125-417: [REDACTED] Member State of the Arab League The politics of Libya has been in an uncertain state since the collapse of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in 2011 and a recent civil war and various jihadists and tribal elements controlling parts of the country. On 10 March 2021, the interim Government of National Unity (GNU) , unifying the Second Al-Thani Cabinet and the Government of National Accord
250-434: A General Secretary , who reported to the prime minister and the president. However, Gaddafi retained virtually all power, continuing to operate and control vestiges of the military junta put in place in 1969. Gaddafi's authoritarian rule, a transition from the former monarchical structure, aligns with Samuels' finding that most military coups spark change from one form of non-democratic government to another. Gaddafi acted as
375-427: A military / personalist leader during his 42-year reign, nearly tripling the average ruling length of 15.1 years for this regime type, as found by political scientist Barbara Geddes in her 1999 publication. Still, Gaddafi's regime did follow many of the military/personalist tropes that Geddes outlined: failing after its leader's death, relying on unstable personal networks to rule, and facing military opposition during
500-479: A no-fly zone over Libya , and to use "all necessary measures" to prevent attacks on civilians, which turned into a bombing campaign by the forces of NATO against Libyan military installations and vehicles. The Gaddafi government then announced a ceasefire, but fighting and bombing continued. Throughout the conflict, rebels rejected government offers of a ceasefire and efforts by the African Union to end
625-415: A statesman - philosopher . According to several Western media sources, Gaddafi feared a military coup against his government and deliberately kept Libya's military relatively weak. The Libyan Army consisted of about 50,000 personnel. Its most powerful units were four crack brigades of highly equipped and trained soldiers, composed of members of Gaddafi's tribe or members of other tribes loyal to him. One,
750-784: A "just solution" for the Palestinian refugees . The Peace Initiative was again endorsed at 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. In July 2007, the Arab League sent a mission, consisting of the Jordanian and Egyptian foreign ministers, to Israel to promote the initiative. Following Venezuela 's move to expel Israeli diplomats amid the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict , Kuwaiti member of parliament Waleed Al-Tabtabaie proposed moving Arab League headquarters to Caracas , Venezuela . On 13 June 2010, Amr Mohammed Moussa, Secretary-General of
875-538: A "new political period" and would have elections for important positions such as minister-level roles and the National Security Advisor position (a Prime Minister equivalent). He also promised that international monitors would be included to ensure fair elections. His speech was said to have caused a stir. These elections were planned to coincide with the Jamahiriya's usual periodic elections for
1000-460: A "symbolic figurehead" until 2011, with the Libyan government up until then also denying that he held any power. Under Gaddafi, Libya was theoretically a decentralized, direct democracy state run according to the philosophy of Gaddafi's The Green Book , with Gaddafi retaining a ceremonial position. Libya was officially run by a system of people's committees which served as local governments for
1125-529: A Libyan official warned that the Government "will not allow a group of people to move around at night and play with the security of Libya". The statement added: "The clashes last night were between small groups of people – up to 150. Some outsiders infiltrated that group. They were trying to corrupt the local legal process which has long been in place. We will not permit that at all, and we call on Libyans to voice their issues through existing channels, even if it
1250-492: A consistent labor shortage with over a million migrant workers present on the market. These migrant workers were the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after the beginning of hostilities. Despite this, Libya's Human Development Index in 2010 was the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia . Libya had welfare systems allowing access to free education , free healthcare , and financial assistance for housing, and
1375-561: A delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extended even to his own sons, as he repeatedly changed affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival. Both Gaddafi and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya , however, officially denied that he held any power, but said that he was merely a symbolic figurehead. While he was popularly seen as a demagogue in the West, Gaddafi always portrayed himself as
SECTION 10
#17327831636371500-399: A direct stake in anything worth buying, selling or owning". According to US officials, Gaddafi amassed a vast personal fortune during his 42-year leadership. The New York Times pointed to Gaddafi's relatives adopting lavish lifestyles, including luxurious homes, Hollywood film investments, and private parties with American pop stars. Gaddafi said that he planned to combat corruption in
1625-460: A downtown square in Benghazi, damaging cars, blocking roads, and hurling rocks. Police responded to crowds with tear gas, water cannon, and rubber bullets. 38 people were injured, including 10 security personnel. The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests. In a statement released after clashes in Benghazi,
1750-554: A low-level insurgency by former Gaddafi loyalists continued. There were various disagreements and strife between local militias and tribes, including fighting on 23 January 2012 in the former Gaddafi stronghold of Bani Walid , leading to an alternative town council being established and later recognized by the National Transitional Council (NTC). Madkhalism had become influential among many militias, leading to further division. A much greater issue had been
1875-526: A military coup d'état in 1969, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi 's governance of Libya became increasingly centric on the teachings of his Green Book , which he published in the mid-1970s chapter by chapter as a foundation for a new form of government. This jamahiriya , as he called it, was supposedly a form of direct democracy in which power was balanced between a General People's Congress , consisting of 2,700 representatives of Basic People's Congresses , and an executive General People's Committee , headed by
2000-618: A peacekeeping force to deploy in South Lebanon, Darfur, Iraq, and other hot spots. At a 2015 summit in Egypt, member states agreed in principle to form a joint military force. The Arab League is rich in resources, such as enormous oil and natural gas resources in certain member states. Economic achievements initiated by the League amongst member states have been less impressive than those achieved by smaller Arab organisations such as
