Hungary, destroying Pest in the process, and subjugating Bulgaria , Batu established his capital at Sarai, commanding the lower stretch of the Volga River , on the site of the Khazar capital of Atil . Shortly before that, the younger brother of Batu and Orda, Shiban ,

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3648-618: The battle of Gaugamela under the Persian banner against the invading Alexander the Great . Under Parthian rule, Iranian political and cultural influence increased in the whole region of their Caucasian Albanian province, therefore including where the Lezgic speaking tribes lived. Whatever the sporadic suzerainty of Rome of the region due to their wars with the Parthians, the country was now

3762-609: The "Tatar yoke" at the Great Stand on the Ugra River in 1480, which traditionally marks the end of Mongol rule over Russia. The Crimean Khanate and the Kazakh Khanate , the last remnants of the Golden Horde, survived until 1783 and 1847 respectively, when they were conquered by the expanding Russian state. The name Golden Horde is a partial calque of Russian Золотая Орда ( Zolotáya Ordá ), itself supposedly

3876-652: The 15th century, when Muslim influence became stronger, with Persian traders coming in from the south, and the Golden Horde increasingly pressing from the north. In the early 16th century, the Persian Safavids consolidated their control over large parts of Dagestan for centuries onwards. As a result of the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1578–1590 , the Ottomans managed to wrest control of the region for

3990-622: The 9th and 10th centuries mentioned a kingdom called Lakz, in present-day southern Dagestan. Al Masoudi referred to inhabitants of this area as Lakzams (Lezgins), who defended Shirvan against invaders from the north. Prior to the Russian Revolution , "Lezgin" was a term applied to all ethnic groups inhabiting the present-day Russian Republic of Dagestan . In the 19th century, the term was used more broadly for all ethnic groups speaking non- Nakh Northeast Caucasian languages , including Caucasian Avars , Laks , and many others (although

4104-534: The Byzantine Empire and Egypt in an attempt to curb the authority of Nogai. Following the death of Constantine of Bulgaria in 1277, Michael VIII and Nogai supported different candidates to the throne, leading to relations to deteriorate. This led to an intervention by Mengu-Timur in Balkan affairs, in which Mengu-Timur and Metropolitan Kirill sent Bishop Theognost as their joint envoy to Michael VIII and

4218-630: The Empire remained united under the supreme khan. Jochi was the eldest, but he died six months before Genghis. The westernmost lands occupied by the Mongols , which included what is today southern Russia and Kazakhstan , were given to Jochi's eldest sons, Batu Khan , who eventually became ruler of the Blue Horde , and Orda Khan , who became the leader of the White Horde . In 1235, Batu with

4332-612: The Golden Horde as some of Toqta's coins carried 'Phags-pa script in addition to Mongolian script and Persian characters. Toqta arrested the Italian residents of Sarai and besieged Caffa in 1307. The cause was apparently Toqta's displeasure at the Genoese slave trade of his subjects, who were mostly sold as soldiers to Egypt. In 1308, Caffa was plundered by the Mongols. During the late reign of Toqta, tensions between princes of Tver and Moscow became violent. Daniel of Moscow seized

4446-547: The Golden Horde. Backed by him, some princes, such as Dmitry of Pereslavl , refused to visit the court of Töde Möngke in Sarai, while Dmitry's brother Andrey of Gorodets sought assistance from Töde Möngke. Nogai vowed to support Dmitry in his struggle for the grand princely throne. On hearing about this, Andrey renounced his claims to Vladimir and Novgorod and returned to Gorodets. He returned with Mongol troops sent by Töde Möngke and seized Vladimir from Dmitry. Dmitry retaliated with

4560-479: The Great Khatun Töregene invited Batu to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire in 1242, he declined to attend the kurultai and instead stayed at the Volga River . Although Batu excused himself by saying he was suffering from old age and illness, it seems that he did not support the election of Güyük Khan. Güyük and Büri , a grandson of Chagatai Khan , had quarreled violently with Batu at

4674-590: The Ilkhan Ghazan and his successor Oljeitu give Azerbaijan back but was refused. Then he sought assistance from Egypt against the Ilkhanate. Toqta made his man ruler in Ghazna , but he was expelled by its people. Toqta dispatched a peace mission to the Ilkhan Gaykhatu in 1294, and peace was maintained mostly uninterrupted until 1318. In 1304, ambassadors from the Mongol rulers of Central Asia and

