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87-788: Initially, the rulers of the Chagatai Khanate recognized the supremacy of the Great Khan , but by the reign of Kublai Khan , Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq no longer obeyed the emperor's orders. From 1363, the Chagatais progressively lost Transoxiana to the Timurids . The reduced realm came to be known as Moghulistan , which lasted until the late 15th century, when it broke off into the Yarkent Khanate and Turpan Khanate . In 1680,

174-529: A Mongolic origin for both qan and the female form qatun . According to Vovin, the word *qa-qan "great-qan" ( *qa- for "great" or "supreme") is of non-Altaic origin, but instead linked to Yeniseian *qεʔ ~ qaʔ "big, great". The origin of qan itself is harder according to Vovin. He says that the origin for the word qan is not found in any reconstructed proto-language and was used widely by Turkic, Mongolic, Chinese and Korean people with variations from kan, qan, han and hwan. A relation exists possibly to

261-476: A disastrous defeat by Yuan forces. In 1301 they were defeated again in an attack on Karakorum and Kaidu died during the retreat. After Kaidu's death in 1301, both Duwa and Kaidu 's son Chapar recognized Yuan authority in 1303. However Duwa threw off his allegiance to Chapar. Both the Yuan dynasty and Duwa attacked Chapar, forcing him to surrender his territory to Duwa in 1306. Meanwhile, Prince Turghai invaded

348-3438: A genuine Chagatayid. The Chagatai Mongols remained mostly nomadic in their mode of government and did not settle down in urban centers until the late 15th century. The Mongols of the Chagatai Khanate treated the urban dwellers of Transoxiana and the Tarim Basin as dependencies. Chagatai Khan (1226–1242) Qara Hülëgü (1st. 1242–1246) Yesü Möngke (1246–1252) Qara Hülëgü (2nd. 1252) Orghana (regent) Mubarak Shah (1st. 1252–1260) Alghu (1260–1266) Mubarak Shah (2nd. 1266) Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq (1266–1270) Kaidu (de facto ruler) Negübei (1270–1272) Kaidu (de facto ruler) Buqa Temür (127?–1282) Kaidu and Chapar (de facto rulers) Duwa (1282–1306) Duwa (1306-1307) Könchek (1307–1308) Taliqu (1308–1309) Kebek (1st. 1309–1310) Esen Buqa I (1310–1318) Kebek (2nd. 1318–1325) Eljigidey (1325–1329) Duwa Temür (1329–1330) Tarmashirin (1331–1334) Buzan (1334–1335) Changshi (1335–1338) Yesun Temur (1338–1342) 'Ali-Sultan (1342) Muhammad I ibn Pulad (1342–1343) Qazan Khan ibn Yasaur (1343–1346) Amir Qazaghan (de facto ruler) Danishmendji (1346–1348) Amir Qazaghan and Abdullah (de facto rulers) Bayan Qulï (1348–1358) Abdullah (de facto ruler) Shah Temur (1358) Tughlugh Timur (1360–1363) Amir Husayn and Timur (de facto rulers) Adil-Sultan (1363) Amir Husayn (de facto ruler) Khabul Shah (1364–1370) Timur (de facto ruler) Suurgatmish (1370–1384) Timur (de facto ruler) Sultan Mahmud (1384–1402) Tughlugh Timur (1347–1363) Ilyas Khoja (1363–1368) Qamar-ud-din Khan Dughlat (1368–1392) Khizr Khoja (1389–1399) Shams-i-Jahan (1399–1408) Muhammad Khan (1408–1415) Naqsh-i-Jahan (1415–1418) Uwais Khan (1st. 1418–1421) Sher Muhammad (1421–1425) Uwais Khan (2nd. 1425–1429) Satuq Khan (1429–1434) Esen Buqa II (1429–1462) Dost Muhammad (1462–1468) Kebek Sultan (1469–1472) Yunus Khan (1456–1487) Mahmud Khan (1487–1508) Mansur Khan (1508–1514) Sultan Said Khan (1514–1533) Abdurashid Khan (1533–1560) Abdul Karim Khan (1560-1591) Muhammad Sultan (1591–1610) Shudja ad Din Ahmad Khan (1610-1618) Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan (1618–1630) Sultan Ahmad Khan (Pulat Khan) (1630-1633) Mahmud Sultan (Qilich Khan) (1633–1636) Sultan Ahmad Khan (Pulat Khan) (1636-1638) Abdallah (1638–1669) Nur ad-Din Sultan (1667-1668) Ismail Khan (1st. 1669) YuIbars Khan (1669–1670) Ismail Khan (2nd. 1670-1678) Abd ar-Rashid Khan II (1678–1680) Afaq Khoja (1680–1690) Muhammad Imin Khan (1690-1692) Yahiya Khoja (1692–1695) Akbash Khan (1695-1705) Ahmad Alaq (1487–1503) Mansur Khan (1503–1548) Shah Khan (1543–1560) Muhammad Khan ibn Mansur Khan (1570) Koraish Sultan (1570–1588) Muhammad Sultan (1588–1591) Abduraim Khan (1591-1636) Abu'l Muhammad Khan (1636-1653) Ibrahim Sultan (1653–1655) Sultan Said Baba Khan (1655–1680) Great Khan Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian: ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ ; Khaan or Khagan ; Old Turkic : 𐰴𐰍𐰣 Kaɣan )

