127-417: Leonard Plukenet (1641–1706) was an English botanist, Royal Professor of Botany and gardener to Queen Mary . Plukenet published Phytographia (London, 1691–1696) in four parts in which he described and illustrated rare exotic plants. It is a copiously illustrated work of more than 2 700 figures and is frequently cited in books and papers from the 17th century to the present. He collaborated with John Ray in
254-508: A balladin , taught her to dance. Her future sister-in-law, Elisabeth of Valois , became a close friend of whom Mary "retained nostalgic memories in later life". Mary's maternal grandmother, Antoinette de Bourbon , was another strong influence on her childhood and acted as one of her principal advisors. Portraits of Mary show that she had a small, oval-shaped head, a long, graceful neck, bright auburn hair, hazel-brown eyes, under heavy lowered eyelids and finely arched brows, smooth pale skin,
381-423: A civil war against Regent Moray and his successors. As an anointed queen, Mary refused to acknowledge the power of any court to try her. She refused to attend the inquiry at York personally but sent representatives. Elizabeth forbade her attendance anyway. As evidence against Mary, Moray presented the so-called casket letters —eight unsigned letters purportedly from Mary to Bothwell, two marriage contracts, and
508-787: A joust , fifteen-year-old Francis and sixteen-year-old Mary became king and queen of France. Two of the Queen's uncles, the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine , were now dominant in French politics, enjoying an ascendancy called by some historians la tyrannie Guisienne . In Scotland, the power of the Protestant Lords of the Congregation was rising at the expense of Mary's mother, who maintained effective control only through
635-498: A Scottish Parliament held at a nunnery near the town agreed to the French marriage treaty . With her marriage agreement in place, five-year-old Mary was sent to France to spend the next thirteen years at the French court. The French fleet sent by Henry II, commanded by Nicolas de Villegagnon , sailed with Mary from Dumbarton on 7 August 1548 and arrived a week or more later at Roscoff or Saint-Pol-de-Léon in Brittany . Mary
762-663: A better claim than Mary. In late 1561 and early 1562, arrangements were made for the two queens to meet in England at York or Nottingham in August or September 1562. In July, Elizabeth sent Sir Henry Sidney to cancel Mary's visit because of the civil war in France . Mary then turned her attention to finding a new husband from the royalty of Europe. When her uncle, the Cardinal of Lorraine , began negotiations with Archduke Charles of Austria without her consent, she angrily objected and
889-516: A complete set. There are incomplete printed transcriptions in English, Scots, French, and Latin from the 1570s. Other documents scrutinised included Bothwell's divorce from Jean Gordon. Moray had sent a messenger in September to Dunbar to get a copy of the proceedings from the town's registers. Mary's biographers, such as Antonia Fraser , Alison Weir , and John Guy , have concluded that either
1016-548: A daughter, ruefully exclaimed, "It cam wi' a lass and it will gang wi' a lass!" His House of Stuart had gained the throne of Scotland in the 14th century through "a lass"—via the marriage of Marjorie Bruce , daughter of Robert the Bruce , to Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland —and it would be lost from his family "wi' a lass". This legendary statement came true much later – not through Mary, but through her great-great-granddaughter Anne, Queen of Great Britain . Mary
1143-522: A declaration which referred to James's newborn son as the "pretended Prince of Wales". He also gave a list of grievances of the English people and stated that his proposed expedition was for the sole purpose of having "a free and lawful Parliament assembled". Having been turned back by storms in October, William and the Dutch army finally landed in England on 5 November 1688, without Mary, who stayed behind in
1270-566: A devout Catholic, she was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects, as well as by the Queen of England. Scotland was torn between Catholic and Protestant factions. Mary's illegitimate half-brother, the Earl of Moray , was a leader of the Protestants. The Protestant reformer John Knox preached against Mary, condemning her for hearing Mass , dancing, and dressing too elaborately. She summoned him to her presence to remonstrate with him but
1397-629: A dutiful, submissive wife, who assumed power reluctantly, exercised it with considerable ability when necessary, and willingly deferred it to her husband. The joint style of William III and Mary II was "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England , France and Ireland , Defenders of the Faith , etc." when they ascended the English throne. From 11 April 1689—when the Estates of Scotland recognised them as sovereigns—the royal couple used
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#17327935856621524-681: A duty to obey her. The early years of her personal rule were marked by pragmatism, tolerance, and moderation. She issued a proclamation accepting the religious settlement in Scotland as she had found it upon her return, retained advisers such as James Stewart, Earl of Moray (her illegitimate half-brother), and William Maitland of Lethington , and governed as the Catholic monarch of a Protestant kingdom. Mary married her half-cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley , in 1565, and in 1566 she bore him
1651-477: A formal entry to The Hague in a grand procession. Mary's animated and personable nature made her popular with the Dutch people, and her marriage to a Protestant prince was popular in Britain. She was devoted to her husband, but he was often away on campaigns, which led to Mary's family supposing him to be cold and neglectful. Within months of the marriage Mary was pregnant; however, on a visit to her husband at
1778-491: A harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ); overall an escutcheon Azure billetty a lion rampant Or (for the House of Orange-Nassau ). Mary, Queen of Scots Mary, Queen of Scots (8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587), also known as Mary Stuart or Mary I of Scotland , was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 until her forced abdication in 1567. The only surviving legitimate child of James V of Scotland , Mary
1905-410: A high forehead, and regular, firm features. She was considered a pretty child and later, as a woman, strikingly attractive. At some point in her infancy or childhood, she caught smallpox , but it did not mark her features. Mary was eloquent, and especially tall by 16th-century standards (she attained an adult height of 5 feet 11 inches or 1.80 m); while Henry II's son and heir, Francis, stuttered and
2032-457: A house belonging to the brother of Sir James Balfour at the former abbey of Kirk o' Field , just within the city wall. Mary visited him daily, so that it appeared a reconciliation was in progress. On the night of 9–10 February 1567, Mary visited her husband in the early evening and then attended the wedding celebrations of a member of her household, Bastian Pagez . In the early hours of the morning, an explosion devastated Kirk o' Field. Darnley