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4788-674: The Kagamlik, near the Dnieper . Toqta had his son stationed troops in Saqchi and along the Danube as far as the Iron Gate. Nogai's son Chaka of Bulgaria , first escaped to the Alans, and then Bulgaria where he briefly ruled as emperor before he was murdered by Theodore Svetoslav on the orders of Toqta. After Mengu-Timur died, rulers of the Golden Horde withdrew their support from Kaidu ,

4902-778: The Kiurin Khanate, later to become the Kiurin district. Many Lezgins in Dagestan , however, participated in the Great Caucasian War that started roughly during the same time the Russo-Persian Wars of the 19th century were happening, and fought against the Russians alongside the Avar Imam Shamil , who for 25 years (1834–1859) defied Russian rule. It was not until after his defeat in 1859 that

5016-463: The Lezgins sacked and looted the city of Shamakhi , the provincial capital of Shirvan . The Lak Kazi Kumukh Khanate controlled a part of the Lezgins for a time in the 18th century after the disintegration of the Safavid Empire . In the first half of the 18th century, Persia was able to restore its full authority throughout the entire Caucasus under Nader Shah . After the death of Nader,

5130-450: The Lezgins). Also related, albeit more distantly, are the numerically small Jek , Kryts , Shahdagh , Budukh , and Khinalug peoples of northern Azerbaijan . These groups, together with the Lezgins, form the Samur branch of the indigenous Lezgic peoples. Lezgins are believed to descend partly from people who inhabited the region of southern Dagestan in the Bronze Age. However, there is some DNA evidence of significant admixture during

5244-437: The Mongols and ousted their troops in northern Podolia . In 1257, he repelled Mongol assaults led by the prince Kuremsa on Ponyzia and Volhynia and dispatched an expedition with the aim of taking Kiev. Despite initial successes, in 1259 a Mongol force under Boroldai entered Galicia and Volhynia and offered an ultimatum: Daniel was to destroy his fortifications or Boroldai would assault the towns. Daniel complied and pulled down

5358-480: The Mongols. In 1261, Berke approved the establishment of a church in Sarai. After Möngke Khan died in 1259, the Toluid Civil War broke out between Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke . While Hulagu Khan of the Ilkhanate supported Kublai, Berke sided with Ariq Böke. There is evidence that Berke minted coins in Ariq Böke's name, but he remained militarily neutral. After the defeat of Ariq Böke in 1264, he freely acceded to Kublai's enthronement. However, some elites of

5472-404: The Qaghan (Great Khan), they sent them to Mengu-Timur. One of them, Nomoghan, favorite of Kublai, was located in the Crimea. Mengu-Timur might have briefly struggled with Hulagu's successor Abagha , but the Great Khan Kublai forced them to sign a peace treaty. He was allowed to take his share in Persia. Independently from the Khan, Nogai expressed his desire to ally with Baibars in 1271. Despite

5586-530: The Russians consolidated their rule over Dagestan and the Lezgins. Lezgins culture is a unique blend of native customs ( adats ). There is a strong theme of representing the nation with its national animal, the Lek (eagle), it's connected with a strong value on the concept of freedom. A large majority of the nation's national heroes fought for independence (Abrek Kiri Buba, Hadj-Dawud, etc.). Lezgins don't like coercion, their social structure being firmly based on equality and deference to individuality. Lezgin society

5700-518: The Russian–Azerbaijani border. Lezgins expressed concern over underrepresentation in the Azerbaijani Parliament (Milli Meclis) after a shift away from proportional representation in the parliamentary elections of November 2005. Lezgins had been represented by two members of parliament in the previous parliament, but are now represented by only one. Lezgins state that they face discrimination and that they feel forced to assimilate into Azeri identity to avoid economic and education discrimination. Therefore,

5814-432: The Sassanid marzban (military governor) of the territory. The Roman Empire obtained control over some of the southernmost Lezgin regions for a few years around 300 AD, but then the Sassanid Persians regained control and subsequently dominated the area for centuries until the Arab invasions . Although Lezgins were first introduced to Islam perhaps as early as the 8th century, the Lezgins remained primarily animist until