2125-569: A phase of transition to a presidential republic with an elected national assembly and a democratically legitimized constitution by 2013. Vice Chairman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga declared Libya to be "liberated" on 23 October 2011, announcing an official end to the war. Chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil said Libya would become an Islamic democracy in the wake of Gaddafi's death , though the extent of Islamic law 's influence would be determined by elected lawmakers. Ghoga later confirmed that Libya will continue to adhere to all international agreements to which it
2250-681: A political manoeuvre to divert attention away from himself and the Jamahiriya political system towards government officials currently in power. Later in February, Gaddafi stated that the rebels were influenced by Al-Qaeda , Osama bin Laden , and hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee, and Nescafé , and said that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda were distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He also blamed alcohol . Gaddafi later also stated that
2375-440: A return to the 1952 constitution and a transition to multi-party democracy. Military units who joined the rebellion and many volunteers formed fighting units to defend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoli under the influence of Jalil. In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the government into a centre for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guarded the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep
2500-399: A situation created a broader contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy). An estimated 13% of Libyan citizens were unemployed. More than 16% of families had no members earning a stable income, and 43.3% had just one. Despite one of the highest unemployment rates in the region, there was
2625-472: A spirit of revolt against the governments. An anonymous hip hop artist called Ibn Thabit gave a voice to "disenfranchised Libyans looking for a non-violent way to express their political will". On his website, Ibn Thabit said that he "has been attacking Gaddafi with his music since 2008" when he posted his first song on the internet, titled "Moammar – the coward". Lyrics of a song 'Al-Soo'al' released by Ibn Thabit on YouTube on 27 January 2011, weeks before
SECTION 20
#17327831636372750-458: A travel ban and asset freeze. The warning lists Gaddafi himself and 15 key members of his government: The NTC has been in negotiations with Algeria and Niger , neighboring countries to which members of the government and defecting military commanders have fled, attempting to secure the arrest and extradition of Al-Saadi Gaddafi and others. Of these officials, Baghdadi Mahmudi and Abuzed Omar Dorda were arrested, while Saif al-Arab Gaddafi
2875-656: Is Egypt , with a population of over 100 million. The least populated is the Comoros , with approximately 850,000 inhabitants. The majority of the Arab League's citizens adhere to Islam , with Christianity being the second largest religion. At least 15 million Christians combined live in Egypt , Iraq , Jordan , Lebanon , Palestine , Sudan and Syria . In addition, there are smaller but significant numbers of Druze , Yazidis , Shabaks and Mandaeans . Numbers for nonreligious Arabs are generally not available, but research by
3000-524: Is a member of OPEC and one of the world's largest oil producers . It was producing roughly 1.6 million barrels a day before the war, nearly 70% of them through the state-owned National Oil Corporation . Additionally, the country's sovereign wealth fund , the Libyan Investment Authority , was one of the largest in the world, controlling assets worth approximately US$ 56 billion, including over 100 tons of gold reserves in
3125-660: Is divided into five parts when it comes to transport, with the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East being entirely connected by air, sea, roads and railways. Another part of the League is the Nile Valley , made up of Egypt and Sudan . These two member states have started to improve the River Nile's navigation system to improve accessibility and thus foster trading. A new railway system is also set to connect
3250-577: Is theoretically under the control of the Tobruk-based government. A number of commentators have described Libya as a failed state or suggested it is on the verge of failure. The General National Congress (also translated as General National Council ) was the legislative authority of Libya. It was elected by popular vote on 7 July 2012, and from 8 August replaced the National Transitional Council that had governed
3375-633: Is to call for the downfall of the government." On the night of 16 February in Bayda , Zawiya and Zintan , hundreds of protesters in each town calling for an end to the Gaddafi government set fire to police and security buildings. A "Day of Rage" in Libya and by Libyans in exile was planned for 17 February. The National Conference for the Libyan Opposition asked that all groups opposed to
3500-807: Is to offer a better future for Libya's children". In 2009 and 2011, the Freedom of the Press Index rated Libya the most-censored state in the Middle East and North Africa. In contrast, a January 2011 report of the United Nations Human Rights Council , on which the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya sat prior to the uprising, released a month before protests began, praised certain aspects of the country's human rights record, including its treatment of women and improvements in other areas. The Libyan Arab Jamahiriya's delegation to
3625-579: The 1958 Lebanon crisis . The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter , which outlines the principles for economic activities in the region. Each member state has one vote in the Council of the Arab League , and decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them. The aims of
3750-584: The Arabs of Palestine the framers of the Pact were determined to include them within the League from its inauguration. This was done by means of an annex that declared: Even though Palestine was not able to control her own destiny, it was on the basis of the recognition of her independence that the Covenant of the League of Nations determined a system of government for her. Her existence and her independence among
3875-758: The Beirut Summit on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative , a Saudi-inspired peace plan for the Arab–Israeli conflict . The initiative offered full normalisation of the relations with Israel . In exchange, Israel was required to withdraw from all occupied territories , including the Golan Heights , to recognise Palestinian independence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip , with East Jerusalem as its capital, as well as
Politics of Libya - Misplaced Pages Continue
4000-477: The Central Bank of Libya . Libya's GDP per capita ( PPP ), human development index , and literacy rate were better than in Egypt and Tunisia, whose Arab Spring revolutions preceded the outbreak of protests in Libya. Libya's corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, ranking 146th out of 178 countries, worse than that of Egypt (ranked 98th) and Tunisia (ranked 59th). One paper speculated that such