2159-637: A husband could not be subject to his wife. William wished to reign as a king, rather than function as a mere consort of a queen. For her part, Mary did not wish to be queen regnant, believing that women should defer to their husbands, and "knowing my heart is not made for a kingdom and my inclination leads me to a retired quiet life". On 13 February 1689, the English Parliament passed the Declaration of Right , in which it deemed that James, by attempting to flee on 11 December 1688, had abdicated
2286-485: A journey on horseback of at least four hours each way to visit the Earl of Bothwell at Hermitage Castle , where he lay ill from wounds sustained in a skirmish with John Elliot of Park . The ride was later used as evidence by Mary's enemies that the two were lovers, though no suspicions were voiced at the time and Mary had been accompanied by her councillors and guards. Immediately after her return to Jedburgh, she suffered
2413-407: A love sonnet or sonnets. All were said to have been found in a silver-gilt casket just less than one foot (30 cm) long and decorated with the monogram of King Francis II. Mary denied writing them and insisted they were forgeries, arguing that her handwriting was not difficult to imitate. They are widely believed to be crucial as to whether Mary shared the guilt for Darnley's murder. The head of
2540-588: A potential match between their son and Mary. Both Mary and Darnley were grandchildren of Margaret Tudor, sister of Henry VIII of England, and patrilineal descendants of the High Stewards of Scotland . Darnley shared a more recent Stewart lineage with the Hamilton family as a descendant of Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran , a daughter of James II of Scotland . They next met on Saturday 17 February 1565 at Wemyss Castle in Scotland. Mary fell in love with
2667-485: A result, she was criticised by Sarah Churchill among others, for appearing cold to her father's plight. In January 1689, a Convention Parliament of England summoned by the Prince of Orange assembled, and much discussion relating to the appropriate course of action ensued. A party led by Lord Danby held that Mary should be sole monarch, as the rightful hereditary heir, while William and his supporters were adamant that
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#17327935856622794-564: A secret conspiracy with Protestant lords, including the nobles who had rebelled against Mary in the Chaseabout Raid. On 9 March, a group of the conspirators accompanied by Darnley stabbed Rizzio to death in front of the pregnant Mary at a dinner party in Holyrood Palace. Over the next two days, a disillusioned Darnley switched sides and Mary received Moray at Holyrood. On the night of 11–12 March, Darnley and Mary escaped from
2921-446: A serious illness that included frequent vomiting, loss of sight, loss of speech, convulsions and periods of unconsciousness. She was thought to be dying. Her recovery from 25 October onwards was credited to the skill of her French physicians. The cause of her illness is unknown. Potential diagnoses include physical exhaustion and mental stress, haemorrhage of a gastric ulcer, and porphyria . At Craigmillar Castle , near Edinburgh, at
3048-466: A son James . But their marriage soured after Darnley orchestrated the murder of Mary's Italian secretary and close friend David Rizzio . In February 1567, Darnley's residence was destroyed by an explosion, and he was found murdered in the nearby garden. James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell , was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnley's death, but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567 and in
3175-504: A son— James Francis Edward —in June 1688, for the son would, unlike Mary and Anne, be raised a Roman Catholic. Some charged that the boy was supposititious , having been secretly smuggled into the Queen's room in a bed-warming pan as a substitute for her stillborn baby. Others thought the father was someone other than James, who was rumoured to be impotent. Seeking information, Mary sent a pointed list of questions to her sister, Anne, regarding
3302-498: Is bewitched", adding that the marriage could only be averted "by violence". The union infuriated Elizabeth, who felt the marriage should not have gone ahead without her permission, as Darnley was both her cousin and an English subject. Mary's marriage to a leading Catholic precipitated Mary's half-brother, the Earl of Moray, to join with other Protestant lords, including Lords Argyll and Glencairn , in open rebellion. Mary set out from Edinburgh on 26 August 1565 to confront them. On
3429-428: Is known as that of William and Mary . Mary was born during the reign of her uncle King Charles II . She was the eldest daughter of James, Duke of York (the future James II of England ), and his first wife, Anne Hyde . Mary and her sister Anne were raised as Anglicans at the behest of Charles II, although their parents both converted to Roman Catholicism . Charles lacked legitimate children, making Mary second in
3556-620: The Ainslie Tavern Bond , in which they agreed to support his aim to marry the queen. Between 21 and 23 April 1567, Mary visited her son at Stirling for the last time. On her way back to Edinburgh on 24 April, Mary was abducted, willingly or not, by Lord Bothwell and his men and taken to Dunbar Castle , where he may have raped her. On 6 May, Mary and Bothwell returned to Edinburgh. On 15 May, at either Holyrood Palace or Holyrood Abbey , they were married according to Protestant rites. Bothwell and his first wife, Jean Gordon , who
3683-557: The Crown Matrimonial , which would have made him a co-sovereign of Scotland with the right to keep the Scottish throne for himself, if he outlived his wife. Mary refused his request and their marriage grew strained, although they conceived by October 1565. He was jealous of her friendship with her Catholic private secretary, David Rizzio , who was rumoured to be the father of her child. By March 1566, Darnley had entered into
3810-528: The English Bill of Rights . William and Mary became king and queen regnant . Mary mostly deferred to her husband – a renowned military leader and principal opponent of Louis XIV – when he was in England. She did, however, act alone when William was engaged in military campaigns abroad, proving herself to be a powerful, firm, and effective ruler. Mary's death from smallpox in 1694 at the age of 32 left William as sole ruler until his death in 1702, when he
3937-622: The Rough Wooing . Mary married Francis in 1558, becoming queen consort of France from his accession in 1559 until his death in December 1560. Widowed, Mary returned to Scotland in August 1561. The tense religious and political climate following the Scottish Reformation that Mary encountered on her return to Scotland was further agitated by prominent Scots such as John Knox , who openly questioned whether her subjects had