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5928-656: The State Lezgin theater was opened in Azerbaijan, located in Qusar. The Lezgins inhabit a compact territory that straddles the border area of southern Dagestan and northern Azerbaijan. It lies, for the most part, in the southeastern portion of Daghestan in ( Akhtynsky District , Dokuzparinsky District , Suleyman-Stalsky District , Kurakhsky District , Magaramkentsky District , Khivsky District , Derbentsky District and Rutulsky District ) and contiguous northeastern Azerbaijan (in Kuba , Qusar , Qakh , Khachmaz , Oguz , Qabala , Nukha , and Ismailli districts). The Lezgin territories are divided into two physiographic zones:

6042-408: The Timurid sources' nomenclature and call the left wing the White Horde. But Ötemish Hajji ( fl.  1550 ), a historian of Khwarazm , called the left wing the Blue Horde, and since he was familiar with the oral traditions of the khanate empire, it seems likely that the Russian chroniclers were correct, and that the khanate itself called its left wing the Blue Horde. The khanate apparently used

6156-494: The White Horde and son of Orda Khan, also made peace with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate . According to Mamluk historians, Töde Möngke sent the Mamluks a letter proposing to fight against their common enemy, the unbelieving Ilkhanate. This indicates that he might have had an interest in Azerbaijan and Georgia , which were both ruled by the Ilkhans. In the 1270s, Nogai had raided Bulgaria, as well as Lithuania. He blockaded Michael Asen II inside Drăstăr in 1279, executed

6270-410: The White Horde joined Ariq Böke's resistance. Möngke ordered the Jochid and Chagatayid families to join Hulagu's expedition to Iran. Berke 's persuasion might have forced his brother Batu to postpone Hulagu's operation, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there for several years. During the reign of Batu or his first two successors, the Golden Horde dispatched

6384-419: The Yuan court was unable to send quick military support. From 1300 to 1302, a severe drought occurred in the areas surrounding the Black Sea . However, the troubles were soon overcome and conditions in the Golden Horde rapidly improved under Toqta's reign. After the defeat of Nogai Khan , his followers either fled to Podolia or remained under the service of Toqta, to become what would eventually be known as

6498-418: The Yuan dynasty announced to Toqta their general peace proposal. Toqta immediately accepted the supremacy of Yuan emperor Temür Öljeytü , and all yams (postal relays) and commercial networks across the Mongol khanates reopened. Toqta introduced the general peace among the Mongol khanates to the Russian princes at the assembly in Pereyaslavl (Pereslavl-Zalessky). The Yuan influence seemed to have increased in

6612-419: The area divided into multiple khanates. Some Lezgins were part of the Kuba Khanate in what is now Azerbaijan, while others fell under the jurisdiction of the Derbent Khanate and Kura Khanate . The main part of Lezgins united in "free society" (Magalim) ( Akhty para (now Akhtynsky District ), Kure (now Kurakhsky District ), Alty-para and Dokuz-para (now Dokuzparinsky District )). Some Lezgin clans were in

6726-449: The ballads "Shamil atana"(about Imam Shamil ) and "Kiri Buba." (about a Lezgin abrek ). In the second half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, Lezgin culture and literature underwent a culture significantly influence Azerbaijan. First Lezgin theater originated in 1906 in the village of Akhty. In 1935, based on the semi-professional team was created Lezgin State Music and Drama Theatre named after S. Stalsky. In 1998,

6840-422: The census took place in all cities, including Smolensk and Vitebsk . In 1277, Mengu-Timur launched a campaign against the Alans north of the Caucasus . Along with the Mongol army were also some of the princes who were ordered to join him in his expedition, where they took the fortified stronghold of the Alans, Dadakov , in 1278. After his Ossetian expedition, Mengu-Timur turned his attention to affairs with

6954-401: The city walls. In 1259 Berke launched savage attacks on Lithuania and Poland, and demanded the submission of Béla IV , the Hungarian monarch, and the French King Louis IX in 1259 and 1260. His assault on Prussia in 1259–1260 inflicted heavy losses on the Teutonic Order . The Lithuanians were probably tributary in the 1260s, when reports reached the Curia that they were in league with

