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67-526: One of the most influential studies of the Liber Ignium was conducted by Marcellin Berthelot which is cited in 20th century works on the topic. The Liber Ignium is a collection of 35 recipes without any internal classification, as it was typical of "secret recipe" list of the era. Of these, 14 are related to warfare, 11 with lamps and lights, 6 with the prevention and treatment of burns, and 4 with

134-510: A =4), thiols (13), malonates (13), alcohols (17), aldehydes (20), nitriles (25), esters (25), then amines (35). Amines are very basic, and are great nucleophiles/attackers. The aliphatic hydrocarbons are subdivided into three groups of homologous series according to their state of saturation : The rest of the group is classified according to the functional groups present. Such compounds can be "straight-chain", branched-chain or cyclic. The degree of branching affects characteristics, such as

201-722: A molar mass less than approximately 1000 g/mol. Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes , carbon compounds with spheroidal and tubular structures, have stimulated much research into the related field of materials science . The first fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Sir Harold W. Kroto of the United Kingdom and by Richard E. Smalley and Robert F. Curl Jr., of the United States. Using a laser to vaporize graphite rods in an atmosphere of helium gas, these chemists and their assistants obtained cagelike molecules composed of 60 carbon atoms (C60) joined by single and double bonds to form

268-546: A branch of organic chemistry. Although the history of biochemistry might be taken to span some four centuries, fundamental understanding of the field only began to develop in the late 19th century and the actual term biochemistry was coined around the start of 20th century. Research in the field increased throughout the twentieth century, without any indication of slackening in the rate of increase, as may be verified by inspection of abstraction and indexing services such as BIOSIS Previews and Biological Abstracts , which began in

335-423: A broad range of industrial and commercial products including, among (many) others: plastics , synthetic rubber , organic adhesives , and various property-modifying petroleum additives and catalysts . The majority of chemical compounds occurring in biological organisms are carbon compounds, so the association between organic chemistry and biochemistry is so close that biochemistry might be regarded as in essence

402-510: A carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding could be discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions. The era of the pharmaceutical industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when the German company, Bayer , first manufactured acetylsalicylic acid—more commonly known as aspirin . By 1910 Paul Ehrlich and his laboratory group began developing arsenic-based arsphenamine , (Salvarsan), as

469-415: A class of hydrocarbons called biopolymer polyisoprenoids present in the latex of various species of plants, which is the basis for making rubber . Biologists usually classify the above-mentioned biomolecules into four main groups, i.e., proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Petroleum and its derivatives are considered organic molecules, which is consistent with the fact that this oil comes from

536-462: A combination of luck and preparation for unexpected observations. The latter half of the 19th century however witnessed systematic studies of organic compounds. The development of synthetic indigo is illustrative. The production of indigo from plant sources dropped from 19,000 tons in 1897 to 1,000 tons by 1914 thanks to the synthetic methods developed by Adolf von Baeyer . In 2002, 17,000 tons of synthetic indigo were produced from petrochemicals . In

603-419: A common reaction is a substitution reaction written as: where X is some functional group and Nu is a nucleophile . The number of possible organic reactions is infinite. However, certain general patterns are observed that can be used to describe many common or useful reactions. Each reaction has a stepwise reaction mechanism that explains how it happens in sequence—although the detailed description of steps

670-576: A hollow sphere with 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces—a design that resembles a football, or soccer ball. In 1996 the trio was awarded the Nobel Prize for their pioneering efforts. The C60 molecule was named buckminsterfullerene (or, more simply, the buckyball) after the American architect R. Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic dome is constructed on the same structural principles. Organic compounds containing bonds of carbon to nitrogen, oxygen and

737-427: A lower p K a on another molecule (intermolecular) or within the same molecule (intramolecular). Any group with a net acidic p K a that gets within range, such as an acyl or carbonyl group is fair game. Since the likelihood of being attacked decreases with an increase in p K a , acyl chloride components with the lowest measured p K a values are most likely to be attacked, followed by carboxylic acids (p K