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4064-581: The Royal Hospital for Seamen, Greenwich , after the Anglo-Dutch victory at the Battle of La Hougue . She is credited with influencing garden design at Het Loo and Hampton Court Palaces , and with popularising blue and white porcelain and the keeping of goldfish as pets. Mary was depicted by Jacobites as an unfaithful daughter who destroyed her father for her own and her husband's gain. In
4191-531: The Solway Firth into England by fishing boat on 16 May. She landed at Workington in Cumberland in the north of England and stayed overnight at Workington Hall . On 18 May, local officials led by Richard Lowther took her into protective custody at Carlisle Castle . Mary apparently expected Elizabeth to help her regain her throne. Elizabeth was cautious, ordering an inquiry into the conduct of
4318-592: The line of succession . At the age of 15, she married her cousin William of Orange, a Protestant . Charles died in 1685 and James became king, making Mary heir presumptive . James's attempts at rule by decree and the birth of his son from a second marriage, James Francis Edward (later known as "the Old Pretender"), led to his deposition in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the adoption of
4445-488: The "long lad", as Queen Elizabeth called him since he was over six feet tall. They married at Holyrood Palace on 29 July 1565, even though both were Catholic and a papal dispensation for the marriage of first cousins had not been obtained. English statesmen William Cecil and the Earl of Leicester had worked to obtain Darnley's licence to travel to Scotland from his home in England. Although her advisors had brought
4572-490: The 30th, Moray entered Edinburgh but left soon afterwards, having failed to take the castle. Mary returned to Edinburgh the following month to raise more troops. In what became known as the Chaseabout Raid , Mary with her forces and Moray with the rebellious lords roamed around Scotland without ever engaging in direct combat. Mary's numbers were boosted by the release and restoration to favour of Lord Huntly's son and
4699-500: The Declaration and Bill of Rights, and as she preferred. However, she proved a firm ruler, ordering the arrest of her own uncle, Henry Hyde, 2nd Earl of Clarendon , for plotting to restore James II to the throne. In January 1692, the influential John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough , was dismissed on similar charges; the dismissal somewhat diminished her popularity and further harmed her relationship with her sister Anne (who
4826-615: The Duke of Monmouth assembled an invasion force at Amsterdam, and sailed for Britain , William informed James of the Duke's departure, and ordered English regiments in the Low Countries to return to Britain. To William's relief, Monmouth was defeated, captured and executed, but both he and Mary were dismayed by James's subsequent actions. James had a controversial religious policy; his attempt to grant freedom of religion to non- Anglicans by suspending acts of Parliament by royal decree
4953-485: The Netherlands, where he was hosted by William and Mary. Monmouth was viewed as a rival to the Duke of York, and as a potential Protestant heir who could supplant the Duke in the line of succession. William, however, did not consider him a viable alternative and correctly assumed that Monmouth had insufficient support. While the pair started out somewhat distant, they became quite close and trusting of each other over
5080-403: The Netherlands. The disaffected English Army and Navy went over to William, and on 11 December the defeated King James attempted to flee, but was intercepted. A second attempt at flight, on 23 December, was successful; William deliberately allowed James to escape to France, where he lived in exile until his death. Mary was upset by the circumstances surrounding the deposition of her father, and
5207-511: The Protestant leaders from the reformation crisis of 1559–1560: the Earls of Argyll , Glencairn , and Moray. Only four of the councillors were Catholic: the Earls of Atholl , Erroll , Montrose , and Huntly , who was Lord Chancellor . Modern historian Jenny Wormald found this remarkable and suggested that Mary's failure to appoint a council sympathetic to Catholic and French interests
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5334-490: The Protestant service. Both Protestants and Catholics were shocked that Mary should marry the man accused of murdering her husband. The marriage was tempestuous, and Mary became despondent. Twenty-six Scottish peers , known as the confederate lords, turned against Mary and Bothwell and raised their own army. Mary and Bothwell confronted the lords at Carberry Hill on 15 June, but there was no battle, as Mary's forces dwindled away through desertion during negotiations. Bothwell
5461-557: The Revolution. She was extremely devout, and attended prayers at least twice a day. Many of Mary's proclamations focus on combating licentiousness, insobriety and vice. She often participated in the affairs of the Church —all matters of ecclesiastical patronage passed through her hands. On the death of Archbishop of Canterbury John Tillotson in December 1694, Mary was keen to appoint Bishop of Worcester Edward Stillingfleet to
5588-452: The Roman general who took on a great task when called to do so, but then willingly abandoned power. A week before her death, Mary went through her papers, weeding out some, which were burnt, but her journal survives, as do her letters to William and to Frances Apsley. The Jacobites lambasted her, but the assessment of her character that came down to posterity was largely the vision of Mary as
5715-504: The Scots took Mary to Dunkeld for safety. In May 1546, Beaton was murdered by Protestant lairds , and on 10 September 1547, nine months after the death of Henry VIII, the Scots suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Pinkie . Mary's guardians, fearful for her safety, sent her to Inchmahome Priory for no more than three weeks and turned to the French for help. King Henry II of France proposed to unite France and Scotland by marrying
5842-612: The Scottish coronation oath in London on 11 May. Even after the declaration, there was still substantial support for James from the Nonjuring schism in all three kingdoms, particularly in parts of Scotland. Viscount Dundee raised an army in the Scottish Highlands and won a convincing victory at Killiecrankie on 27 July. The huge losses suffered by Dundee's troops, however, coupled with his fatal wounding, served to remove
5969-540: The Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition , raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail, or inflict cruel or unusual punishments. The Bill of Rights also confirmed
6096-592: The alliance with the Dutch ruler—he preferred that Mary wed the heir to the French throne, the Dauphin Louis , thus allying his realms with Catholic France and strengthening the odds of an eventual Catholic successor in Britain—but later, under pressure from Parliament and with a coalition with the Catholic French no longer politically favourable, he approved the proposed union. The Duke of York agreed to