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7068-426: The death of Batu Khan (the founder of the Golden Horde) in 1255, his dynasty flourished for a full century, until 1359, though the intrigues of Nogai instigated a partial civil war in the late 1290s. The Horde's military power peaked during the reign of Uzbeg Khan (1312–1341), who adopted Islam. The territory of the Golden Horde at its peak extended from Siberia and Central Asia to parts of Eastern Europe from

7182-416: The deep canyons and along the streams themselves. Drought-resistant shrubs and weeds dominate the natural flora. The winters here are frequently windy and brutally cold. In this zone the Lezgins engaged primarily in animal husbandry (mostly sheep and goats) and in craft industries. In the extreme east of the Lezgin territory, where the mountains give way to the narrow coastal plain of the Caspian Sea , and to

7296-426: The end of the 1990s. Sadval was banned by the Azerbaijani authorities after official allegations that it was involved in a bombing of the Baku underground . The end of the Karabakh war, and Lezgin resistance to forced conscription, deprived the movement of a key issue on which to mobilize. In 1998 Sadval split into ‘moderate’ and ‘radical’ wings, following which it appeared to lose much of its popularity on both sides of

7410-530: The environment is always subject to this law, wherever he is. According to Lezgiwal, the main purpose and meaning of a Lezgin's life is to serve his people ( Lezgin ) and religion ( Islam ). The Lezgin tolerates representatives of other religions and nationalities and never imposes his views (Lezgiwal) or way of life (Islam) on others by force and oppression. True religion and justice are the highest spiritual goals of Lezgins. The Lezgin does not emphasize his religiosity because he does not change his “true religion for

7524-421: The fact that he was proposing a joint attack on the Ilkhanate with the Mamluks of Egypt , Mengu-Timur congratulated Abagha when Baraq was defeated by the Ilkhan in 1270. In 1267, Mengu-Timur issued a diploma ( jarliq ) to exempt Russian clergy from any taxation, and gave to the Genoese and Venice exclusive trading rights in Caffa and Azov . Some of Mengu-Timur's relatives converted to Christianity at

7638-539: The far northwest was not counted until winter of 1258–1259. There was an uprising in Novgorod against the Mongol census, but Alexander Nevsky forced the city to submit to the census and taxation. With the new powers afforded to Batu by Möngke, he now had direct control over the princes of Rus'. However, Andrey II refused to submit to Batu. Batu sent a punitive expedition under Nevruy, who defeated Andrey and forced him to flee to Novgorod, then Pskov , and finally to Sweden . The Mongols overran Vladimir and harshly punished

7752-440: The far south, in Azerbaijan, are the foothills. This region has relatively mild, very dry winters and hot, dry summers. Trees are few here also. In this region animal husbandry and artisanry were supplemented by some agriculture (along the alluvial deposits near the rivers). Lezgins live mainly in Azerbaijan and Russia (Dagestan). The total population is believed to be around 700,000, with 474,000 living in Russia. In Azerbaijan,

7866-424: The following haplogroups are found to predominate among Lezgins : Modern-day Lezgins speak Northeast Caucasian languages that have been spoken in the region before the introduction of Indo-European languages . They are closely related, both culturally and linguistically, to the Aghuls of southern Dagestan and, somewhat more distantly, to the Tsakhurs , Rutuls , and Tabasarans (the northern neighbors of

7980-400: The founder of the Timurid Empire , the Golden Horde broke into smaller Tatar khanates which declined steadily in power. At the start of the 15th century, the Horde began to fall apart. By 1466, it was being referred to simply as the " Great Horde ". Within its territories there emerged numerous predominantly Turkic khanates. These internal struggles allowed Moscow to formally rid itself of

8094-450: The government census counts 180,300. However, Lezgin national organizations mention 600,000 to 900,000, the disparity being that many Lezgins claim Azeri nationality to escape job and education discrimination in Azerbaijan. Despite the assimilationist policy of the Azeri government, the Lezgin population is undoubtedly greater than it appears. As Svante Cornell adds; Whereas officially the number of Lezgins registered as such in Azerbaijan

8208-526: The grand prince of Vladimir to allow German merchants free travel through his lands. The gramota says: Mengu-Timur's word to Prince Yaroslav: give the German merchants way into your lands. From Prince Yaroslav to the people of Riga , to the great and the young, and to all: your way is clear through my lands; and who comes to fight, with them I do as I know; but for the merchant the way is clear. This decree also allowed Novgorod's merchants to travel throughout