435-541: A new leader, Kublai attempted to send Abishqa, who was loyal to him. But Ariq Böke had Abishqa captured and eventually killed, and instead installed his own ally Alghu . Ariq Böke ordered Alghu to defend the area from both the forces of Hulagu, and the possible presence of Berke of the Golden Horde . But Alghu deserted Ariq Böke, killing his envoys for treasure, while Kaidu remained loyal to Ariq Böke. Alghu and Ariq Böke were soon in direct conflict, with Alghu winning

522-562: A number of scholars including Ramstedt , Shiratori, Pulleyblank, Sinor and Doerfer , and was reportedly first used by the Xianbei , as recorded in Book of Song . While Sinor believes qaγan or qapγan is an intensification of qan just as qap-qara is an intensification of qara "black", in Turkic (with the eventual loss of the p ), Shiratori rejects a Turkic etymology, instead supporting

609-542: A puppet khan ( Soyurgatmish ) on the throne to legitimize his rule, but his khans were members of the house of Ögedei rather than descendants of Chagatai. Ilyas Khoja attacked Timur in 1364 and defeated him on the north bank of the Syr Darya . He then besieged Samarkand but suffered harsh attrition due to an epidemic so that by the next year he was forced to retreat from Transoxania. The Dughlat Qamar-ud-din Khan Dughlat rebelled and killed Ilyas Khoja in 1368, taking

696-486: Is a title of imperial rank in Turkic , Mongolic , and some other languages, equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate (empire). The female equivalent is Khatun . It may also be translated as " Khan of Khans", equivalent to King of Kings . In Bulgarian, the title became known as Khan , while in modern Turkic, the title became Khaan with the g sound becoming almost silent or non-existent;

783-599: Is of unknown origin and possibly a loanword from the Rouran language . Canadian sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank (1962) first suggested that a Xiongnu title, transcribed as 護于 ( Old Chinese : * hʷaʔ-hʷaʰ ) might have been the original behind Turkic qaɣan ~ xaɣan . According to Vovin (2007, 2010) the term comes from qaγan (meaning " emperor " or "supreme ruler") and was later borrowed and used in several languages, especially in Turkic and Mongolic. Turkic and Mongolic (or Para-Mongolic ) origin has been suggested by

870-743: Is uncertain when Buqa Temür died, but after that, Baraq's son Duwa was enthroned as khan. Meanwhile, Abaqa invaded Transoxania in 1272 and sacked Bukhara, carrying off 50,000 captives. In 1275, Duwa joined Kaidu in the war against the Yuan dynasty but were repelled. In 1297, Duwa invaded the Punjab and devastated the region, but was defeated. Several invasions of the Delhi Sultanate also occurred but none were able to make any headway. In September 1298, Duwa captured Temür Khan 's son-in-law, Korguz, and put him to death, but immediately after that suffered

957-712: The 1340s , referred to Almaliq (the capital of the Chagatai Khanate) as "Almalek of the Middle Empire (Imperium Medium)". In addition, the Catalan Atlas of 1375 refers to the area corresponding to Chagatai Khanate as "Imperium Medorum", a possible alternate name of "Imperium Medium". In addition to the Latin sources mentioned above, Ibn Battuta records in Arabic that "His country [is in] the middle between

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1044-803: The Ashina ruling clan of the Göktürks and their dynastic successors among such peoples as the Khazars (cf. the compound military title Khagan Bek ). Minor rulers were rather relegated to the lower title of khan. Both Khagan as such and the Turkish form Hakan, with the specification in Arabic al-Barrayn wa al-Bahrayn (meaning literally "of both lands and both seas"), or rather fully in Ottoman Turkish Hakan ül-Berreyn vel-Bahreyn , were among

1131-450: The Delhi Sultanate in 1303 and looted the Delhi region. In 1304 they invaded again but suffered a crushing defeat. Duwa died soon after and was succeeded by his son Könchek , who ruled only for a year and a half before he died. One of Buqa Temür 's brothers, Taliqu , seized power, but Duwa's family rebelled and killed him at a banquet. Duwa's younger son Kebek became khan. Kebek invaded

1218-567: The Golden Horde khan Mengu-Timur in attacking Baraq. With a Golden Horde army of 50,000 at his back, Kaidu forced Baraq to flee to Transoxania . In 1267, Baraq accepted peace with Kaidu, and relinquished the territory east of Transoxania. Kaidu then coerced Baraq into invading the Ilkhanate . Baraq attacked first, defeating Prince Buchin, the governor of Khorasan , and brother of Abaqa Khan . Abaqa rushed from Azerbaijan and defeated Baraq near Herat on 22 July 1270, forcing him to retreat. On