4125-676: The First Libyan Civil War , was an armed conflict in 2011 in the North African country of Libya that was fought between forces loyal to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and rebel groups that were seeking to oust his government . The war was preceded by protests in Zawiya on 8 August 2009 and finally ignited by protests in Benghazi beginning on Tuesday 15 February 2011, which led to clashes with security forces who fired on
4250-580: The Free Officers Movement , a group of Arab nationalists that deposed King Idris I in a bloodless coup d'état in 1969 . He abolished the Libyan Constitution of 1951 , branding it a neocolonial document. From 1969 until 1975, standards of living, life expectancy and literacy grew rapidly. In 1975, he published his manifesto The Green Book . He officially stepped down from power in 1977, and subsequently claimed to be merely
4375-665: The Great Green Document on Human Rights , in which Article 5 established laws that allowed greater freedom of expression . Article 8 of The Code on the Promotion of Freedom stated that "each citizen has the right to express his opinions and ideas openly in People's Congresses and in all mass media ." A number of restrictions were also allegedly placed on the power of the Revolutionary Committees by
4500-542: The Great Manmade River was built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country. Some of the worst economic conditions were in the eastern parts of the state, once a breadbasket of the ancient world, where Gaddafi extracted oil. Except for housing improvements and the Great Manmade River, little infrastructure was developed in this region for many years. For example,
4625-654: The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Among them is the Arab Gas Pipeline , that will transport Egyptian and Iraqi gas to Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. As of 2013, a significant difference in economic conditions exist between the developed oil states of Algeria , Qatar , Kuwait and the UAE , and developing countries like the Comoros , Djibouti , Mauritania , Somalia , Sudan and Yemen . The Arab League also includes great fertile lands in
4750-464: The Khamis Brigade , was led by his son Khamis . Local militias and Revolutionary Committees across the country were also kept well-armed. By contrast, regular military units were poorly trained, and were armed with largely outdated military equipment. By the end of Gaddafi's 42-year rule, Libya's population had a per capita income of $ 14,000, though a third was estimated to still live below
4875-561: The League of Arab States ( Arabic : جامعة الدول العربية , Jāmiʿat ad-Duwal al-ʿArabiyya ), is a regional organization in the Arab world . The Arab League was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945, initially with seven members: Egypt , Iraq , Transjordan , Lebanon , Saudi Arabia , Syria , and North Yemen . Currently, the League has 22 members . The League's main goal is to "draw closer
5000-575: The Pew Forum suggests around 1% of people in the MENA region are "unaffiliated". The official language of the Arab League is Literary Arabic , based on Classical Arabic . However, several Arab League member states have other co-official or national languages, such as Somali , Afar , Comorian , French , English , Berber and Kurdish . In most countries, there is a dominant non- codified spoken Arabic dialect . The Pan-Arab Games are considered
5125-853: The Sahara . Nevertheless, it also contains several highly fertile lands like the Nile Valley , the Jubba Valley and Shebelle Valley in the Horn of Africa , the Atlas Mountains in the Maghreb , and the Fertile Crescent that stretches over Mesopotamia and the Levant . The area comprises deep forests in southern Arabia and parts of the world's longest river, the Nile . The Charter of
Politics of Libya - Misplaced Pages Continue
5250-611: The Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh , who was deposed in the 2011 uprising . On 15 April 2018, in response to the Turkish invasion of northern Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed Syrian Kurds from the enclave of Afrin , the Arab League passed a resolution calling on Turkish forces to withdraw from Afrin. In September 2019, the Arab League condemned Benjamin Netanyahu 's plans to annex
5375-546: The Syrian National Coalition Syria's seat in the Arab League. On 9 March 2014, secretary general Nabil Elaraby stated that Syria's seat would remain vacant until the opposition completes the formation of its institutions. In 2021, the Arab League initiated a process of normalisation between Syria and other Arab nations. On 7 May 2023, at the meeting of the Council of the Arab League in Cairo, it
5500-472: The Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International stated that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations. In early February, Gaddafi, on behalf of
5625-654: The sovereignty of the individual member states. The internal regulations of the Council of the League and the committees were agreed in October 1951. Those of the Secretariat-General were agreed in May 1953. Since then, governance of the Arab League has been based on the duality of supra-national institutions and the sovereignty of the member states. Preservation of individual statehood derived its strengths from
5750-459: The "rightful representative of Libya". On 3 August 2011, the NTC issued a Constitutional Declaration which declared the statehood of Libya as a democracy with Islam as its state religion , in which the state guarantees the rule of law and an independent judiciary as well as civic and human basic rights (including freedom of religion and women's rights ), and which contains provisions for
5875-535: The Arab League , also known as the Pact of the League of Arab States, is the founding treaty of the Arab League. Adopted in 1945, it stipulates that "the League of Arab States shall be composed of the independent Arab States that have signed this Pact." In 1945, there were seven members, but the Arab League now has 22 members, including 8 African countries: and 7 observer states (note: the observer states below have been invited to participate during select Arab League sessions but do not hold voting privileges): Egypt
6000-590: The Arab League initiated the creation of an organisation representing the Palestinian people. The first Palestinian National Council convened in East Jerusalem on 29 May 1964. The Palestinian Liberation Organization was founded during this meeting on 2 June 1964. Palestine was shortly admitted in to the Arab League, represented by the PLO. Today, State of Palestine is a full member of the Arab League. At
6125-631: The Arab League is one of the Institutions of the Arab League . It was established under the terms of the Joint Defence and Economic Co-operation Treaty of 1950 to coordinate the joint defence of the Arab League member states . The Arab League as an organisation has no military Force, similar to the UN, but at the 2007 summit, the Leaders decided to reactivate their joint defence and establish