8322-608: The great general Subutai began an invasion westwards, first conquering the Bashkirs and then moving on to Volga Bulgaria in 1236. From there he conquered some of the southern steppes of present-day Ukraine in 1237, forcing many of the local Cumans to retreat westward. The Mongol campaign against the Kypchaks and Cumans had already started under Jochi and Subutai in 1216–1218 when the Merkits took shelter among them. By 1239

8436-655: The head of the House of Ögedei . Kaidu tried to restore his influence in the Golden Horde by sponsoring his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan ( r.  1299–1304 ), Khan of the White Horde. After taking military support from Toqta, Bayan asked help from the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack on the Chagatai Khanate under the leadership of Kaidu and his second-in-command Duwa . However,

8550-488: The invasions of Hungary and Poland . Talabuga challenged Nogai, but was defeated in a coup and replaced with Toqta in 1291. Andrey, accompanied by a number of Rostov princes and the bishop of Rostov, went to Toqta to renew his patent and complain about Dmitry. Mikhail Yaroslavich was summoned to appear before Nogai in Sarai, where he chose to side with Nogai and went to him instead for confirmation of his throne, while Dmitry refused to appear, considering himself to be

8664-760: The lands of Suzdal without restraint. Mengu Timur honored his vow: when the Danes and the Livonian Knights attacked the Novgorod Republic in 1269, the Khan's great basqaq (darughachi) , Amraghan, and many Mongols assisted the army assembled by the grand prince Yaroslav. The Germans and the Danes were so cowed that they sent gifts to the Mongols and abandoned the region of Narva . The Mongol Khan's authority extended to all principalities, and in 1274–1275

8778-584: The last 4,000 years with a Central Asian population. Lezgiwal The Lezgiwal ( Lezgian : лезги́вал , [ lezgi:wal ]) is the worldview and moral code of the Lezgin people . Tenets of the Lezgiwal include being especially respectful towards elders and (for men) women; a policy of only marrying another Lezgin in order to protect the nation's endangered culture; and exemplifying the values of truthfulness, honour, and bravery. A Lezgin's behavior towards

8892-512: The long traditional beliefs, religion did not take root in its strict form. Under the influence of the neighbouring states, it was to a known extent suppressed, predominantly by Soviets, and nowadays plays a less significant role than the cultural traditions. However, the practitioners follow either the Shafi'i or the Hanafi schools of jurisprudence, fiqh. Lezgins celebrate Yaran Suvar , which dates to

9006-721: The next year while on campaign in Tiflis , causing his troops to retreat. Ariq Böke had earlier placed Chagatai's grandson Alghu as Chagatayid Khan , ruling Central Asia. He took control of Samarkand and Bukhara . When the Muslim elites and the Jochid retainers in Bukhara declared their loyalty to Berke, Alghu smashed the Golden Horde appanages in Khorazm. Alghu insisted Hulagu attack the Golden Horde; he accused Berke of purging his family in 1252. In Bukhara, he and Hulagu slaughtered all

9120-419: The patriarch of Constantinople with their respective gifts and letters. Mengu-Timur was succeeded in 1281 by his brother Töde Möngke , who was a Muslim. However, Nogai Khan was now strong enough to establish himself as an independent ruler. The Golden Horde was thus ruled by two khans. Töde Möngke made peace with Kublai, returned his sons to him, and acknowledged his supremacy. Nogai and Köchü , Khan of

9234-468: The place and went further east instead. In 1248, Güyük demanded Batu come east to meet him, a move that some contemporaries regarded as a pretext for Batu's arrest. In compliance with the order, Batu approached, bringing a large army. When Güyük moved westwards, Tolui 's widow and a sister of Batu's stepmother Sorghaghtani warned Batu that the Jochids might be his target. Güyük died on the way, in what

9348-556: The pre-Islamic period, some also celebrate Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr. The Lezgin language belongs to the Lezgic branch of the Northeast Caucasian language family (with Aghul , Rutul , Tsakhur , Tabasaran , Budukh , Khinalug , Jek , Khaput, Kryts , and Udi ). The Lezgin language has three closely related (mutually intelligible) dialects: Kurin (also referred to as Gunei or Kurakh), Akhti, and Kuba. The Kurin dialect