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804-484: A melting point, boiling point, solubility, and index of refraction. Qualitative properties include odor, consistency, and color. Organic compounds typically melt and many boil. In contrast, while inorganic materials generally can be melted, many do not boil, and instead tend to degrade. In earlier times, the melting point (m.p.) and boiling point (b.p.) provided crucial information on the purity and identity of organic compounds. The melting and boiling points correlate with

871-433: A night and solidified, so that transparent plates of the salt are found at the bottom of the vessel." Furthermore, there are four recipes (nos. 12, 13, 32, and 33) that describe mixtures resembling gunpowder. The premillennial Byzantine Greek origin of the text has been rejected by scholars, who date it to the late 13th century. Study of the text has suggested that it was originally translated from Arabic , possibly by

938-475: A novel compound is a problem-solving task, where a synthesis is designed for a target molecule by selecting optimal reactions from optimal starting materials. Complex compounds can have tens of reaction steps that sequentially build the desired molecule. The synthesis proceeds by utilizing the reactivity of the functional groups in the molecule. For example, a carbonyl compound can be used as a nucleophile by converting it into an enolate , or as an electrophile ;

1005-487: A person from Moorish Spain . Joseph Needham says that the text is probably translated from Arabic by Jewish scholars in Spain. It contains several Arabic and Spanish words that are untranslated while several of the recipes for "automatic fire" and "oil of bricks" are identical to Arabic ones from the 12th century. The influence the Liber Ignium had on Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus has been debated. Early scholars like

1072-552: A respectfully natural environment, or without human intervention. Biomolecular chemistry is a major category within organic chemistry which is frequently studied by biochemists . Many complex multi-functional group molecules are important in living organisms. Some are long-chain biopolymers , and these include peptides , DNA , RNA and the polysaccharides such as starches in animals and celluloses in plants. The other main classes are amino acids (monomer building blocks of peptides and proteins), carbohydrates (which includes

1139-415: A scientist. He was an atheist but was very influenced by his wife, who was a Calvinist (his wife came from Louis Breguet 's family). The fundamental conception that underlay all Berthelot's chemical work was that all chemical phenomena depend on the action of physical forces which can be determined and measured. When he began his active career it was generally believed that, although some instances of

1206-686: A variety of chemical tests, called "wet methods", but such tests have been largely displaced by spectroscopic or other computer-intensive methods of analysis. Listed in approximate order of utility, the chief analytical methods are: Traditional spectroscopic methods such as infrared spectroscopy , optical rotation , and UV/VIS spectroscopy provide relatively nonspecific structural information but remain in use for specific applications. Refractive index and density can also be important for substance identification. The physical properties of organic compounds typically of interest include both quantitative and qualitative features. Quantitative information includes

1273-550: A well-known letter to Renan on " La Science idéale et la science positive ," of La Révolution chimique, Lavoisier (1890), of Science et morale (1897), and of numerous articles in La Grande Encyclopédie , which he helped to establish. Berthelot died suddenly on 18 March 1907, immediately after the death of his wife Sophie Niaudet (1837–1907), in Paris. His professorship was filled by Emil Jungfleisch . He

1340-514: A wide range of biochemical compounds such as alkaloids , vitamins, steroids, and nucleic acids (e.g. DNA, RNA). Rings can fuse with other rings on an edge to give polycyclic compounds . The purine nucleoside bases are notable polycyclic aromatic heterocycles. Rings can also fuse on a "corner" such that one atom (almost always carbon) has two bonds going to one ring and two to another. Such compounds are termed spiro and are important in several natural products . One important property of carbon

1407-420: Is conferred by the presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n is an integer. Particular instability ( antiaromaticity ) is conferred by the presence of 4n conjugated pi electrons. The characteristics of the cyclic hydrocarbons are again altered if heteroatoms are present, which can exist as either substituents attached externally to the ring (exocyclic) or as a member of the ring itself (endocyclic). In

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1474-480: Is not always clear from a list of reactants alone. The stepwise course of any given reaction mechanism can be represented using arrow pushing techniques in which curved arrows are used to track the movement of electrons as starting materials transition through intermediates to final products. Synthetic organic chemistry is an applied science as it borders engineering , the "design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes". Organic synthesis of