6250-692: The Arab League reflects Arab leaders' individual concerns for regime survival: "the politics of Arab nationalism and a shared identity led Arab states to embrace the rhetoric of Arab unity in order to legitimize their regimes, and to fear Arab unity in practice because it would impose greater restrictions on their sovereignty." The Arab League was "specifically designed to fail at producing the kind of greater collaboration and integration that might have weakened political leaders at home." The Arab League member states cover over 13,000,000 km (5,000,000 sq mi) and straddles two continents: Africa and Asia . The area largely consists of arid deserts, such as
6375-448: The Arab League refused to condemn the UAE 's decision to normalize ties with Israel . Nevertheless, "The goal all our Arab countries seek, without exception, is to end the occupation and establish an independent Palestinian state on the 1967 borders with East Jerusalem as its capital," Aboul Gheit said. In January 2024, the Arab League expressed support for South Africa's ICJ genocide case against Israel. The Joint Defence Council of
SECTION 50
#17327831636376500-562: The Arab League, visited the Gaza Strip , the first visit by an official of the Arab League since Hamas' armed takeover in 2007. The Arab League is a member of the China-Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF), which was formed in 2004. CASCF is the Arab League's earliest participation in a cooperation forum with another country or region. CASCF is the primarily multi-lateral coordination mechanism between
6625-579: The Arab states and China and within CASCF the Arab League represents its member states as a relatively unified force. The Arab League's coordination allows Arab states to negotiate actively for collective projects involving multiple states, such as railway projects, nuclear power projects, and Dead Sea initiatives. In 2015, the Arab League voiced support for Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against
6750-417: The Arabian Peninsula by the Bab el Mandeb and this is quickly changing as Tarik bin Laden, the brother of Osama bin Laden , has initiated the construction of the ambitious Bridge of the Horns project, which ultimately aims to connect the Horn of Africa with the Arabian Peninsula via a massive bridge. The project is intended to facilitate and accelerate the already centuries-old trade and commerce between
6875-589: The Declaration. The main responsibility of the GNC was to form a constituent assembly which would write Libya's permanent constitution, for approval by a referendum . The law of Libya is based on sharia . On 30 March 2014, the General National Congress voted to replace itself with a new House of Representatives. The new legislature would allocate 30 seats for women, would have 200 seats overall (with individuals able to run as members of political parties) and allow Libyans of foreign nationalities to run for office. While elections were held and lawmakers took office,
7000-413: The Economic and Social Council of its Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific, and social programmes designed to promote the interests of the Arab world. It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate policy, arrange studies of and committees as to matters of common concern, settle inter-state disputes and limit conflicts such as
7125-561: The Gaddafi government protest on 17 February in memory of demonstrations in Benghazi five years earlier. The plans to protest were inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian revolution . Protests took place in Benghazi, Ajdabiya , Derna, Zintan, and Bayda. Libyan security forces fired live ammunition into the armed protests. Protesters torched a number of government buildings, including a police station. In Tripoli , television and public radio stations had been sacked, and protesters set fire to security buildings, Revolutionary Committee offices,
7250-509: The Gaddafi government, leading to a resurgence in the Libyan state's popularity by the early 1990s. In 2004, however, Libya posted a $ 1 million bounty for journalist and governmental critic Ashur Shamis, under the allegation that he was linked to Al-Qaeda and terror suspect Abu Qatada . Between 13 and 16 January 2011, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Bayda , Derna , Benghazi and other cities broke into, and occupied, housing that
7375-426: The Jamahiriya, met with political activists, journalists and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya. The protests would lead to an uprising and civil war, as part of the wider Arab Spring , which had already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt. Social media played a central role in organizing
7500-525: The Libyan Arab Jamahiriya suffered from extreme poverty and hunger, and that the government guaranteed a minimum of food and essential needs to people with low incomes. In 2006, an initiative was adopted for providing people with low incomes investment portfolios amounting to $ 30,000 to be deposited with banks and companies. The Revolutionary Committees occasionally kept tight control over internal dissent; reportedly, 10% to 20% of Libyans worked as informants for these committees, with surveillance taking place in
7625-743: The NTC officially dissolved and transferred power to the General National Congress. On 7 July 2012, the Legislative body – the General National Congress – was elected. The National Transitional Council has pledged to honor Libya's international commitments until the 2012 elections . Libya is a member of ABEDA , AfDB , AFESD , AL , AMF , AMU , AU , CAEU , ECA , FAO , G-77 , IAEA , IBRD , ICAO , IDA , IDB , IFAD , IFC , IFRCS , ILO , IMF , IMO , Inmarsat , Intelsat , Interpol , IOC , ISO , ITU , NAM , OAPEC , OIC , OPEC , PCA , UN , UNCTAD , UNESCO , UNHRC (suspended), UNIDO , UPU , WCO , WFTU , WHO , WIPO , WMO , UNWTO and UNHABITAT . After originally rising to power through
SECTION 60
#17327831636377750-407: The National Transitional Council was recognised by the United Nations as the legal representative of Libya, replacing the Gaddafi government. Muammar Gaddafi evaded capture until 20 October 2011, when he was captured and killed in Sirte . The National Transitional Council declared "the liberation of Libya" and the official end of the war on 23 October 2011. In the aftermath of the civil war ,
7875-464: The PolityIV authority trends scale, increasing from a -7 to a 1, shifting its categorization from “ autocracy ” to “ anocracy .” The House of Representatives was formed following June 2014 elections , when the General National Congress formed as a transitional body after the Libyan Revolution dissolved. However, Islamists fared poorly in the low-turnout elections, and members of the Islamist-led GNC reconvened in August 2014, refusing to recognize
8000-454: The Popular Committees, Basic People's Committees , Basic People's Congresses , and General People's Congresses , in 2010. Dissent was illegal under Law 75 of 1973, and in 1974, Gaddafi asserted that anyone guilty of founding a political party would be executed. With the establishment of the Jamahiriya ("state of the masses") system in 1977, he established the Revolutionary Committees as conduits for raising political consciousness, with