1305-1011: The Göktürks crushed the Rouran ruling Mongolia, also used this title. The Avars invaded Europe , and for over a century ruled the Carpathian region. Westerners Latinized the title "Khagan" into "Gaganus" (in Historia Francorum ), "Cagan" (in the Annales Fuldenses ), or "Cacano" (in the Historia Langobardorum ). The Secret History of the Mongols , written for that very dynasty, clearly distinguishes Khagan and Khan : only Genghis Khan and his ruling descendants are called Khagan , while other rulers are referred to as Khan . The title "Khagan" or "Khaan" most literally translates to "great/supreme ruler" in

1392-455: The Ilkhanate truly recognized the Yuan's overlordship as allies (although it was effectively autonomous). Because Kublai founded the Yuan, the members of the other branches of the Borjigin could take part in the election of a new Khagan as the supporters of one or other of the contestants, but they could not enter the contest as candidates themselves. Later, Yuan emperors made peace with

1479-657: The Murgab and reached as far as Herat , but was forced to retreat when the Yuan dynasty attacked him from the east. The Yuan army devastated the Issyk-Kul region. In 1315 the Chagatayid prince Yasa'ur defected to the Ilkhanate, only to rebel, taking Khorasan . Both Chagatai and Ilkhanate forces attacked Yasa'ur. He was killed as he fled. Esen Buqa I died in 1318, at which point Kebek returned to power. He made peace with

1566-571: The Tarim Basin . Chagatai was not fully independent in his khanate however and still received orders from Karakorum . When he dismissed the governor of Transoxania, Mahmud Yalavach , Ögedei Khan reinstated Mahmud, whose dynasty continued to administer the region even after the death of Chagatai. In 1238 there was a Muslim uprising in Bukhara , but Mahmud's son Mas'ud crushed it the next year before Mongol troops were able to arrive, thereby saving

1653-590: The Timurids of Samarkand tried to recover Tashkent but were defeated by Mahmud. In 1487, Mahmud gave refuge to Muhammad Shaybani , who then seized Bukhara and Samarkand from the Timurids in 1500, making himself ruler of Transoxania . Muhammad immediately turned against Mahmud, who called his brother Ahmad Alaq for help, and defeated both the Moghul khans and took them prisoner. He released them soon after but kept Tashkent and Sairam . Ahmad died soon after. Mahmud

1740-589: The Toluid Civil War . Ariq Böke attacked him and while Alghu experienced initial success in fending off Ariq Böke's army, was forced to flee to Samarkand in 1263. Ariq Böke devastated the Ili region in his absence. Alghu was able to recruit a new army with the aid of Orghana and Mas'ud Yalavach. He then went on to defeat an invasion by Kaidu and drive out Ariq Böke, who surrendered to Kublai in 1264. Alghu died in 1265 and Orghana placed her son, Mubarak Shah, on

1827-518: The Xianbei chief Tuyuhun tried to escape from his younger stepbrother Murong Hui , and began his route from the Liaodong Peninsula to the areas of Ordos Desert . In the speech one of Murong's generals, Yinalou, addressed him as kehan ( Chinese : 可寒 , later Chinese : 可汗 ); some sources suggests that Tuyuhun might also have used the title after settling at Qinghai Lake in the 3rd century. The Rouran Khaganate (330–555)

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1914-709: The ğ in modern Turkish Kağan is also silent. After the division of the Mongol Empire , monarchs of the Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan held the title of Khagan . Kağan, Hakan and Kaan , Turkish equivalents of the title are common Turkish names in Turkey . The common western rendering as Great Khan (or Grand Khan ), notably in the case of the Mongol Empire , is a translation of Yekhe Khagan ( Great Emperor or Их Хаан ). The term

2001-429: The 1340s. Transoxania was ruled by Qazan Khan ibn Yasaur . In 1346 a tribal chief, Amir Qazaghan , killed Qazan and set up Danishmendji as puppet khan. Danishmendji was killed a year later and replaced with Bayan Qulï . Qazaghan made Herat a tributary in 1351. He was assassinated in 1357 and was succeeded by his son Abdullah , who killed Bayan Qulï in 1358. This aroused the anger of local lords such as Hajji Beg ,

2088-590: The 1342 painting The Martyrdom of the Franciscans , by Ambrogio Lorenzetti . Giovanni de' Marignolli , a papal legate, arrived in the Ili valley the following year on his way to the Yuan dynasty . He built a church and baptized some people during his stay, and the presence of Christianity lasted until the end of the Mongol era. The khanate became increasingly unstable in the following years and split in two during

2175-638: The Delhi Sutunate again in 1305, looting the Multan region, but suffered a defeat on the way back. Chapar took advantage of the political turmoil to attack Kebek but was defeated and fled to the Yuan dynasty. Another kuriltai was held in the Chagatai Khanate, which elected another of Duwa's sons, Esen Buqa I , who took the throne ceded by Kebek. In 1315, Esen Buqa invaded the Ilkhanate in support of Duwa's grandson, Dawud Khoja, who had set himself up in eastern Afghanistan . He defeated an Ilkhanate army on

2262-458: The Ili region. Yunus tried to conquer Kashgar but was repelled by Sayyid Ali and Esen Buqa II. Esen Buqa II died in 1462. His son Dost Muhammad was an inexperienced 17 year old. He plundered the territory of the Dughlats. By the time he died in 1469, his realm was in general revolt. Yunus took advantage of the situation to capture the Moghul capital Aksu . Dost Muhammad's young son Kebek Sultan