6223-593: The circumstances of the birth. Anne's reply, and continued gossip, seemed to confirm Mary's suspicions that the child was not her natural brother, and that her father was conspiring to secure a Catholic succession. On 30 June, seven notable English nobles, later called "the Immortal Seven" secretly invited William —then in the Dutch Republic with Mary—to come to England with an army to depose James. William may have been jealous of his wife's position as
6350-500: The commission of inquiry, the Duke of Norfolk , described them as horrible letters and diverse fond ballads. He sent copies to Elizabeth, saying that if they were genuine, they might prove Mary's guilt. The authenticity of the casket letters has been the source of much controversy among historians. It is impossible now to prove either way. The originals, written in French, were possibly destroyed in 1584 by Mary's son. The surviving copies, in French or translated into English, do not form
6477-521: The confederate lords and the question of whether Mary was guilty of Darnley's murder. In mid-July 1568, English authorities moved Mary to Bolton Castle , because it was farther from the Scottish border but not too close to London. Mary's clothes, sent from Lochleven Castle, arrived on 20 July. A commission of inquiry, or conference, as it was known, was held in York and later Westminster between October 1568 and January 1569. In Scotland, her supporters fought
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#17327935856626604-618: The consummation of the marriage was attended by the royal family, with her uncle the King himself drawing the bedcurtains . Mary accompanied her husband on a rough sea crossing to the Netherlands later that month, after a delay of two weeks caused by bad weather. Rotterdam was inaccessible because of ice, and they were forced to land at the small village of Ter Heijde , and walk through the frosty countryside until met by coaches to take them to Huis Honselaarsdijk . On 14 December, they made
6731-589: The couple failed to have children, the temporary union would dissolve. Cardinal Beaton rose to power again and began to push a pro-Catholic pro-French agenda, angering Henry, who wanted to break the Scottish alliance with France . Beaton wanted to move Mary away from the coast to the safety of Stirling Castle . Regent Arran resisted the move but backed down when Beaton's armed supporters gathered at Linlithgow . The Earl of Lennox escorted Mary and her mother to Stirling on 27 July 1543 with 3,500 armed men. Mary
6858-424: The couple together, Elizabeth felt threatened by the marriage because as descendants of her aunt, both Mary and Darnley were claimants to the English throne. Their children, if any, would inherit an even stronger, combined claim. Mary's insistence on the marriage seems to have stemmed from passion rather than calculation; the English ambassador Nicholas Throckmorton stated "the saying is that surely she [Queen Mary]
6985-408: The course of the commission, although he denied it when Elizabeth alluded to his marriage plans, saying "he meant never to marry with a person, where he could not be sure of his pillow". The majority of the commissioners accepted the casket letters as genuine after a study of their contents and a comparison of the penmanship with examples of Mary's handwriting. Elizabeth, as she had wished, concluded
7112-498: The course of their marriage. Their mutual fervour for Protestantism additionally helped bind them together. Upon the death of Charles II without legitimate issue in February 1685, the Duke of York became king as James II in England and Ireland and James VII in Scotland. Mary was playing cards when her husband informed her of her father's accession, with the knowledge that she was heir presumptive . When Charles's illegitimate son
7239-416: The death of Anne's baby soon after it was born, Mary did visit her sister, but chose the opportunity to berate Anne for her friendship with Sarah. The sisters never saw each other again. Marlborough was arrested and imprisoned, but then released after his accuser was revealed to be an impostor. Mary recorded in her journal that the breach between the sisters was a punishment from God for the "irregularity" of
7366-461: The deed in hand or do it, they should defend." Darnley feared for his safety, and after the baptism of his son at Stirling and shortly before Christmas, he went to Glasgow to stay on his father's estates. At the start of the journey, he was afflicted by a fever–possibly smallpox, syphilis or the result of poison. He remained ill for some weeks. In late January 1567, Mary prompted her husband to return to Edinburgh. He recuperated from his illness in
7493-532: The destruction of Scotland's leading Catholic magnate, Lord Huntly, in 1562, after he led a rebellion against her in the Highlands . Mary sent William Maitland of Lethington as an ambassador to the English court to put the case for Mary as the heir presumptive to the English throne. Elizabeth refused to name a potential heir, fearing that would invite conspiracy to displace her with the nominated successor. However, she assured Maitland that she knew no one with
7620-559: The disease, to prevent the spread of infection. Anne, who was once again pregnant, sent Mary a letter saying she would run any risk to see her sister again, but the offer was declined by Mary's groom of the stool , the Countess of Derby. Several days into the course of her illness, the smallpox lesions reportedly disappeared, leaving her skin smooth and unmarked, and Mary said that she felt improved. Her attendants initially hoped she had been ill with measles rather than smallpox, and that she
7747-424: The documents were complete forgeries, or incriminating passages were inserted into genuine letters, or the letters were written to Bothwell by a different person or written by Mary to a different person. Guy points out that the letters are disjointed and that the French language and grammar employed in the sonnets are too poor for a writer with Mary's education but certain phrases in the letters, including verses in
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#17327935856627874-504: The early years of their reign, she was often seen as completely under the spell of her husband, but after she had temporarily governed alone during his absences abroad, she was portrayed as capable and confident. Nahum Tate 's A Present for the Ladies (1692) compared her to Queen Elizabeth I . Her modesty and diffidence were praised in works such as A Dialogue Concerning Women (1691) by William Walsh , which compared her to Cincinnatus ,
8001-458: The end of November 1566, Mary and leading nobles held a meeting to discuss the "problem of Darnley". Divorce was discussed, but a bond was probably sworn between the lords present to remove Darnley by other means: "It was thought expedient and most profitable for the common wealth ... that such a young fool and proud tyrant should not reign or bear rule over them; ... that he should be put off by one way or another; and whosoever should take