8125-498: The US State Department, and an analysis by the Combating Terrorism Center at the US Military Academy at West Point of a set of documents called the Sinjar Records, purporting to show a statistical study of the al-Qaeda personnel records. The West Point analysis of these documents concluded that Libya provided "far more" foreign fighters in per capita terms than any other country. A disclosed file from 2005 on WikiLeaks found that rebel leader Abu Sufian Ibrahim Ahmed Hamuda Bin Qumu
8250-548: The United Nations issued a report about human rights in Libya. The report said that the country was founded on direct people's democracy that guaranteed direct exercise of authority by all citizens through the people's congresses. Citizens were said to be able to express opinions to the congresses on political, economic, social, and cultural issues. In addition, the report stated that there were information platforms such as newspapers and TV channels for people to express their opinions through. Libyan authorities also argued that no one in
8375-414: The aim of direct political participation by all Libyans rather than a traditional party-based representative system . In 1979, some of the Revolutionary Committees had eventually evolved into self-appointed, sometimes zealous, enforcers of revolutionary orthodoxy. During the early 1980s, the Revolutionary Committees had considerable power and became a growing source of tension within the Jamihiriya, to
8500-1860: The biggest Arab sporting event, which brings together athletes from all the Arab countries to participate in a variety of different sports. The Union of Arab Football Associations organises the Arab Cup (for national teams) and the Arab Club Champions Cup (for clubs). Arab sport federations also exist for several games, include basketball , volleyball , handball , table tennis , tennis , squash and swimming . Libyan civil war (2011) NATO/Anti-Gaddafi victory [REDACTED] United Nations Security Council [REDACTED] NATO Minor border clashes : [REDACTED] Tunisia [REDACTED] Mustafa Jalil [REDACTED] Omar El-Hariri [REDACTED] Jalal al-Digheily [REDACTED] Khalifa Haftar [REDACTED] Abdelhakim Belhaj [REDACTED] Abdul Fatah Younis † [REDACTED] Suleiman Mahmoud [REDACTED] Ali Attalah Obeidi † [REDACTED] Hussein Darbouk † [REDACTED] Ali al-Sallabi [REDACTED] Sadiq Al-Ghariani [REDACTED] Mohammed Ali Madani † [REDACTED] Osama al-Juwaili [REDACTED] Daou al-Salhine al-Jadak † [REDACTED] Mustafa Bin Dardef † [REDACTED] Abdel-Hakim al-Hasidi [REDACTED] Ismail al-Salabi [REDACTED] Abdullah Naker [REDACTED] Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani [REDACTED] Hamad bin Ali Al Attiyah [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Robert Gates [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Leon Panetta [REDACTED] [REDACTED] James G. Stavridis [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Ralph Jodice 200,000 volunteers by war's end (NTC estimate) The Libyan civil war , also known as
8625-604: The city of Bayda. Muammar: You have never served the people Muammar: You'd better give up Confess. You cannot escape Our revenge will catch you As a train roars through a wall We will drown you. Rap , hip hop and traditional music, alongside other genres, played a big role in encouraging dissent against Gaddafi's government. Music has been controlled and dissenting cultural figures have been arrested or tortured in Arab Spring countries, including Libya. Music provided an important platform for communication among demonstrators. It helped to create moral support and encouraged
8750-462: The country since the end of the Libyan Civil War . The General National Congress was composed of 200 members of which 80 were elected through a party list system of proportional representation , and 120 were elected as independents in multiple-member districts . The executive branch was appointed by the GNC and led by the prime minister , while the president of the GNC was the de facto head of state , though not explicitly described as such in
8875-713: The country's subdivisions, an indirectly elected General People's Congress as the legislature, and the General People's Committee , led by a Secretary-General, as the executive branch. According to the US Government funded Freedom House , however, these structures were often manipulated to ensure the dominance of Gaddafi, who reportedly continued to dominate all aspects of government. WikiLeaks ' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering". While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he skilfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining
9000-723: The crowd. The protests escalated into a rebellion that spread across the country, with the forces opposing Gaddafi establishing an interim governing body, the National Transitional Council . The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution on 26 February, freezing the assets of Gaddafi and his inner circle and restricting their travel, and referred the matter to the International Criminal Court for investigation. In early March, Gaddafi's forces rallied, pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before reaching Benghazi. A further UN resolution authorised member states to establish and enforce
9125-491: The decision of the United Nations General Assembly. When Transjordan agreed to this proposal, Egypt intervened to prevent this from happening. It was followed by the creation of a mutual defence treaty two years later. A common market was established in 1965. The Arab League has not achieved much cooperation throughout its history. According to Michael Barnett and Etel Solingen , the design of
9250-544: The eastern portion of the occupied West Bank known as the Jordan Valley . The Arab League met in Cairo on 12 October 2019 to discuss Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria . Upon meeting, its member states voted to condemn the Turkish offensive, dubbing it both an 'invasion' and an 'aggression' against an Arab state, adding that the organization saw it as a violation of international law. On 9 September 2020,
9375-501: The establishment of a Joint Arab Force with the aim of counteracting extremism and other threats to the Arab States. The decision was reached while Operation Decisive Storm was intensifying in Yemen. Participation in the project is voluntary, and the army intervenes only at the request of one of the member states. Heightened military arsenal in many member states and, in a small minority, civil wars as well as terrorist movements were
9500-442: The extent that Gaddafi sometimes criticized their effectiveness and excessive repression, until the power of the Revolutionary Committees was eventually restricted in the late 1980s. The Green Book , which Gaddafi authored in the 1970s, was for years the principal text of political education. BBC cited a Libyan who said that teachers who called it "rubbish" could face execution . "The Great Green Document on Human Rights treats
9625-418: The fighting because the plans set forth did not include the removal of Gaddafi. In August, rebel forces launched an offensive on the government-held coast of Libya , backed by a wide-reaching NATO bombing campaign, taking back territory lost months before and ultimately capturing the capital city of Tripoli , while Gaddafi evaded capture and loyalists engaged in a rearguard campaign. On 16 September 2011,