2349-402: The Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty and reigned until 1325. Kebek was succeeded by his three brothers in succession. Eljigidey and Duwa Temür each reigned for only a few months. Tarmashirin (1326–1334) converted to Islam and raided the Delhi Sultanate , reaching as far as Delhi . Tarmashirin was brought down by an anti-Muslim rebellion of the eastern tribes. A son of Duwa , Changshi ,

2436-582: The Kyrgyz-Kazakhs from seizing the Ili region. Abdurashid was succeeded in 1565 by his son Abdul Karim Khan , who shifted the capital to Yarkand. Abdul was succeeded in 1590 by his brother Muhammad Sultan , who repelled an invasion by the Khanate of Bukhara under Abdullah Khan II . Muhammad died in 1610 and was succeeded by his son Shudja ad Din Ahmad Khan , who was assassinated in 1619, and replaced by Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan. Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan

2523-573: The Manchu-led Qing dynasty which extended into Inner Asia by the 18th century, their Turkic Muslim subjects (and surrounding Muslim khanates like the Khanate of Kokand ) associated the Qing rulers with this name and commonly referred to the Qing emperors as the "Chinese khagan" ( Khāqān-i Chīn ). In the early 10th century, the Rus' people employed the title of kagan (or qaghan ), reported by

2610-630: The Moghul khan. In 1389 Timur attacked Khizr Khoja instead and forced him to flee into the Gobi Desert . In 1390 Timur invaded Moghulistan and once again failed to find Qamar, but Qamar, having fled, was never heard of again. Khizr Khoja returned to Moghulistan and assumed power once more. He gave his daughter in marriage to Timur and made peace with him in 1397. Khizr Khoja died in 1399 and was succeeded by his three sons in succession: Shams-i-Jahan (1399–1408), Muhammad Khan (1408–1415), and Naqsh-i-Jahan (1415–1418). Upon Khizr Khoja's death, Timur took

2697-478: The Mongol Empire . Ariq Böke was supported by the traditionalists of the Mongol Empire, while his brother Kublai was supported by the senior princes of North China and Manchuria . Ariq Böke was the youngest son of Sorghaghtani Beki and Tolui , the youngest son of Genghis Khan . When Genghis died in 1227, the leadership of the Empire passed to Genghis' third son (Ariq Böke's uncle), Ögedei. He peacefully attended

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2784-415: The Mongol language, and by extension "sovereign", "monarch", "high king", or "emperor". The title can also be expanded with the addition of "Yekhe" (meaning "great" or "grand") to produce "Yekhe Khagan", meaning "Great Emperor". The Mongol Empire began to split politically with the Toluid Civil War during 1260–1264 and the death of Kublai Khan in 1294, but the term Ikh Khagan (Great Khan, or Emperor)

2871-664: The Mongols turned into a political turmoil. Dayan Khan (1464–1517/1543) once revived the Emperor's authority and recovered its reputation on the Mongolian Plateau , but with the distribution of his empire among his sons and relatives as fiefs it again caused decentralized rule. The last Khagan of the Chahars , Ligdan Khan , died in 1634 while fighting the Jurchen -led Later Jin dynasty . In contemporary Mongolian language

2958-629: The Mongols, which Kublai through his actions and attitudes after 1260 opposed. Some Mongols felt there was a dangerous drift towards softness, typified in those like Kublai who thought there was something to be said for settled civilization and for the Chinese way of life. In the traditionalist view, the Mongol center ought to remain in Mongolia, and the Mongols' nomadic life be preserved uncontaminated. China ought merely to be exploited. Ariq Böke came to be regarded as this faction's figurehead." This legacy

3045-575: The Oirats. Shah died in 1560 and Muhammad succeeded him. Muhammad had to fight against a third brother, Sufi Sultan, who tried to enlist the Ming in support of his claim to the throne. After Muhammad's death in 1570, the Turpan Khanate fades from historical texts. The last thing heard of them are embassies sent from Turpan to Beijing in 1647 and 1657. The Qing dynasty regarded them as embassies from

3132-569: The Ottoman sultans primacy among Turkish monarchs . Though it was not entirely an imitation of Genghis Khanid doctrine, the Oghuz claim to sovereignty followed the same pattern. Bayezid I advanced this claim against Timur , who denigrated the Ottoman lineage. Emperor Taizong of Tang was crowned Tian Kehan , or "heavenly Khagan" after defeating the Tujue ( Göktürks ). A later letter sent by

3219-587: The Persian geographer Ahmad ibn Rustah , who wrote between 903 and 913. It is believed that the tradition endured in the eleventh century, as the metropolitan bishop of Kiev in the Kievan Rus' , Hilarion of Kiev , calls both grand prince Vladimir I of Kiev (978–1015) and grand prince Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) by the title of kagan , while a graffito on the walls of Saint Sophia's Cathedral gives