8128-539: The following month he married Mary. Following an uprising against the couple, Mary was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle . On 24 July 1567, she was forced to abdicate in favour of her one-year-old son James VI. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southward seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, Elizabeth I of England . As a great-granddaughter of Henry VII of England , Mary had once claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own and
8255-506: The following year at Fotheringhay Castle . Mary's life and execution established her in popular culture as a romanticised historical character. Mary was born on 8 December 1542 at Linlithgow Palace , Scotland, to King James V and his French second wife, Mary of Guise . She was said to have been born prematurely and was the only legitimate child of James to survive him. She was the great-granddaughter of King Henry VII of England through her paternal grandmother, Margaret Tudor . Margaret
8382-403: The fortified city of Breda , she suffered a miscarriage, which may have permanently impaired her ability to have children. Further bouts of illness, that may have been miscarriages , occurred in mid-1678, early 1679, and early 1680. Her childlessness would be the greatest source of unhappiness in her life. From May 1684, Charles II's illegitimate son, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth , lived in
8509-506: The government of the realm, and that the Throne had thereby become vacant. Parliament offered the Crown not to James's son, who would have been the heir apparent under normal circumstances, but to William and Mary as joint sovereigns. The only precedent for a joint monarchy dated from the sixteenth century: when Queen Mary I married Philip of Spain , it was agreed that the latter would take
8636-466: The heiress to the English Crown, but according to Gilbert Burnet , Mary convinced her husband that she did not care for political power, and told him "she would be no more but his wife, and that she would do all that lay in her power to make him king for life". She would, she assured him, always obey her husband as she had promised to do in her marriage vows. William agreed to invade and issued
8763-834: The incumbent archbishop, William Sancroft , although an Anglican , refused to recognise the validity of James II's removal. Neither William nor Mary enjoyed the ceremony; she thought it "all vanity" and William called it "Popish". On the same day, the Convention of the Estates of Scotland —which was much more divided than the English Parliament—finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland, that "no Papist can be King or Queen of this Realm", that William and Mary would be joint sovereigns, and that William would exercise sole and full power. The following day, they were proclaimed king and queen in Edinburgh. They took
8890-488: The inquiry with a verdict that nothing was proven against either the Confederate lords or Mary. For overriding political reasons, Elizabeth wished neither to convict nor to acquit Mary of murder. There was never any intention to proceed judicially; the conference was intended as a political exercise. In the end, Moray returned to Scotland as regent and Mary remained in custody in England. Elizabeth succeeded in maintaining
9017-408: The inquisition of her right and title to be our next cousin and heir". The proposal came to nothing, not least because the intended bridegroom was unwilling. In contrast, a French poet at Mary's court, Pierre de Boscosel de Chastelard , was apparently besotted with Mary. In early 1563, he was discovered during a security search hidden underneath her bed, apparently planning to surprise her when she
9144-484: The marriage, after pressure from chief minister Lord Danby and the King, who incorrectly assumed that it would improve James's popularity among Protestants. When James told Mary that she was to marry her cousin, "she wept all that afternoon and all the following day". William and a tearful Mary were married in St James's Palace by Bishop Henry Compton on 4 November 1677. The bedding ceremony to publicly establish
9271-571: The negotiations foundered. Her own attempt to negotiate a marriage to Don Carlos , the mentally unstable heir apparent of King Philip II of Spain , was rebuffed by Philip. Elizabeth attempted to neutralise Mary by suggesting that she marry English Protestant Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester . Dudley was Sir Henry Sidney's brother-in-law and the English queen's own favourite , whom Elizabeth trusted and thought she could control. She sent an ambassador, Thomas Randolph , to tell Mary that if she married an English nobleman, Elizabeth would "proceed to
9398-474: The only effective resistance to William and the uprising was quickly crushed, suffering a resounding defeat by Scottish Covenanters the next month at the Battle of Dunkeld . In December 1689, Parliament passed the Bill of Rights . This measure—which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right—established restrictions on the royal prerogative ; it declared, among other things, that
9525-489: The opportunity of the regency to propose marriage between Mary and his own son and heir, Edward , hoping for a union of Scotland and England. On 1 July 1543, when Mary was six months old, the Treaty of Greenwich was signed, which promised that, at the age of ten, Mary would marry Edward and move to England, where Henry could oversee her upbringing. The treaty provided that the two countries would remain legally separate and, if
9652-611: The palace. They took temporary refuge in Dunbar Castle before returning to Edinburgh on 18 March. The former rebels Lords Moray, Argyll and Glencairn were restored to the council. Mary's son by Darnley, James , was born on 19 June 1566 in Edinburgh Castle . However, the murder of Rizzio led to the breakdown of her marriage. In October 1566, while staying at Jedburgh in the Scottish Borders , Mary made
9779-428: The part of the Scots to produce the letters and their destruction in 1584, whatever their content, constitute proof that they contained real evidence against Mary. In contrast, Weir thinks it demonstrates that the lords required time to fabricate them. At least some of Mary's contemporaries who saw the letters had no doubt that they were genuine. Among them was the Duke of Norfolk, who secretly conspired to marry Mary in
9906-550: The return of James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell , from exile in France. Unable to muster sufficient support, Moray left Scotland in October for asylum in England. Mary broadened her privy council, bringing in both Catholics ( Bishop of Ross John Lesley and Provost of Edinburgh Simon Preston of Craigmillar ) and Protestants (the new Lord Huntly, Bishop of Galloway Alexander Gordon , John Maxwell of Terregles and Sir James Balfour ). Before long, Darnley grew arrogant. Not content with his position as king consort, he demanded