9750-459: The formation of the GNU in 2015. Still, even with the establishment of this governmental structure, widespread human rights abuses exist throughout the country to this day; this is due to the lack of a central government to regulate the ten years of conflict that ensued after Gaddafi's reign. However, the country has made some "democratic" progress: Libya's score was trending upwards from 2011 to 2013 on
9875-602: The former General National Congress rejected the results and reconvened in opposition to the new parliament, which now meets in the eastern Libyan city of Tobruk . In early December 2015 both parliaments, the GNC and the House of Representatives, agreed a declaration of principles calling for the formation of a joint ten-person committee to name an interim prime minister and two deputies, leading to new elections within two years. Political parties were banned in Libya from 1972 until
10000-563: The government had been building. Protesters also clashed with police in Bayda and attacked government offices. By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with an over €20 billion investment fund to provide housing and development. In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by
10125-415: The government, in factories, and in the education sector. The government sometimes executed dissidents through public hangings and mutilations and re-broadcast them on public television channels. Until the mid-1980s, Libya's intelligence service conducted assassinations of Libyan dissidents around the world. In December 2009, Gaddafi reportedly told government officials that Libya would soon experience
10250-513: The group was to co-ordinate resistance between towns held in rebel control, and represent the opposition to the world, but did not include forming an interim government. The Benghazi-based opposition government had called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya. The council began to refer to itself as the Libyan Republic and by March had a website. Former Jamahiriya Justice Minister Mustafa Abdul Jalil said in February that
10375-613: The impetuses for JAF's establishment. In the early 1970s, the Economic Council put forward a proposal to create the Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across international states. That led to the setting up of mandates to promote, encourage and facilitate bilateral trade between the Arab world and significant trading partners. Following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League
10500-513: The interior ministry building, and the People's Hall . On 18 February, police and army personnel later withdrew from Benghazi after being overwhelmed by protesters. Some army personnel also joined the protesters; they then seized the local radio station. In Bayda, unconfirmed reports indicated that the local police force and riot-control units had joined the protesters. On 19 February, witnesses in Libya reported helicopters firing into crowds of anti-government protesters. The army withdrew from
10625-483: The largest ethnic group in the Arab League, there are several other ethnic groups that also reside in the region, including Berbers , Kurds , Somalis , Assyrians , Armenians , Nubians , Mandaeans , and Circassians . Each of these groups have their own distinct cultures, languages, and traditions. As of 1 July 2013, about 359 million people live in the states of the Arab League. Its population grows faster than in most other global regions. The most populous member state
10750-508: The league in 1945 were to strengthen and coordinate the political, cultural, economic and social programs of its members and to mediate disputes among them or between them and third parties. Furthermore, the signing of an agreement on Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures. In March 2015, the Arab League General Secretary announced
10875-525: The league's history, other smaller Arab Organizations have achieved more than the league has, such as the GCC , but lately several major economic projects that are promising are to be completed, the Arab Gas Pipeline is to end by 2010, Connecting Egyptian and Iraqi Gas to Jordan, Syria and Lebanon, and then to Turkey thus Europe, a free trade Agreement ( GAFTA ) is to be completed by 1 January 2008, making 95% of all Arab products tax free of customs. The Arab League
11000-601: The ministries were failing to manage the country's oil revenues, and that his "dream during all these years was to give power and wealth directly to the people". A national vote on Gaddafi's plan was held in 2009, where Libya's people's congresses, collectively the country's highest authority, voted to delay implementation. The General People's Congress announced that, of 468 Basic People's Congresses , 64 chose immediate implementation while 251 endorsed implementation "but asked for (it) to be delayed until appropriate measures were put in place". Some top government officials opposed
11125-428: The national poverty line. A broadly secular society was imposed. Under Gaddafi , Child marriage was banned, and women enjoyed equality of equal pay for equal work, equal rights in divorce and access to higher education rose from 8% in 1966 to 43% in 1996, equal to that of men. Homelessness was insignificant, with literacy rates estimated at 88%, and average life expectancy rose from 51/54 in 1969 to 74/77. Much of
11250-535: The nations can, therefore, no more be questioned de jure than the independence of any of the other Arab States. [...] Therefore, the States signatory to the Pact of the Arab League consider that in view of Palestine's special circumstances, the Council of the League should designate an Arab delegate from Palestine to participate in its work until this country enjoys actual independence At the Cairo Summit of 1964,
11375-429: The natural preference of ruling elites to maintain their power and independence in decision making. Moreover, the fear of the richer that the poorer may share their wealth in the name of Arab nationalism , the feuds among Arab rulers , and the influence of external powers that might oppose Arab unity can be seen as obstacles towards a deeper integration of the league. Mindful of their previous announcements in support of
11500-497: The new government would prepare for elections and they could be held in three months. On 29 March, the political and international affairs committee of the Council presented its eight-point plan for Libya in The Guardian newspaper, stating they would hold free and fair elections and draft a national constitution. An independent newspaper called Libya appeared in Benghazi, as well as rebel-controlled radio stations. Some of
11625-732: The new parliament dominated by secularist and federalist lawmakers. Supporters of the New General National Congress swiftly seized control of Tripoli, Libya's constitutional capital, forcing the newly elected parliament into virtual exile in Tobruk, near the Egyptian border. The House of Representatives enjoys widespread international recognition as Libya's official government. However, the Tripoli-based Supreme Court declared it illegal and voided