3306-659: The Prophet of the Lord of the Universe; next followed a series of specifically "regional" titles, starting with Protector of the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem.) "Khagan" is the second title of Safavid and Qajar shahs (kings) of Iran. For example, Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar, Fath Ali Shah and other Qajar shahs used this title. The nickname of Shah Ismail and other Safavid shahs is Kagan-i Suleyman shan (Khagan with

3393-632: The Tang court to the Yenisei Kirghiz Qaghan explained that "the peoples of the northwest" had requested Tang Taizong to become the "Heavenly Qaghan". The Tang dynasty Chinese emperors were recognized as khagans of the Turks at least from 665 to 705; moreover, two appeal letters from the Turkic hybrid rulers, Ashina Qutluγ Ton Tardu in 727, the Yabgu of Tokharistan , and Yina Tudun Qule in 741,

3480-540: The Yeniseian words *qʌ:j or *χʌ:j meaning "ruler". It may be impossible to prove the ultimate origin of the title, but Vovin says: "Thus, it seems to be quite likely that the ultimate source of both qaγan and qan can be traced back to Xiong-nu and Yeniseian". Dybo (2007) suggests that the ultimate etymological root of Khagan comes from the Middle Iranian * hva-kama- ‘self-ruler, emperor’, following

3567-414: The brand-new official state name Dumdadu Mongol Ulus in order to affirm that their polity was renewed, as did the emperor Qubilai, who in 1271 adopted the official state name Dai Ön Yeke Mongol Ulus. When Genghis Khan died in 1227, his son Chagatai Khan inherited the regions roughly corresponding to the defunct Qara Khitai Empire: Issyk-Kul , Ili River , Chu River , Talas River , Transoxania , and

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3654-643: The campaign, Said fell ill from altitude sickness and died in July 1533 on the homeward journey. He was succeeded by his son Abdurashid Khan . Abdurashid came into conflict with the Dughlats and persecuted one of their leaders, Sayyid Muhammad-mirza. Abdurashid spent his reign fighting the Kyrgyz people and the Kazakhs , who made incursions on the Ili region and Issyk Kul . He was ultimately unsuccessful in preventing

3741-422: The capital of Karakorum. Kublai also blockaded all trade to Mongolia from North China , in order to cut the food supply. Ariq Böke finally submitted to Kublai in 1264. He was imprisoned by Kublai and died mysteriously a few years after his surrender, leading to rumors that he had been secretly poisoned. According to scholar David Morgan, "Ariq Böke can be seen as representing an influential school of thought among

3828-490: The death of his brother the Great Khan Möngke , Ariq Böke claimed the title of the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and briefly took power while his brothers Kublai and Hulagu were absent from the Mongolian Plateau . When Kublai returned for an election in 1260, rival factions could not agree, and elected both claimants, Kublai and Ariq Böke, to the throne, resulting in the Toluid Civil War that fragmented

3915-437: The east, the powerful Dughlats enthroned a son of Esen Buqa I , Tughlugh Timur as khan of Moghulistan in 1347. In 1350, Tughlugh converted to Islam . Hajji split Transoxania with Bayan Selduz but they were unable to stabilize the realm and it fell into disarray. In 1360, Tughlugh invaded Transoxania and conquered it. Hajji Beg fled in the face of overwhelming power. The future conqueror Timur entered Tughlugh's service and

4002-458: The elections of both his uncle, Great Khan Ögedei and Ögedei's successor and eldest son, Güyük . After his eldest brother Möngke was enthroned in 1250, his family became even more powerful among the Genghisiid . His mother was Christian and Ariq Böke was also known for being sympathetic towards Christianity; this is known from the account of Franciscan William of Rubruck , an envoy of Louis IX of France who wrote that he observed Ariq Böke make

4089-407: The final separation of Moghulistan into two realms, with Said situated in Kashgar, and Mansur in Turpan, otherwise known as Uyghuristan . In 1513, Kara Del submitted to Mansur and in 1517 Mansur moved to Hami permanently, where he launched raids against the Ming dynasty. Mansur was succeeded in 1545 by his son Shah Khan . Shah fought with his brother Muhammad, who seized part of Hami and allied with

4176-484: The first engagement, but then at the second, Ariq Böke was victorious, and forced Alghu to flee westward. Eventually, as the war continued between Ariq Böke and his brother Kublai, the former's forces weakened. Kublai had powerful Mongol cavalry troops, Mongolian , Manchurian , Han , Kipchak and numerous Chinese and Goryeo infantry units. Kublai's supporter Kadan , a son of Ögedei , crushed Ariq Böke's force under General Alandar, and Ariq Böke twice lost control of

4263-574: The four of the powerful kings on the earth, i.e., King of China, King of India, King of Iraq and King Özbeg". This description suggests that the Chagatai Khanate was called the "Middle Empire" because it was located exactly in the middle of Eurasia. Matsui Dai introduced the expression "[missing] -dadu mongγo[l] u(l)us" in a Uighur script document excavated from Turfan , and based on the example of "Middle Empire (Imperium Medium)," argued that this should be read as "Dumdadu Mongγol Ulus". Matsui proposed that "it seems probable that Dua or his descendants took