10033-492: The second volume of Historia Plantarum (London, 1686–1704). The standard author abbreviation Pluk. is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name . Paul Dietrich Giseke (1741–1796) compared Plukenet's species with those of Linnaeus in Index Linnaeanus (Hamburg, 1779). Pluk. mant. , refers to the third volume (London, 1700) of the first edition of Historia Plantarum ,
10160-441: The senior surviving legitimate descendant of Henry VII through her grandmother, Margaret Tudor . Henry II of France proclaimed his eldest son and daughter-in-law king and queen of England. In France, the royal arms of England were quartered with those of Francis and Mary. Mary's claim to the English throne was a perennial sticking point between her and Elizabeth. When Henry II died on 10 July 1559, from injuries sustained in
10287-539: The spring until the autumn. In 1690, he fought Jacobites (who supported James) in Ireland. William had crushed the Irish Jacobites by 1692, but he continued with campaigns abroad to wage war against France in the Netherlands. Whilst her husband was away, Mary administered the government of the realm with the advice of a nine-member Cabinet Council. She was not keen to assume power and felt "deprived of all that
10414-453: The style "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Scotland , France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc.". The coat of arms used by William and Mary were: Quarterly , I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ); II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules ( for Scotland ); III Azure
10541-538: The style of Ronsard , and some characteristics of style are compatible with known writings by Mary. The casket letters did not appear publicly until the Conference of 1568, although the Scottish privy council had seen them by December 1567. Mary had been forced to abdicate and held captive for the better part of a year in Scotland; the letters were never made public to support her imprisonment and forced abdication. Historian Jenny Wormald believes this reluctance on
10668-447: The succession to the throne. Following the death of either William III or Mary II, the other was to continue to reign. Next in the line of succession would be any children of the couple, to be followed by Mary's sister Anne and her children. Last in the line of succession stood any children William III might have had from any subsequent marriage. From 1690 onwards, William was often absent from England on campaign, each year generally from
10795-401: The throne, but all Catholics, since "it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince". The bishop of London , Henry Compton (one of the "Immortal Seven"), crowned William and Mary together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689. Normally, the archbishop of Canterbury performs coronations, but
10922-430: The title of king, but only during his wife's lifetime, and restrictions were placed on his power. William, however, would be king even after his wife's death, and "the sole and full exercise of the regal power [would be] executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives." The declaration was later extended to exclude not only James and his heirs (other than Anne) from
11049-540: The use of French troops. In early 1560, the Protestant lords invited English troops into Scotland in an attempt to secure Protestantism. A Huguenot uprising in France, the Tumult of Amboise , made it impossible for the French to send further support. Instead, the Guise brothers sent ambassadors to negotiate a settlement. On 11 June 1560, their sister, Mary's mother, died, and so the question of future Franco-Scots relations
11176-453: The vacancy, but William overruled her and the post went to Bishop of Lincoln Thomas Tenison . Mary was tall (5 foot 11 inches; 180 cm) and apparently fit; she regularly walked between her palaces at Whitehall and Kensington , and it appeared likely she would outlive her husband and sister, both of whom suffered from ill-health. In late 1694, however, she contracted smallpox . She sent away anyone who had not previously had
11303-482: The whole of which was published 1691–1705. This article about a British botanist is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mary II of England Mary II (30 April 1662 – 28 December 1694) was Queen of England , Scotland , and Ireland , co-reigning with her husband, King William III and II , from 1689 until her death in 1694. She was also Princess of Orange following her marriage on 4 November 1677. Her joint reign with William over Britain
11430-409: The world is thinking. Men say that, instead of seizing the murderers, you are looking through your fingers while they escape; that you will not seek revenge on those who have done you so much pleasure, as though the deed would never have taken place had not the doers of it been assured of impunity. For myself, I beg you to believe that I would not harbour such a thought. By the end of February, Bothwell
11557-542: The young queen to his three-year-old son, the Dauphin Francis . On the promise of French military help and a French dukedom for himself, Arran agreed to the marriage. In February 1548, Mary was moved, again for her safety, to Dumbarton Castle . The English left a trail of devastation behind them once more and seized the strategic town of Haddington . In June, the much-awaited French help arrived at Leith to besiege and ultimately take Haddington . On 7 July 1548,
11684-436: Was Henry VIII 's older sister so Mary was Henry VIII's great-niece. On 14 December, six days after her birth, she became Queen of Scotland when her father died, perhaps from the effects of a nervous collapse following the Battle of Solway Moss or from drinking contaminated water while on campaign. A popular tale, first recorded by John Knox , states that James, upon hearing on his deathbed that his wife had given birth to
11811-420: Was crowned in the castle chapel on 9 September 1543, with "such solemnity as they do use in this country, which is not very costly", according to the report of Ralph Sadler and Henry Ray . Shortly before Mary's coronation, Henry arrested Scottish merchants headed for France and impounded their goods. The arrests caused anger in Scotland, and Arran joined Beaton and became a Catholic. The Treaty of Greenwich
11938-578: Was "now going to be the miserablest creature on earth". While the Jacobites considered her death divine retribution for breaking the fifth commandment ("honour thy father"), she was widely mourned in Britain. During a cold winter, in which the Thames froze, her embalmed body lay in state in Banqueting House, Whitehall . On 5 March, she was buried at Westminster Abbey . Her funeral service
12065-483: Was 'Aurelia'. In time, Frances Apsley became uncomfortable with the correspondence, and replied more formally. At the age of 15, Mary became betrothed to her cousin, the Protestant Stadtholder of Holland , William III of Orange . William was the son of Charles II's late sister Mary, Princess Royal , and thus fourth in the line of succession after James, Mary, and Anne. At first, Charles opposed