11750-482: The oil flowing. Teachers and engineers set up a committee to collect weapons. Likewise, supply lines were run by volunteers. For example, in Misrata people organised a pizza service which delivered up to 8,000 pizzas a day to fighters. The National Transitional Council ( Arabic : المجلس الوطني الانتقالي ) was established on 27 February to consolidate efforts for change in the rule of Libya. The main objectives of
11875-509: The only sewage facility in Benghazi was over 40 years old, and untreated sewage has resulted in environmental problems. Several foreign governments and analysts have stated that a large share of the business enterprise was controlled by Gaddafi, his family, and the government. A leaked US diplomatic cable said that the Libyan economy was "a kleptocracy in which the government – either the Gaddafi family itself or its close political allies – has
12000-488: The opposition. A social media website declared an alternative government, one that would be an interim national council, was the first to compete with Muammar Gaddafi's political authority. Gaddafi's senior advisor attempted to reject the idea by tweeting his resignation. The protests, unrest and confrontations began in earnest on 2 February 2011. They were soon nicknamed the Libyan Revolution of Dignity by
12125-467: The outbreak of the First Libyan Civil War . The Arab League voted to restore Libya's membership on 27 August 2011 by accrediting a representative of the National Transitional Council , which was the partially recognised interim government of the country. Syria was suspended on 16 November 2011 in the aftermath of the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War . On 6 March 2013, the Arab League gave
12250-401: The plan, saying that it would "wreak havoc" in the economy by "fanning inflation and spurring capital flight ". Gaddafi acknowledged that the scheme, which promised up to 30,000 Libyan dinars ($ 23,000) annually to about a million of Libya's poorest, may "cause chaos before it brought about prosperity," but said "do not be afraid to experiment with a new form of government" and that "this plan
12375-519: The protesters and foreign media. Foreign workers and disgruntled minorities protested in the main square of Zawiya, Libya against the local administration. This was succeeded by race riots, which were squashed by the police and pro-Gaddafi loyalists. On the evening of 15 February, between 500 and 600 demonstrators protested in front of Benghazi's police headquarters after the arrest of human rights lawyer Fathi Terbil . Crowds were armed with petrol bombs and threw stones. Marchers hurled Molotov cocktails in
12500-684: The rebel movement in both eastern and western Libya. Rebel groups primarily initiated from Misrati, Zentan and Derna. In Benghazi "the February 17 Brigade" was a powerful Islamist group composed of 12 different brigades. The Libya Shield was based out of Mistrata and Zaria. There was also the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group and the Obaida Ibn Jarrah Brigade which has been held responsible for the assassination of top rebel commander General Abdul Fatah Younis . Gaddafi's administration repeatedly asserted that
12625-509: The rebels included al-Qaeda fighters. Rebels denied this. NATO's Supreme Allied Commander James G. Stavridis stated that intelligence reports suggested there were "flickers" of al-Qaeda activity among rebels, but that there was insufficient information to confirm a significant presence of terrorist groups. Gaddafi's claims are supported by a 2008 secret cable from the US embassy in Tripoli to
12750-408: The rebels opposed tribalism and wore vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism". Some Libyans said that they had found abandoned torture chambers and devices that had been used in the past. The rebels primarily included civilians, such as teachers, students, lawyers, and oil workers, but also defected police officers and professional soldiers. Many Islamists were part of
12875-500: The reign. The Libyan revolt of 2011 that ultimately ended Gaddafi's reign was partially inspired by both Tunisia and Egypt's attempted democratization , demonstrating the neighborhood effect : a theory that postulates countries will be influenced by their neighbors when adopting regime types. Interpol on 4 March 2011 issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970 , which imposed
13000-493: The relations between member states and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries". The organization has received a relatively low level of cooperation throughout its history. Through institutions, notably the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and
13125-504: The removal of Gaddafi's government, and all elections were nonpartisan under law. However, during the revolution, the National Transitional Council (NTC), a body formed on 27 February 2011 by anti-Gaddafi forces to act as the "political face of the revolution", made the introduction of multiparty democracy a cornerstone of its agenda. In June 2011, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi said his father would agree to internationally monitored general elections, and would step down if he lost them, but his offer
13250-683: The results of the election in November 2014. The court ruling was hailed by the GNC and its backers, but it was rejected as invalid by the House of Representatives and its loyalists. Against this backdrop of division, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Ansar al-Sharia , as well as other militant groups both religious and tribal in nature, have seized control of several cities and districts across Libya, especially in Cyrenaica , which
13375-628: The revolt against his rule was the result of a colonialist plot by foreign states, particularly blaming France, the US and the UK, to control oil and enslave the Libyan people. He referred to the rebels as "cockroaches" and "rats", and vowed not to step down and to cleanse Libya house by house until the insurrection was crushed. He said that if the rebels laid down their arms, they would not be harmed. He also said that he had been receiving "thousands" of phone calls from Benghazi, from residents who were being held hostage and who wanted to be rescued. Gaddafi said in
13500-566: The right to life as an individual human right and calls for abolition of the death sentence , except in the case of persons whose lives endanger or corrupt society." In 1988, Gaddafi criticized the "excesses" he blamed on the Revolutionary Councils, stating that "they deviated, harmed, tortured" and that "the true revolutionary does not practise repression." That same year, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya issued
13625-442: The riots began in Libya were indicative of the rebel sentiment. Some groups, such as a rock band from Benghazi called the "Guys Underground", used metaphors to cloak the censure of the authorities. The group released a song just before the uprising entitled "Like My Father Always Says" to ridicule an autocratic fictional male head of a family which was a veiled reference to Colonel Gaddafi. Many opposition participants called for
13750-406: The role of militias which fought in the civil war and their role in Libya's new dispensation. Some refused to disarm, and cooperation with the NTC had been strained, leading to demonstrations against militias and government action to disband such groups or integrate them into the Libyan military. These unresolved issues led directly to a second civil war in Libya . Muammar Gaddafi was the head of