4350-422: The glory of Solomon). Ottoman rulers, after the 14th century, used only two titles "shah" and "khan" until end of the empire. Sultans like Mehmed the Conqueror and Suleiman the Magnificent used the title "Khagan of the two seas". Yazıcıoğlu Ali, in early 15th century, traced Osman 's genealogy to Oghuz Khagan , the mythical ancestors of Western Turks, through his senior grandson of his senior son, so giving

4437-423: The khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and the Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment, and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son who ruled for only a brief period before Ismail Khan was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between

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4524-443: The king of Tashkent , addressing Emperor Xuanzong of Tang as Tian Kehan during the Umayyad expansion. The name "Chinese khagan" ( Khāqān-i Chīn , "Khagan of China") referring to the ruler of China (i.e. Emperor of China ) as a symbol of power appeared in medieval Turco-Persian literature works like the great 11th-century epic poem Shahnameh , which were circulated widely in Persia , Central Asia , and Xinjiang . During

4611-573: The late 16th century onward, the Yarkent Khanate fell under the influence of the Khojas . The Khojas were Muslims who claimed descent from Muhammad or from the first four Arab caliphs . By the reign of Said in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other and they passed down their mutual hatred down to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of

4698-421: The nomadic way of life. His nomadic followers became alarmed by this action and departed for the steppes, taking with them Yunus' second son Ahmad Alaq . When Yunus died in 1486, his realm was divided between the Yarkent Khanate , ruled by Mahmud Khan in the west, and the Turpan Khanate , ruled by Ahmad Alaq in the northeast. In the west, Mahmud Khan ruled from Tashkent over the Yarkent Khanate . In 1488,

4785-545: The opportunity to send another army to pillage Moghul lands. Uwais Khan came to power in 1418. During his reign he waged war on the Oirats and was taken prisoner by their leader Esen Taishi . Due to Uwais' royal lineage, Esen Taishi treated him with respect and released him. Uwais suffered two more defeats against the Oirats and was captured a second time. He was let go after sending his sister as hostage to Esen Taishi's family. Uwais died in 1429. Two factions supporting his two sons Yunus Khan and Esen Buqa II quarreled over

4872-406: The populace from Mongol vengeance. Chagatai Khan died in 1242 and was succeeded by his grandson Qara Hülegü . He was too young to rule independently so the widowed khatun Ebuskun ruled as regent in his place. In 1246, Güyük Khan replaced him with one of his uncles, Yesü Möngke . Yesü Möngke came to power because he was a personal friend of Güyük Khan. He was a drunkard who left the affairs of

4959-475: The remaining Chagatai domains lost their independence to the Dzungar Khanate . Finally, the Kumul Khanate , an autonomous division of China established during the Qing dynasty in 1696 and governed by descendants of Chagatai Khan, was abolished during the Republic of China in 1930, ending the dynasty. The Chagatai Khanate was also known as the Dumdadu Mongγol Ulus (the Middle Mongolian Empire). For example, Giovanni de' Marignolli , who visited Yuan dynasty in

5046-439: The resistance against them in the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated the Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II , son of Babak, as puppet khan. The new khan forced Afaq Khoja to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He

5133-399: The rule of Chagatai khans forever. Ahmad Alaq 's reduced nomadic realm (known as the Turpan Khanate ) came into frequent conflict with the Oirats , Kyrgyz people , and Kazakhs . According to the Tarikh-i Rashidi , the Oirats called him Alasha , "the Killer". In 1482, Hami was restored to Kara Del under Qanšin, but in 1488, Ahmad killed Qanšin and retook the city. The next year Ahmad

5220-417: The same title to the son of Iaroslav, grand prince Sviatoslav II of Kiev (1073–1076). Ariq B%C3%B6ke Ariq Böke (after 1219–1266), the components of his name also spelled Arigh , Arik and Bukha , Buka ( Mongolian : Аригбөх , romanized :  Arigböh , [ˈæɾɘ̆ɡb̥ə̹x] ; Chinese : 阿里不哥 ), was the seventh and youngest son of Tolui and a grandson of Genghis Khan . After

5307-442: The sign of cross and state that "We know that the Messiah [Jesus] is God". A Confucian tutor was arranged for Ariq Böke, at the behest of his elder brother Kublai Khan , but Ariq Böke did not take to Chinese scholars the way his elder brother had. When Ögedei Khan died, a power struggle erupted, with leadership then passing to Ögedei's son Güyük in 1246, though Güyük died only two years later, in 1248. After another struggle,

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5394-461: The sons of Tolui, Ögedei's brother, took power. The first of Tolui's sons to be Great Khan was Möngke , who proceeded with Kublai to conquer Southern China and the Southern Song dynasty . Their brother Hulagu led the Mongol advance westward, conquering Baghdad and proceeding into Syria and towards Palestine . During this time, all affairs of the Heartland were left under the control of their brother Ariq Böke. When Möngke died in 1259, Ariq Böke