1541-444: Is simple and unambiguous. In this system, the endpoints and intersections of each line represent one carbon, and hydrogen atoms can either be notated explicitly or assumed to be present as implied by tetravalent carbon. By 1880 an explosion in the number of chemical compounds being discovered occurred assisted by new synthetic and analytical techniques. Grignard described the situation as "chaos le plus complet" (complete chaos) due to

1608-451: Is systematically named (6a R ,9 R )- N , N -diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo-[4,3- fg ] quinoline-9-carboxamide. With the increased use of computing, other naming methods have evolved that are intended to be interpreted by machines. Two popular formats are SMILES and InChI . Organic molecules are described more commonly by drawings or structural formulas , combinations of drawings and chemical symbols. The line-angle formula

1675-456: Is that it readily forms chains, or networks, that are linked by carbon-carbon (carbon-to-carbon) bonds. The linking process is called polymerization , while the chains, or networks, are called polymers . The source compound is called a monomer . Two main groups of polymers exist synthetic polymers and biopolymers . Synthetic polymers are artificially manufactured, and are commonly referred to as industrial polymers . Biopolymers occur within

1742-413: Is typically taught at the college or university level. It is considered a very challenging course, but has also been made accessible to students. Before the 18th century, chemists generally believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were endowed with a vital force that distinguished them from inorganic compounds . According to the concept of vitalism (vital force theory), organic matter

1809-939: The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences . He was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1833. In 1895, he was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society . Avenue Berthelot in Lyon was named after him on 25 March 1907. His investigations on the synthesis of organic compounds were published in numerous papers and books, including Chimie organique fondée sur la synthèse (1860) and Les Carbures d'hydrogène (1901). He stated that chemical phenomena are not governed by any peculiar laws special to themselves, but are explicable in terms of

1876-476: The chemical synthesis of natural products , drugs , and polymers , and study of individual organic molecules in the laboratory and via theoretical ( in silico ) study. The range of chemicals studied in organic chemistry includes hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen ) as well as compounds based on carbon, but also containing other elements, especially oxygen , nitrogen , sulfur , phosphorus (included in many biochemicals ) and

1943-435: The cycloalkenes and the cycloalkynes do. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain conjugated double bonds. This means that every carbon atom in the ring is sp2 hybridized, allowing for added stability. The most important example is benzene , the structure of which was formulated by Kekulé who first proposed the delocalization or resonance principle for explaining its structure. For "conventional" cyclic compounds, aromaticity

2010-420: The electron affinity of key atoms, bond strengths and steric hindrance . These factors can determine the relative stability of short-lived reactive intermediates , which usually directly determine the path of the reaction. The basic reaction types are: addition reactions , elimination reactions , substitution reactions , pericyclic reactions , rearrangement reactions and redox reactions . An example of

2077-407: The halogens . Organometallic chemistry is the study of compounds containing carbon– metal bonds. In addition, contemporary research focuses on organic chemistry involving other organometallics including the lanthanides , but especially the transition metals zinc, copper, palladium , nickel, cobalt, titanium and chromium. Organic compounds form the basis of all earthly life and constitute

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2144-541: The octane number or cetane number in petroleum chemistry. Both saturated ( alicyclic ) compounds and unsaturated compounds exist as cyclic derivatives. The most stable rings contain five or six carbon atoms, but large rings (macrocycles) and smaller rings are common. The smallest cycloalkane family is the three-membered cyclopropane ((CH 2 ) 3 ). Saturated cyclic compounds contain single bonds only, whereas aromatic rings have an alternating (or conjugated) double bond. Cycloalkanes do not contain multiple bonds, whereas

2211-662: The 18th-century scientist Johann Beckmann thought that both men had read and quoted it, but others have claimed that all three were based on a common source. Iqtidar Alam Khan writes that while the Liber Ignium contents can be traced back to Arabic and Chinese texts, the work of Bacon appears to represent a parallel tradition, especially because the decoded formulas of Bacon contain considerably less nitrate. Marcellin Berthelot Pierre Eugène Marcellin Berthelot ( French: [bɛʁtəlo] ; 25 October 1827 – 18 March 1907)