12192-444: Was a pressing one. Under the terms of the Treaty of Edinburgh , signed by Mary's representatives on 6 July 1560, France and England undertook to withdraw troops from Scotland. France recognised Elizabeth's right to rule England, but the seventeen-year-old Mary, still in France and grieving for her mother, refused to ratify the treaty. Francis II died on 5 December 1560 of a middle-ear infection that led to an abscess in his brain. Mary
12319-470: Was accompanied by her own court including two illegitimate half-brothers, and the "four Marys" (four girls her own age, all named Mary), who were the daughters of some of the noblest families in Scotland: Beaton , Seton , Fleming , and Livingston . Janet, Lady Fleming , who was Mary Fleming's mother and James V's half-sister, was appointed governess. When Lady Fleming left France in 1551, she
12446-411: Was alone and declare his love for her. Mary was horrified and banished him from Scotland. He ignored the edict. Two days later, he forced his way into her chamber as she was about to disrobe. She reacted with fury and fear. When Moray rushed into the room after hearing her cries for help, she shouted, "Thrust your dagger into the villain!" Moray refused, as Chastelard was already under restraint. Chastelard
12573-439: Was an indication of her focus on the English throne, over the internal problems of Scotland. Even the one significant later addition to the council, Lord Ruthven in December 1563, was another Protestant whom Mary personally disliked. In this, she was acknowledging her lack of effective military power in the face of the Protestant lords, while also following a policy that strengthened her links with England. She joined with Moray in
12700-629: Was baptised into the Anglican faith in the Chapel Royal at St James's, and was named after her ancestor Mary, Queen of Scots . Her godparents included her father's cousin Prince Rupert of the Rhine . Although her mother bore eight children, all except Mary and her younger sister Anne died very young, and Charles II had no legitimate children. Consequently, for most of her childhood, Mary
12827-459: Was christened at the nearby Church of St Michael shortly after she was born. Rumours spread that she was weak and frail, but an English diplomat, Ralph Sadler , saw the infant at Linlithgow Palace in March 1543, unwrapped by her nurse Jean Sinclair , and wrote, "it is as goodly a child as I have seen of her age, and as like to live." As Mary was an infant when she inherited the throne, Scotland
12954-509: Was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many English Catholics , including participants in a rebellion known as the Rising of the North . Perceiving Mary as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in various castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After eighteen-and-a-half years in captivity, Mary was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth in 1586 and was beheaded
13081-483: Was dear to me in the person of my husband, left among those that were perfect strangers to me: my sister of a humour so reserved that I could have little comfort from her." Anne had quarrelled with William and Mary over money, and the relationship between the two sisters had soured. When her husband was away, Mary acted on her own if his advice was not available; whilst he was in England, Mary completely refrained from interfering in political matters, as had been agreed in
13208-513: Was dismissed and sent back to Britain. Disgruntled Protestant politicians and noblemen were in contact with Mary's husband as early as 1686. After James took the step of forcing Anglican clergymen to read the Declaration of Indulgence —the proclamation granting religious liberty to Catholics and dissenters —from their churches in May 1688, his popularity plunged further. Alarm amongst Protestants increased when his wife, Mary of Modena , gave birth to
13335-479: Was driven into exile. He was imprisoned in Denmark, became insane, and died in 1578. On 2 May 1568, Mary escaped from Lochleven Castle with the aid of George Douglas, brother of Sir William Douglas , the castle's owner. Managing to raise an army of 6,000 men, she met Moray's smaller forces at the Battle of Langside on 13 May. Defeated, she fled south. After spending the night at Dundrennan Abbey , she crossed
13462-409: Was found dead in the garden, apparently smothered. There were no visible marks of strangulation or violence on the body. Bothwell , Moray , Secretary Maitland , the Earl of Morton and Mary herself were among those who came under suspicion. Elizabeth wrote to Mary of the rumours: I should ill fulfil the office of a faithful cousin or an affectionate friend if I did not ... tell you what all
13589-452: Was generally believed to be guilty of Darnley's assassination. Lennox, Darnley's father, demanded that Bothwell be tried before the Estates of Parliament , to which Mary agreed, but Lennox's request for a delay to gather evidence was denied. In the absence of Lennox and with no evidence presented, Bothwell was acquitted after a seven-hour trial on 12 April. A week later, Bothwell managed to convince more than two dozen lords and bishops to sign
13716-422: Was given safe passage from the field. The lords took Mary to Edinburgh, where crowds of spectators denounced her as an adulteress and murderer. The following night, she was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle on an island in the middle of Loch Leven . Between 20 and 23 July, Mary miscarried twins. On 24 July, she was forced to abdicate in favour of her one-year-old son James . Moray was made regent, while Bothwell
13843-452: Was grief-stricken. Her mother-in-law, Catherine de' Medici , became regent for the late king's ten-year-old brother Charles IX , who inherited the French throne. Mary returned to Scotland nine months later, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561. Having lived in France since the age of five, Mary had little direct experience of the dangerous and complex political situation in Scotland. As
13970-402: Was having an affair with Elizabeth Villiers , the daughter of her childhood governess Frances Villiers. Acting on the information, Mary waited outside Villiers's room and caught her husband leaving it late at night. William denied adultery, and Mary apparently believed and forgave him. Possibly, Villiers and William were not meeting as lovers but to exchange diplomatic intelligence. Mary's staff
14097-443: Was largely restricted to music, dance, drawing, French, and religious instruction. Her mother died in 1671, and her father remarried in 1673, taking as his second wife Mary of Modena , a Catholic who was only four years older than Mary. From about the age of nine until her marriage, Mary wrote passionate letters to an older girl, Frances Apsley , the daughter of courtier Sir Allen Apsley . Mary signed herself 'Mary Clorine'; Apsley