5481-488: The state to his wife and minister Beha ad-Din Marghinani. In 1252 he was deposed by Möngke Khan , who installed Qara Hülegü again. Qara Hülegü died on his way home and was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah . Mubarak Shah was too young to rule and state affairs were managed by his mother Orghana . In 1260, Ariq Böke replaced Mubarak Shah with Alghu , a grandson of Chagatai Khan . Alghu rebelled against Ariq Böke upon securing power and defected to Kublai Khan 's side in

5568-417: The three western khanates of the Mongol Empire and were considered as their nominal suzerain. The nominal supremacy, while based on nothing like the same foundations as that of the earlier khagans (such as the continued border clashes among them), did last for a few decades, until the Yuan dynasty collapsed in 1368. After the breakdown of Mongol Empire and the fall of the Yuan dynasty in the mid-14th century,

5655-446: The throne for himself. Ilyas Khoja's brother Khizr Khoja fled to Turpan where he set up his own independent realm and converted the last Uyghurs there to Islam . In 1375, Timur invaded Moghulistan , looting the Ili region . Qamar retaliated by raiding Fergana until Timur put him to flight. Timur fell into an ambush and barely escaped, retreating to Samarkand . Timur attacked again in 1376 and 1383 but both times failed to capture

5742-534: The throne once again. Mubarak Shah was the first Chagatai khan to be converted to Islam. His rule was cut short by his cousin Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq , who deposed him with the support of Kublai Khan. Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq came into conflict with Kublai Khan on the administration of the Tarim Basin . Baraq drove out an agent sent by Kublai to govern the region and when Kublai sent a detachment of 6,000 horsemen, Baraq met them with 30,000 men, forcing them to retreat. Baraq also came into conflict with Kaidu , who enlisted

5829-434: The throne with Esen Buqa II emerging as the victor. Yunus fled to Samarkand. Under Esen Buqa II, the powerful Dughlat Sayyid Ali, who had helped him to the throne, became very influential and held both Kucha and Kashgar . In 1451, Esen Buqa II raided the northern border of the Timurid Empire . The Timurid ruler Abu Sa'id Mirza schemed to split the Moghuls in two, so he summoned Yunus in 1456 and supported his authority in

5916-401: The titles in the official full style of the Great Sultan (and later Caliph) of the Ottoman Empire , reflecting the historical legitimation of the dynasty's rule as political successor to various conquered (often Islamised) states. (The title began: Sultan Hân N.N., Padishah , Hünkar , Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans , Khan of Khans, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of

6003-420: The two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader, Afaq Khoja . Afaq fled to Tibet , where the 5th Dalai Lama aided him in enlisting the help of Galdan Boshugtu Khan , ruler of the Dzungar Khanate . In 1680, Galdan led 120,000 Dzungars into the Yarkent Khanate. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs and Hami and Turpan , which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son Babak Sultan died in

6090-438: The uncle of Tamerlane . Hajji drove out Abdullah to the Hindu Kush , where he died. From then on the Chagatayid khans of Transoxania served as nothing more but figureheads until it was annexed by the Timurid Empire . The Timurids likewise continued to portray descendants of Chaghatai khans as khans (i.e. rulers) but in reality they were confined in their castles with no authority. They were political prisoners in Samarkand . In

6177-419: The view of Benveniste 1966. Savelyev and Jeong 2020 note that both the etymological root for Khagan and its female equivalent Khatun may be derived from Eastern Iranian languages , specifically from "Early Saka * hvatuñ , cf. the attested Soghdian words xwt'w ‘ruler’ (< * hva-tāvya- ) and xwt'yn ‘wife of the ruler’ (< * hva-tāvyani )". The title was first seen in a speech between 283 and 289, when

6264-552: The way back he fell from his horse and was crippled so he spent the winter in Bukhara where he died not long after. He converted to Islam before his death. Baraq's four sons and two sons of Alghu rebelled against Kaidu in the wake of Baraq's death, but they were continually defeated. Kaidu enthroned Negübei as the khan in Transoxania. When Negübei rebelled, he was killed and replaced with another khan, Buqa Temür in 1274. It

6351-475: The words "Khaan" and "Khan" have different meanings, while English language usually does not differentiate between them. The title is also used as a generic term for a king or emperor (as эзэн хаан , ezen khaan ), as in " Испанийн хаан Хуан Карлос " ( Ispaniin khaan Khuan Karlos , "king/khaan of Spain Juan Carlos"). The early khagans of the Mongol Empire were: The title became associated with

6438-614: Was appointed ruler of Shahr-i Sebz . After Tughlugh left Transoxania, Hajji Beg returned in force, only to be driven away again by Tughlugh. Hajji Beg was killed near Sebzewar . Tughlugh expanded his territory into Afghanistan by defeating Amir Husayn. Thus the Chagatai Khanate was restored under Tughlugh. Following Tughlugh's death in 1363, Timur and Amir Husayn took over Transoxiana. Timur and Amir Husayn forced Tughlugh's successor Ilyas Khoja out of Transoxania, and then Timur eliminated Amir Husayn as well, gaining mastery over Transoxiana (1369–1405). Like his predecessors, Timur maintained