2278-618: The 1920s as a single annual volume, but has grown so drastically that by the end of the 20th century it was only available to the everyday user as an online electronic database . Since organic compounds often exist as mixtures , a variety of techniques have also been developed to assess purity; chromatography techniques are especially important for this application, and include HPLC and gas chromatography . Traditional methods of separation include distillation , crystallization , evaporation , magnetic separation and solvent extraction . Organic compounds were traditionally characterized by

2345-663: The abstract conceptions of its theories and classifications—a prerogative so far possessed neither by the natural nor by the historical sciences." In 1863 he became a member of the Académie Nationale de Médecine ; he was also awarded the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour . He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1880. In 1881 he became a foreign member of

2412-437: The basis of his work on alcoholic fermentation. To this attitude he offered uncompromising opposition, and by the synthetic production of numerous hydrocarbons , natural fats, sugars and other bodies he proved that organic compounds can be formed by ordinary methods of chemical manipulation and obey the same principles as inorganic substances, thus exhibiting the "creative character in virtue of which chemistry actually realizes

2479-495: The case of the latter, the ring is termed a heterocycle . Pyridine and furan are examples of aromatic heterocycles while piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are the corresponding alicyclic heterocycles. The heteroatom of heterocyclic molecules is generally oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen, with the latter being particularly common in biochemical systems. Heterocycles are commonly found in a wide range of products including aniline dyes and medicines. Additionally, they are prevalent in

2546-473: The combination of the two is called the aldol reaction . Designing practically useful syntheses always requires conducting the actual synthesis in the laboratory. The scientific practice of creating novel synthetic routes for complex molecules is called total synthesis . Strategies to design a synthesis include retrosynthesis , popularized by E.J. Corey , which starts with the target molecule and splices it to pieces according to known reactions. The pieces, or

2613-410: The early history of chemistry such as Les Origines de l'alchimie (1885) and Introduction à l'étude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen âge (1889), He also translated various old Greek, Syriac and Arabic treatises on alchemy and chemistry: Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (1887–1888) and La Chimie au moyen âge (1893). He was the author of Science et philosophie (1886), which contains

2680-480: The early part of the 20th century, polymers and enzymes were shown to be large organic molecules, and petroleum was shown to be of biological origin. The multiple-step synthesis of complex organic compounds is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of complex natural compounds increased in complexity to glucose and terpineol . For example, cholesterol -related compounds have opened ways to synthesize complex human hormones and their modified derivatives. Since

2747-429: The first effective medicinal treatment of syphilis , and thereby initiated the medical practice of chemotherapy . Ehrlich popularized the concepts of "magic bullet" drugs and of systematically improving drug therapies. His laboratory made decisive contributions to developing antiserum for diphtheria and standardizing therapeutic serums. Early examples of organic reactions and applications were often found because of

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2814-550: The food industry by the year 2000, and that synthesized foods would replace farms and pastures. "Why not", he asked, "if it proved cheaper and better to make the same materials than to grow them?" He was considered "one of the most famous chemists in the world." Upon being appointed to the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs for the French government in 1895, he was considered "the most eminent living chemist" in France. In 1901, he

2881-422: The fossilization of living beings, i.e., biomolecules. See also: peptide synthesis , oligonucleotide synthesis and carbohydrate synthesis . In pharmacology, an important group of organic compounds is small molecules , also referred to as 'small organic compounds'. In this context, a small molecule is a small organic compound that is biologically active but is not a polymer . In practice, small molecules have

2948-437: The functional group have an intermolecular and intramolecular effect on the surrounding environment and pH level. Different functional groups have different p K a values and bond strengths (single, double, triple) leading to increased electrophilicity with lower p K a and increased nucleophile strength with higher p K a . More basic/nucleophilic functional groups desire to attack an electrophilic functional group with

3015-527: The general laws of mechanics that are in operation throughout the universe ; and this view he developed, with the aid of thousands of experiments, in his Mécanique chimique (1878) and his Thermochimie (1897). This branch of study naturally conducted him to the investigation of explosives, and on the theoretical side led to the results published in his work Sur la force de la poudre et des matières explosives (1872), while in practical terms it enabled him to render important services to his country as president of