9462-572: The principalities, whilst his cousins Möngke , Kadan , and Güyük moved southwards into Alania . Using the migration of the Cumans as their casus belli , the Mongols continued west, raiding Poland and Hungary, which culminated in Mongol victories at the battles of Legnica and Mohi . In 1241, however, Ögedei Khan died in the Mongolian homeland. Batu turned back from his siege of Vienna but did not return to Mongolia, rather opting to stay at

9576-559: The principality. The Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq Khan , Batu's son, who was a Christian , Alexander was installed as the grand prince of Vladimir by Batu in 1252. After Batu died in 1256, his son Sartaq Khan was appointed by Möngke Khan . As soon as he returned from the court of the Great Khan in Mongolia, Sartaq died. The infant Ulaghchi succeeded him under

9690-469: The real number of Lezgins may be significantly higher than presented in censuses. Lezgin is taught as a foreign language in areas where many Lezgins are settled, but teaching resources are scarce. Lezgin textbooks come from Russia and are not adapted to local conditions. Although Lezgin newspapers are available, Lezgins have also expressed concern over the disappearance of their rich oral tradition. The only Lezgin television broadcasting available in Azerbaijan

9804-463: The rebel emperor Ivailo in 1280, and forced George Terter I to seek refuge in the Byzantine Empire in 1292. In 1284, Saqchi came under the Mongol rule during the major invasion of Bulgaria, and coins were struck in the Khan's name. Smilets was installed by Nogai as emperor of Bulgaria. Accordingly, the reign of Smilets has been considered the height of Mongol overlordship in Bulgaria. When he

9918-480: The regency of Boragchin Khatun . The khatun summoned all the princes of Rus' to Sarai to renew their patents. In 1256, Andrey traveled to Sarai to ask for pardon. He was once again reappointed as the grand prince of Vladimir . Ulaghchi died soon after and Batu Khan's younger brother Berke , who had been converted to Islam , was enthroned as khan of the Golden Horde in 1258. In 1256, Daniel of Galicia openly defied

10032-758: The republic average of 32 percent. This may be one contributory factor to renewed calls from within the Sadval movement in January 2006 for a redrawing of the Russian-Azerbaijani border to incorporate Lezgin-populated areas of southern Dagestan within Azerbaijan. In March 1999 another organization, the Federal Lezgin National Cultural Autonomy , was established as an extraterritorial movement advocating cultural autonomy for Lezgins. According to genetic studie in 2023,

10146-460: The reputation of the Mongol hordes. The appellation Golden is said to have been inspired by the golden color of the tents the Mongols lived in during wartime, or an actual golden tent used by Batu Khan or by Özbeg Khan , or to have been bestowed by the Slavic tributaries to describe the great wealth of the khan. It was not until the 16th century that Russian chroniclers begin explicitly using

10260-546: The retainers of the Golden Horde and reduced their families into slavery, sparing only the Great Khan Kublai's men. After Berke gave his allegiance to Kublai, Alghu declared war on Berke, seizing Otrar and Khorazm . While the left bank of Khorazm would eventually be retaken, Berke had lost control over Transoxiana. In 1264 Berke marched past Tiflis to fight against Hulagu's successor Abaqa , but he died en route. Berke left no sons, so Batu's grandson Mengu-Timur

10374-626: The same time and settled in Russia; one of them was a prince who settled in Rostov and became known as Tsarevich Peter of the Horde (Peter Ordynsky). Even though Nogai invaded the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire in 1271, the Khan sent his envoys to maintain friendly relationship with Michael VIII Palaiologos, who sued for peace and married one of his daughters, Euphrosyne Palaiologina , to Nogai. Mengu-Timur ordered

10488-589: The society of Azerbaijan. Mixed marriages are furthermore common. Lastly, Lezgins in Azerbaijan have a better level of education compared to their kin in Dagestan. In 1992 a Lezgin organization named Sadval was established to promote Lezgin rights. Sadval campaigned for the redrawing of the Russian–Azerbaijani border to allow for the creation of a single Lezgin state encompassing areas in Russia and Azerbaijan where Lezgins were compactly settled. In Azerbaijan,