6525-760: Was captured again in 1508 and put to death, marking the last time the Chagatayids were ejected from Transoxania. In 1514, Mansur Khan 's brother Sultan Said Khan captured Kashgar, Yarkand , and Khotan from Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat , who had ruled in Mahmud's absence, and forced him to flee to Ladakh . This marked the final separation of Moghulistan into two realms, with Said situated in Kashgar, and Mansur in Turpan, otherwise known as Uyghuristan . In 1529, Said attacked Badakhshan , and in 1531, he invaded Ladakh. During

6612-465: Was captured but released soon after. He died of paralysis in Aksu a year later. His brother Mansur Khan succeeded him. His reign began with difficulties with the powerful Dughlat of Kashgar, Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat , plundering the cities of Kucha and Aksu. In 1514, Mansur's brother Sultan Said Khan captured Kashgar, Yarkand , and Khotan from Abu Bakr and forced him to flee to Ladakh . This marked

6699-558: Was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696, Akbash Khan was placed on the throne, but the begs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with the Kyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted the Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatayid ruler Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending

6786-641: Was defeated both times in 1479 and 1480, after which Abu Bakr also seized Kashgar. In the west, Yunus captured Hami from Kara Del , which was then a tributary of the Ming dynasty . A Ming army evicted the Moghuls from the city but failed to catch them, and they soon returned to Hami afterwards. Yunus also took advantage of political infighting in the west to vassalize Umar Shaikh Mirza II 's realm in Fergana . Yunus moved to Tashkent in 1484 and settled down, giving up

6873-629: Was driven out of Hami. In 1493, Ahmad captured Kara Del's ruler Šamba and held him prisoner. Šamba received support from the Ming dynasty , which closed its borders to Turpan and expelled its traders from their markets, which eventually forced Ahmad to give up his ambitions in Hami due to unrest in his realm. In 1499 Ahmad retook Kashgar and Yengisar from Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat . Around 1500, Muhammad Shaybani attacked Ahmad's brother Mahmud Khan , who appealed to Ahmad for help. Muhammad defeated both Ahmad and Mahmud, seizing Tashkent and Sairam . Ahmad

6960-577: Was elected Khan in the absence of his brothers, and had the support of most of the ministers and powerful families in the capital of Karakorum , such as Möngke's family, and other princes of the Golden Horde family along with other forces in the capital of Karakorum including Torguud royal bodyguards and White Horde elites, as well as the Oirats , who were allied with him as one of the Oirat leaders

7047-704: Was enthroned in 1335. One of his sons was baptized. Pope Benedict XII appointed the Franciscan bishop Richard of Burgundy to Almalik in 1339. But during the reign of 'Ali-Sultan , Islam fully absorbed the Chagatai Mongols and 'Ali persecuted non-Muslim religions. He is the one who ordered the extermination of the Franciscan congregation at Almaliq, and the killing of six Franciscan monks in 1339 (including bishop Richard of Burgundy, Pascal of Spain, Raymond of Provence and three others), as depicted in

7134-491: Was married to his daughter. However, when Kublai and Hulagu received news of Möngke's death, they aborted their own battles in order to return to the capital to decide the matter of succession. In May 1260, Kublai was elected khan by his own supporters, to rival the claim of Ariq Böke. A civil war subsequently broke out between the brothers for the leadership of the Empire. For example, when the Chagatai Khanate needed

7221-588: Was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from the Qing dynasty , Khanate of Bukhara , and the Mughal Empire in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad conducted a successful attack on the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately Afaq Khoja appeared again and overthrew Muhammad in a revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son Yahiya Khoja was enthroned but his reign

7308-605: Was still used by the emperors of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), who also took on the title of the Emperor of China . After the fall of the Yuan dynasty, the title continued to be used by monarchs of the Northern Yuan dynasty . Thus, the Yuan is sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan , coexisting with the other independent Mongol-ruled khanates in the west, including the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde . Only

7395-538: Was succeeded by his nephew Sultan Ahmad Khan (Pulat Khan) in 1631. Pulat was overthrown by Abdallah (Moghul Khan) in 1636. Abdallah stabilized the court and exiled a number of old nobles to India . He repelled Oirat inroads in the Khotan and Aksu regions, and entered a tributary relationship with the Qing dynasty in 1655. Friendly relations were also established with Bukhara and the Mughal Empire . In 1667, Abdallah's son Yulbars Khan removed his father from power. From

7482-568: Was taken to Turpan , where he was proclaimed khan. Four years later, he was put to death by his followers and brought to Yunus. Yunus thus became the sole ruler of Moghulistan in 1472. Yunus' reign began with a raid by the Oirats under Esen Taishi's son Amasanj, who forced Yunus to flee to the Syr Darya. Yunus returned after the Oirats left with their pillage. In 1465, Yunus faced a rebellion by Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat , who seized Yarkand and Khotan . Yunus attempted twice to remove to Abu Bakr but

7569-565: Was the first people to use the titles Khagan and Khan for their emperors, replacing the Chanyu of the Xiongnu , whom Grousset and others assume to be Turkic . The Rourans were stated to be descendants of the Donghu people , who in turn are assumed to be proto-Mongols , Mongolic-speaking , or a "non-Altaic" group. The Avar Khaganate (567–804), who may have included Rouran elements after

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