3082-494: The halogens are not normally grouped separately. Others are sometimes put into major groups within organic chemistry and discussed under titles such as organosulfur chemistry , organometallic chemistry , organophosphorus chemistry and organosilicon chemistry . Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds . Many of these reactions are associated with functional groups. The general theory of these reactions involves careful analysis of such properties as

3149-451: The lack of convention it was possible to have multiple names for the same compound. This led to the creation of the Geneva rules in 1892. The concept of functional groups is central in organic chemistry, both as a means to classify structures and for predicting properties. A functional group is a molecular module, and the reactivity of that functional group is assumed, within limits, to be

3216-710: The majority of known chemicals. The bonding patterns of carbon, with its valence of four—formal single, double, and triple bonds, plus structures with delocalized electrons —make the array of organic compounds structurally diverse, and their range of applications enormous. They form the basis of, or are constituents of, many commercial products including pharmaceuticals ; petrochemicals and agrichemicals , and products made from them including lubricants , solvents ; plastics ; fuels and explosives . The study of organic chemistry overlaps organometallic chemistry and biochemistry , but also with medicinal chemistry , polymer chemistry , and materials science . Organic chemistry

3283-567: The molecule more acidic or basic due to their electronic influence on surrounding parts of the molecule. As the p K a (aka basicity ) of the molecular addition/functional group increases, there is a corresponding dipole , when measured, increases in strength. A dipole directed towards the functional group (higher p K a therefore basic nature of group) points towards it and decreases in strength with increasing distance. Dipole distance (measured in Angstroms ) and steric hindrance towards

3350-412: The molecule of interest. This parent name is then modified by prefixes, suffixes, and numbers to unambiguously convey the structure. Given that millions of organic compounds are known, rigorous use of systematic names can be cumbersome. Thus, IUPAC recommendations are more closely followed for simple compounds, but not complex molecules. To use the systematic naming, one must know the structures and names of

3417-437: The organic dye now known as Perkin's mauve . His discovery, made widely known through its financial success, greatly increased interest in organic chemistry. A crucial breakthrough for organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, developed independently in 1858 by both Friedrich August Kekulé and Archibald Scott Couper . Both researchers suggested that tetravalent carbon atoms could link to each other to form

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3484-464: The organic solute and with the organic solvent. Various specialized properties of molecular crystals and organic polymers with conjugated systems are of interest depending on applications, e.g. thermo-mechanical and electro-mechanical such as piezoelectricity , electrical conductivity (see conductive polymers and organic semiconductors ), and electro-optical (e.g. non-linear optics ) properties. For historical reasons, such properties are mainly

3551-422: The parent structures. Parent structures include unsubstituted hydrocarbons, heterocycles, and mono functionalized derivatives thereof. Nonsystematic nomenclature is simpler and unambiguous, at least to organic chemists. Nonsystematic names do not indicate the structure of the compound. They are common for complex molecules, which include most natural products. Thus, the informally named lysergic acid diethylamide

3618-769: The polarity of the molecules and their molecular weight. Some organic compounds, especially symmetrical ones, sublime . A well-known example of a sublimable organic compound is para-dichlorobenzene , the odiferous constituent of modern mothballs. Organic compounds are usually not very stable at temperatures above 300 °C, although some exceptions exist. Neutral organic compounds tend to be hydrophobic ; that is, they are less soluble in water than inorganic solvents. Exceptions include organic compounds that contain ionizable groups as well as low molecular weight alcohols , amines , and carboxylic acids where hydrogen bonding occurs. Otherwise, organic compounds tend to dissolve in organic solvents . Solubility varies widely with

3685-524: The polysaccharides), the nucleic acids (which include DNA and RNA as polymers), and the lipids . Besides, animal biochemistry contains many small molecule intermediates which assist in energy production through the Krebs cycle , and produces isoprene , the most common hydrocarbon in animals. Isoprenes in animals form the important steroid structural ( cholesterol ) and steroid hormone compounds; and in plants form terpenes , terpenoids , some alkaloids , and