10602-452: The support of Mongol troops from Nogai and retook his holdings. In 1285, Andrey again led a Mongol army under a Borjigin prince to Vladimir, but Dmitry expelled them. In 1283, Mengu-Timur converted to Islam and abandoned state affairs. Rumors spread that the khan was mentally ill and only cared for clerics and sheikhs. In 1285, Talabuga and Nogai invaded Hungary . While Nogai was successful in subduing Slovakia , Talabuga stalled north of

10716-577: The term White Horde to refer to its right wing, which was situated in Batu's home base in Sarai and controlled the ulus. The designations Golden Horde, Blue Horde, and White Horde have not been encountered in the sources of the Mongol period. 2nd invasion (1259–60) 3rd invasion (1287–88) At his death in 1227, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire amongst his four sons as appanages , but

10830-556: The term to refer to this particular successor khanate of the Mongol Empire. The first known use of the term, in 1565, in a Russian chronicle called History of Kazan , applied it to the Ulus of Batu, centered on Sarai . In contemporary Persian, Armenian and Muslim writings, and in the records of the 13th and early 14th centuries such as the Yuanshi and the Jami' al-tawarikh , the khanate

10944-482: The three, is widespread among the Lezgins of northern Azerbaijan (named for the town of Kuba, the cultural and economical focus of the region). Lezgin dance, including the Lezgin solo male and pair dance, are common among many peoples of the Caucasus. The dance uses a 2 image. The man moves in the way "eagle", alternates between a slow and rapid pace. The most spectacular movements are dance movements of men, when he

11058-487: The town of Kolomna from Ryazan , which turned to the local basqaq for protection. However, this did not deter Daniel, who defeated the Ryazan and Mongol troops in 1301, and then seized Mozhaysk in 1303 and then Pereslavl-Zalessky, which threw off the already weak balance of interprincely relations. Daniel may have been motivated to round out his appanage, which in terms of the modern administrative divisions of Russia,

11172-405: The unity of the realm. Batu, Möngke, and other princely lines shared rule over the area from Afghanistan to Turkey . Batu allowed Möngke's census-takers to operate freely in his realm. Local censuses took place in the 1240s, including the areas of Russia and Turkey. In 1251–1259, Möngke conducted the first empire-wide census of the Mongol Empire; while North China was completed in 1252, Novgorod in

11286-586: The will to safeguard the honor of women. The eagle being the Lezgin national animal, the term Lezgi is said to derive from Lek , the Lezgin word for eagle . Others believe Lezgi to be derived from the ancient Legi and early medieval Lakzi . Ancient Greek historians, including Herodotus, Strabo, and Pliny the Elder, referred to the Legoi (or Ancient Greek : Λῆχαι , romanized :  Lē̂chai ) people who inhabited Caucasian Albania . Arab historians of

11400-526: The young prince Nogai to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the Terek River , capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River. The outbreak of conflict was made more annoying to Berke by the rebellion of Suzdal at the same time, killing Mongol darughachis and tax-collectors. Berke planned

11514-538: Was a devoted Muslim who had had a close relationship with the Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim , who had been killed by Hulagu in 1258. The Jochids believed that Hulagu's state eliminated their presence in the Transcaucasus . Those events increased the anger of Berke and the war between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate soon broke out in 1262. The increasing tension between Berke and Hulagu

11628-674: Was a warning to the Golden Horde contingents in Hulagu's army to flee. One contingent reached the Kipchak Steppe, another traversed Khorasan , and a third body took refuge in Mamluk ruled Syria where they were well received by Sultan Baybars (1260–1277). Hulagu harshly punished the rest of the Golden Horde army in Iran. Berke sought a joint attack with Baybars and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched

11742-600: Was also detained there. With the assistance of the Kingdom of Bulgaria (Berke's vassal), Nogai invaded the Empire in 1265. By the next year, the Mongol-Bulgarian army was within reach of Constantinople . Nogai forced Michael VIII Palaiologos to release Kaykaus and pay tribute to the Horde. Berke gave Kaykaus Crimea as an appanage and had him marry a Mongol woman. Hulagu died in February 1265 and Berke followed

11856-609: Was called the Ulus of Jochi ('realm of Jochi' in Mongolian ), Dasht-i-Qipchaq ( Persian : دشت قپچاق , 'Qipchaq Steppe') or Khanate of the Qipchaq and Comania or Cumania . The eastern or left wing (or "left hand" in official Mongolian-sponsored Persian sources) was referred to as the Blue Horde in Russian chronicles and as the White Horde in Timurid sources (e.g. Zafar-Nameh). Western scholars have tended to follow