14224-492: Was not well received. Mary considered such action illegal, and her chaplain expressed this view in a letter to the archbishop of Canterbury , William Sancroft , on her behalf. She was further dismayed when James refused to help when the Catholic king of France, Louis XIV , invaded Orange and persecuted Huguenot refugees there. In an attempt to damage William, James encouraged his daughter's staff to inform her that William
14351-400: Was recovering. But the rash had "turned inward", a sign that Mary was suffering from a usually fatal form of smallpox, and her condition quickly deteriorated. Mary died at Kensington Palace shortly after midnight on the morning of 28 December, at the age of 32. William, who had grown increasingly to rely on Mary, was devastated by her death, and told Burnet that "from being the happiest" he
14478-550: Was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland in December. The rejection of the marriage treaty and the renewal of the alliance between France and Scotland prompted Henry's " Rough Wooing ", a military campaign designed to impose the marriage of Mary to his son. English forces mounted a series of raids on Scottish and French territory. In May 1544, the English Earl of Hertford (later Duke of Somerset ) raided Edinburgh, and
14605-642: Was ruled by regents until she became an adult. From the outset, there were two claims to the regency: one from the Catholic Cardinal Beaton , and the other from the Protestant Earl of Arran , who was next in line to the throne. Beaton's claim was based on a version of the king's will that his opponents dismissed as a forgery. Arran, with the support of his friends and relations, became the regent until 1554 when Mary's mother managed to remove and succeed him. Henry VIII of England took
14732-593: Was second in line to the throne after her father. The Duke of York converted to Roman Catholicism in 1668 or 1669 and the Duchess about eight years earlier, but Mary and Anne were brought up as Anglicans, pursuant to the command of Charles II. They were moved to their own establishment at Richmond Palace , where they were raised by their governess Lady Frances Villiers , with only occasional visits to see their parents at St James's or their grandfather Lord Clarendon at Twickenham . Mary's education, from private tutors,
14859-511: Was six days old when her father died and she inherited the throne. During her childhood, Scotland was governed by regents , first by the heir to the throne, James Hamilton, Earl of Arran , and then by her mother, Mary of Guise . In 1548, she was betrothed to Francis , the Dauphin of France , and was sent to be brought up in France , where she would be safe from invading English forces during
14986-427: Was strongly influenced by Churchill's wife, Sarah ). Anne appeared at court with Sarah, obviously supporting the disgraced Churchill, which led to Mary angrily demanding that Anne dismiss Sarah and vacate her lodgings. Mary fell ill with a fever in April 1692, and missed Sunday church service for the first time in 12 years. She also failed to visit Anne, who was suffering a difficult labour. After Mary's recovery and
15113-445: Was succeeded by Mary's sister, Anne. Mary, born at St James's Palace in London on 30 April 1662, was the eldest daughter of James, Duke of York (the future King James II & VII ), and his first wife, Anne Hyde . Mary's uncle was Charles II , who ruled the three kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland ; her maternal grandfather, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon , served for a lengthy period as Charles's chief advisor. She
15240-501: Was succeeded by a French governess, Françoise de Paroy . Vivacious, beautiful, and clever (according to contemporary accounts), Mary had a promising childhood. At the French court, she was a favourite with many people, except Henry II's wife Catherine de' Medici . Mary learned to play lute and virginals , was competent in prose, poetry, horsemanship, falconry, and needlework, and was taught French, Italian, Latin , Spanish, and Greek , in addition to her native Scots . Jehan Paulle,
15367-537: Was succeeded by her only surviving sibling, Elizabeth I . Under the Third Succession Act , passed in 1543 by the Parliament of England , Elizabeth was recognised as her sister's heir, and Henry VIII's last will and testament had excluded the Stuarts from succeeding to the English throne. Yet, in the eyes of many Catholics, Elizabeth was illegitimate and Mary Stuart was the rightful queen of England, as
15494-574: Was the first of any royal attended by all the members of both Houses of Parliament . For the ceremony, composer Henry Purcell wrote Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary . Mary endowed the College of William and Mary (in the present day Williamsburg, Virginia ) in 1693, supported Thomas Bray , who founded the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge , and was instrumental in the foundation of
15621-408: Was the sister of Lord Huntly, had divorced twelve days previously. Originally, Mary believed that many nobles supported her marriage, but relations quickly soured between the newly elevated Bothwell (created Duke of Orkney ) and his former peers and the marriage proved to be deeply unpopular. Catholics considered the marriage unlawful since they did not recognise Bothwell's divorce or the validity of
15748-552: Was torn between concern for him and duty to her husband, but was convinced that her husband's actions, however unpleasant, were necessary to "save the Church and State". When Mary travelled to England after the New Year, she wrote of her "secret joy" at returning to her homeland, "but that was soon checked with the consideration of my father's misfortunes". William ordered her to appear cheerful on their triumphant arrival in London. As
15875-570: Was tried for treason and beheaded. Maitland claimed that Chastelard's ardour was feigned and that he was part of a Huguenot plot to discredit Mary by tarnishing her reputation. Mary had briefly met her English-born half-cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley , in February 1561 when she was in mourning for Francis. Darnley's parents, the Earl and Countess of Lennox , were Scottish aristocrats as well as English landowners. They sent him to France ostensibly to extend their condolences, while hoping for
16002-402: Was unsuccessful. She later charged him with treason, but he was acquitted and released. To the surprise and dismay of the Catholic party, Mary tolerated the newly established Protestant ascendancy, and kept her half-brother Moray as her chief advisor. Her privy council of 16 men, appointed on 6 September 1561, retained those who already held the offices of state. The council was dominated by
16129-544: Was unusually short. Henry commented: "from the very first day they met, my son and she got on as well together as if they had known each other for a long time". On 4 April 1558, Mary signed a secret agreement bequeathing Scotland and her claim to England to the French crown if she died without issue. Twenty days later, she married the Dauphin at Notre Dame de Paris , and he became king consort of Scotland. In November 1558, Henry VIII 's elder daughter, Mary I of England ,
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