13875-550: The southern Egyptian city of Abu Simbel with the northern Sudanese city of Wadi Halfa and then to Khartoum and Port Sudan . The third division of the League is the Maghreb , where a 3,000 km stretch of railway runs from the southern cities of Morocco to Tripoli in Western Libya . The fourth division of the League is the Horn of Africa , whose member states include Djibouti and Somalia . These two Arab League states are separated by only ten nautical miles from
14000-533: The southern part of Sudan . It is referred to as the food basket of the Arab World , the region's instability including the independence of South Sudan has not affected its tourism industry, that is considered the fastest growing industry in the region, with Egypt , UAE , Lebanon , Tunisia , and Jordan leading the way. Another industry that is growing steadily in the Arab League is telecommunications. Economical achievements within members have been low in
14125-428: The state by proposing reforms where oil profits are handed out directly to the country's five million people rather than to government bodies, stating that "as long as money is administered by a government body, there would be theft and corruption." Gaddafi urged a sweeping reform of the government bureaucracy , suggesting that most of the cabinet system should be dismantled to "free Libyans from red tape" and "protect
14250-482: The state's budget from corruption". According to Western diplomats, this move appeared to be aimed at putting pressure on the government to speed up reforms. In March 2008, Gaddafi proposed plans to dissolve the country's existing administrative structure and disburse oil revenue directly to the people. The plan included abolishing all ministries except those of defence, internal security, and foreign affairs, and departments implementing strategic projects. He stated that
14375-407: The state's income came from its oil production , which soared in the 1970s. In the 1980s, a large portion of it was spent on arms purchases, and on sponsoring militant groups and independence movements around the world. Libya's economy was structured primarily around the nation's energy sector, which in the 2000s generated about 95% of export earnings, 80% of GDP, and 99% of government income. Libya
14500-791: The two regions. The last division of the League is the isolated archipelago of the Comoros located off the coast of East Africa , which is not physically connected to any other Arab state, but still trades with other Arab League members. In collecting literacy data, many countries estimate the number of literate people based on self-reported data. Some use educational attainment data as a proxy, but measures of school attendance or grade completion may differ. Because definitions and data collection methods vary across countries, literacy estimates should be used with caution. United Nations Development Programme , Human Development Report 2010. The Persian Gulf region has had an oil boom , enabling more schools and universities to be set up. While Arabs constitute
14625-638: Was a former Guantanamo Bay detainee alleged to be a member of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, to have joined the Taliban in 1998, and that he was a "probable member of Al Qaida and a member of the African Extremist Network". In the days leading up to the conflict, Gaddafi called for a rally against the government that was to be held on 17 February. The International Crisis Group believes this to have been
14750-453: Was agreed to reinstate Syria's membership. The Arab League is a political organization which tries to help integrate its members economically, and solve conflicts involving member states without asking for foreign assistance. It possesses elements of a state representative parliament while foreign affairs are often conducted under UN supervision. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab nation-state while respecting
14875-558: Was formed, only to face new opposition in Government of National Stability , until Libyan Political Dialogue Forum assured the ongoing ceasefire. Members of that House of Representatives and the New General National Congress signed a political agreement on 18 December 2015. Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidential Council and a seventeen-member interim Government of National Accord
15000-492: Was formed, with a view to holding new elections within two years. The House of Representatives would continue to exist as a legislature and an advisory body, to be known as the State Council , was formed with members nominated by the New General National Congress . This attempt at unification was unsuccessful, as three competing governments still remained by the end of 2016, disputes between which continuing until
15125-520: Was founded on 22 March 1945. The official headquarters of the League was the Boustan Palace in Cairo. It aimed to be a regional organisation of Arab states with a focus to developing the economy, resolving disputes and coordinating political aims. Other countries later joined the league. Each country was given one vote in the council. The first major action was joint intervention to keep Palestine from being divided into two states in keeping with
15250-418: Was killed by a NATO airstrike during the war, Khamis Gaddafi was killed in action after the fall of Tripoli , and Muammar and Mutassim Gaddafi , as well as Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr , were killed during the fall of Sirte . Arab League The Arab League ( Arabic : الجامعة العربية , al-Jāmiʿa al-ʻArabiyya , Arabic: [al.d͡ʒaː.mi.ʕa al.ʕa.ra.bij.ja] ), formally
15375-485: Was refused by the rebels and ignored by the UN Security Council. On 8 March, the NTC issued a statement in which it declared itself to be the "sole representative all over Libya". The council formed an interim governing body on 23 March. As of 20 October 2011, 100 countries declared full support to the council by severing all relations with Gaddafi's rule and recognizing the National Transitional Council as
15500-743: Was signatory prior to the uprising. On 7 July 2012 an election was held for the General National Congress (GNC) to replace the NTC. There were 2,501 candidates for the 200 seats – 136 for political parties and 64 for independent candidates. About 300 candidates' views were considered unacceptable and removed from candidates list, suspected of sympathizing with the defeated forces of the Jamahiriya. Accreditation centers have also been organized in European cities with larger Libyan communities like Berlin and Paris, in order to allow Libyan nationals, there to cast their vote. On 8 August 2012
15625-525: Was suspended from the Arab League on 26 March 1979 due to the Egypt–Israel peace treaty , with the League's headquarters moving from Cairo to Tunis , Tunisia. In 1987, Arab League states restored diplomatic relations with Egypt, the country was readmitted to the League in May 1989 and the League's headquarters were moved back to Cairo in September 1990. Libya was suspended on 22 February 2011, following
#636363