11970-406: Was concerned by Toqta's actions; he found it necessary to remind Toqta that he still held supreme power in the affairs of the Golden Horde and consequently sent his senior wife to Toqta in 1293, where she was received with due honor. In the same year, Nogai sent an army to Serbia and forced the king to acknowledge himself as a vassal. Nogai's daughter married a son of Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who

12084-465: Was expelled by a local boyars c.  1295 , the Mongols launched another invasion to protect their protege. Nogai compelled Serbian king Stefan Milutin to accept Mongol supremacy and received his son, Stefan Dečanski , as hostage in 1287. Under his rule, the Vlachs , Slavs, Alans , and Turco-Mongols lived in modern-day Moldavia . At the same time, the influence of Nogai greatly increased in

12198-585: Was given his own enormous ulus east of the Ural Mountains along the Ob and Irtysh Rivers . While the Mongolian language was undoubtedly in general use at the court of Batu, few Mongol texts written in the territory of the Golden Horde have survived, perhaps because of the prevalent general illiteracy. According to Grigor'ev, yarliq , or decrees of the Khans, were written in Mongol, then translated into

12312-608: Was made by the Alans who between 134 and 136 attacked regions including where Lezgic tribes lived, but Vologases persuaded them to withdraw, probably by paying them. In 252–253, rule over the Lezgic tribes changed from Parthian to Sassanid Persian. Caucasian Albania became a vassal state , now of the Sassanids, but retained its monarchy; the Albanian king had no real power and most civil, religious, and military authority lay with

12426-526: Was nominated by Kublai and succeeded his uncle Berke. However, Mengu-Timur secretly supported the Ögedeid prince Kaidu against Kublai and the Ilkhanate. After the defeat of Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq , a peace treaty was concluded in 1267 granting one-third of Transoxiana to Kaidu and Mengu-Timur. In 1268, when a group of princes operating in Central Asia on Kublai's behalf mutinied and arrested two sons of

12540-516: Was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire . With the division of the Mongol Empire after 1259, it became a functionally separate khanate. It is also known as the Kipchak Khanate or the Ulus of Jochi , and replaced the earlier, less organized Cuman–Kipchak confederation . After

12654-447: Was probably poisoned by Töregene Khatun , who probably did it to spite Batu and even her own son Güyük, because he did not approve of her regency. Güyük appointed Andrey as the grand prince of Vladimir and Alexander was given the princely title of Kiev . However, when they returned, Andrey went to Vladimir while Alexander went to Novgorod instead. A bishop by the name of Cyril went to Kiev and found it so devastated that he abandoned

12768-452: Was unable to keep the succession within her branch of the family. With the assistance of Batu, Möngke succeeded as Great Khan in 1251. Utilizing the discovery of a plot designed to remove him, Möngke as the new Great Khan began a purge of his opponents. Estimates of the deaths of aristocrats, officials, and Mongol commanders range from 77 to 300. Batu became the most influential person in the Mongol Empire as his friendship with Möngke ensured

12882-584: Was visibly influenced by the Mongols, and equipped his army in the Mongol fashion, his horsemen with Mongol-style cuirasses, and their mounts armoured with shoulder, chest, and head pieces. Michael of Chernigov , who had killed a Mongol envoy in 1240, refused to show obeisance and was executed in 1246. When Güyük called Batu to pay him homage several times, Batu sent Yaroslav II , Andrey II of Vladimir and Alexander Nevsky to Karakorum in Mongolia in 1247. Yaroslav II never returned and died in Mongolia. He

12996-553: Was wife of a Qongirat general of the Golden Horde. Nogai was angry with Kelmish's family because her Buddhist son despised his Muslim daughter. For this reason, he demanded Toqta send Kelmish's husband to him. Nogai's independent actions relating to Russian affairs and foreign merchants had already irritated Toqta. Toqta thus refused and declared war on Nogai. Toqta was defeated in their first battle. Nogai's army turned their attention to Caffa and Soldaia , looting both cities. Within two years, Toqta returned and killed Nogai in 1299 at

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