3752-407: The preparation of chemicals , chiefly saltpetre . Some recipes were found to be worthless. Recipe no. 14 contains advice for the harvesting and processing of saltpeter. In Berthelot's interpretation, it says: "saltpeter is a mineral of the earth, and is found as an efflorescence on stones. This earth is dissolved in boiling water, then purified and passed through a filter. It is boiled for a day and

3819-589: The same in a variety of molecules. Functional groups can have a decisive influence on the chemical and physical properties of organic compounds. Molecules are classified based on their functional groups. Alcohols, for example, all have the subunit C-O-H. All alcohols tend to be somewhat hydrophilic , usually form esters , and usually can be converted to the corresponding halides . Most functional groups feature heteroatoms (atoms other than C and H). Organic compounds are classified according to functional groups, alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines, etc. Functional groups make

3886-413: The scientific defence committee during the siege of Paris (1870–1871) and subsequently as chief of the French explosives committee. He performed experiments to determine gas pressures during hydrogen explosions using a special chamber fitted with a piston, and was able to distinguish burning of mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen from true explosions . During later life he researched and wrote books on

3953-430: The start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increased to include molecules of high complexity such as lysergic acid and vitamin B 12 . The discovery of petroleum and the development of the petrochemical industry spurred the development of organic chemistry. Converting individual petroleum compounds into types of compounds by various chemical processes led to organic reactions enabling

4020-415: The subjects of the areas of polymer science and materials science . The names of organic compounds are either systematic, following logically from a set of rules, or nonsystematic, following various traditions. Systematic nomenclature is stipulated by specifications from IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). Systematic nomenclature starts with the name for a parent structure within

4087-418: The synthetic production of organic substances had been observed, on the whole organic chemistry remained an analytical science and could not become a constructive one, because the formation of the substances with which it deals required the intervention of vital activity in some shape. He engaged in a long argument with Louis Pasteur on the subject of vitalism, in which Pasteur took the vitalist position on

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4154-458: Was a French chemist and Republican politician noted for the Thomsen–Berthelot principle of thermochemistry . He synthesized many organic compounds from inorganic substances, providing a large amount of counter-evidence to the theory of Jöns Jakob Berzelius that organic compounds required organisms in their synthesis. Berthelot was convinced that chemical synthesis would revolutionize

4221-827: Was buried with his wife in the Panthéon . He had six children: Marcel André (1862–1939), Marie-Hélène (1863–1895), Camille (1864–1928), Daniel (1865–1927), Philippe (1866–1934), and René (1872–1960). Auguste Rodin created a bust of Berthelot. Organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials , i.e., matter in its various forms that contain carbon atoms . Study of structure determines their structural formula . Study of properties includes physical and chemical properties , and evaluation of chemical reactivity to understand their behavior. The study of organic reactions includes

4288-509: Was cautious about claiming he had disproved vitalism, this was the first time a substance thought to be organic was synthesized in the laboratory without biological (organic) starting materials. The event is now generally accepted as indeed disproving the doctrine of vitalism. After Wöhler, Justus von Liebig worked on the organization of organic chemistry, being considered one of its principal founders. In 1856, William Henry Perkin , while trying to manufacture quinine , accidentally produced

4355-586: Was elected as one of the "Forty Immortals" of the Académie française . He gave all his discoveries not only to the French government but to humanity. Berthelot was born in Rue du Mouton, Paris , France , on 25 October 1827, the son of a doctor. He decided with his friend, the great historian Ernest Renan , not to attend a grande école where the vast majority of intellectuals were being educated. After doing well at school in history and philosophy, he became

4422-403: Was endowed with a "vital force". During the first half of the nineteenth century, some of the first systematic studies of organic compounds were reported. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and alkalis . He separated the acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it

4489-471: Was possible to make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from organic sources), producing new compounds, without "vital force". In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler produced the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine , from inorganic starting materials (the salts potassium cyanate and ammonium sulfate ), in what is now called the Wöhler synthesis . Although Wöhler himself

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