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68-697: The Lincoln concept featured an independent rear suspension, with MacPherson struts up front. The engine selected for the MKR concept introduced the new generation of Ford twin-turbocharged engines. The prototype TwinForce 3.5L twin-turbo , direct-injection gasoline V6 was also capable of running on E85 ethanol , producing up to 415- hp , and 400 pound force-feet (540 N⋅m) of torque. The interior design included environmentally-friendly and renewable materials, such as cashmere leather, oak instrument panel engineered from recycled wood, mohair carpet, and seat cushion foam made from soy. The concept car also featured

136-414: A centering cam which pushed the steering rack and wheel back to the straight-ahead position. The centering force increased with speed, requiring more effort to turn the wheel at greater speeds. Modern speed-sensitive power steering systems reduce the mechanical or electrical assistance as the vehicle speed increases, giving a more direct feel. This feature is gradually becoming more common. For example, it

204-531: A double wishbone suspension. Notable examples include the Honda Accord and Civic , as well as the Mercedes E-Class , all of which adopted struts to improve crash performance . The overall simplicity of the design also means there are fewer joints in the suspension to wear, so there is less decline in handling and steering feel over time . Inverted monotube struts can also provide extra rigidity in

272-407: A driver a greater mechanical advantage, resulting in its use on larger, heavier vehicles, while the rack and pinion would originally be limited to smaller and lighter ones; due to the almost universal adoption of power steering , however, this is no longer considered an important advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack and pinion mechanisms on newer cars. The recirculating ball design also has

340-419: A driver to control the direction of the vehicle by turning the direction of the front wheels using a hand–operated steering wheel positioned in front of the driver. The steering wheel is attached to a steering column , which is linked to rods, pivots and gears that allow the driver to change the direction of the front wheels. The mechanism may include a rack and pinion mechanism that converts several turns of

408-477: A large wheelbase, while at higher speeds both front and rear wheels turn alike (electronically controlled), so that the vehicle may change position with less yaw and improved build-up of the lateral acceleration, enhancing straight-line stability. The "snaking effect" experienced during motorway drives while towing a travel trailer is thus largely nullified. Four-wheel steering found its most widespread use in monster trucks , where maneuverability in small arenas

476-404: A low cost press forging process to manufacture the racks, eliminating the need to machine the gear teeth. Other arrangements are sometimes found on different types of vehicles; for example, a tiller or rear-wheel steering. Tracked vehicles such as bulldozers and tanks usually employ differential steering , where the tracks are made to move at different speeds or in opposite directions, using

544-458: A mounting in the body shell of the vehicle. The line from the top mount of the strut to the bottom ball joint on the control arm gives the steering axis inclination . The axis of the strut may be angled inwards from the steering axis at the bottom, to clear the tyre, which makes the bottom follow an arc when steering. The MacPherson strut benefited from introduction of unibody construction, because its design requires substantial vertical space and

612-582: A perceptible lash, or "dead spot" on center, where a minute turn of the steering wheel in either direction does not move the steering apparatus; this is easily adjustable via a screw on the end of the steering box to account for wear, but it cannot be eliminated because it will produce excessive internal forces at other positions and the mechanism will wear very rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage. The worm and sector

680-663: A revolutionary new independent suspension system that featured what is now known as a MacPherson strut. The Cadet was slated to be the first production vehicle with MacPherson struts, but the project was cancelled in 1947 and never saw commercial production. This was in large part due to GM's concerns about the Cadet's forecasted profit margins. After the Cadet project was shelved, a disgruntled MacPherson left GM to join Ford . Patents were filed in 1947 ( U.S. patent 2,624,592 for GM) and in 1949 ( U.S. patent 2,660,449 for Ford), with

748-412: A special type of active four-wheel steering. It operates by steering all wheels in the same direction and at the same angle. Crab steering is used when the vehicle needs to proceed in a straight line but at an angle: when changing lanes on a highway at speed, when moving loads with a reach truck, or during filming with a camera dolly. Rear wheel steering can also be used when the rear wheels may not follow

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816-413: A steering mechanism called a rack and pinion . The steering wheel turns a pinion gear, which moves a rack back and forth to steer the wheels. This mechanism converts the circular motion of the steering wheel to linear motion , which is applied to the wheels of the car via tie rods and a steering knuckle . Rack and pinion steering has several advantages, such as a direct steering "feel". This means that

884-416: A strong top mount, which unibody construction can provide. Unibody construction also distributes suspension stresses. The strut will usually carry both the coil spring , on which the body is suspended, and the shock absorber , which is usually in the form of a cartridge mounted within the strut (see coilover ). The strut can also have the steering arm built into the lower outer portion. The whole assembly

952-649: A version of this electronic four-wheel steering system on the Mazda 626 and MX6 in 1988. The first rally vehicle to use the technology was the Peugeot 405 Turbo 16 , which debuted at the 1988 Pikes Peak International Hill Climb. Previously, Honda had mechanical four-wheel steering as an option in their 1987–2001 Prelude and Honda Ascot models (1989–1996) later upgrading to electronically controlled. General Motors offered Delphi's Quadrasteer in their Silverado/Sierra and Suburban/Yukon. Due to low demand, GM discontinued

1020-428: A vessel can steer the ship only when water is passing over it. Hence, when a ship is not moving relative to the water it is in or cannot move its rudder, it does not respond to the helm and is said to have lost steerage . The motion of a ship through the water is known as making way . Boats on rivers must always be under propulsion, even when traveling downstream, in order to steer, requiring sufficient water to pass over

1088-420: A wishbone, or a substantial compression link stabilized by a secondary link, which provides a mounting point for the hub carrier or axle of the wheel. The lower arm system provides both lateral and longitudinal location of the wheel. The upper part of the hub carrier is rigidly fixed to the bottom of the outer part of the strut proper. That slides up and down the inner part of it, which extends upwards directly to

1156-405: Is also possible. A Hydraulic Power Steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. Electric Power Steering (EPS) is more efficient than hydraulic power-steering, since the electric power-steering motor only needs to provide assistance when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run constantly. In EPS,

1224-424: Is critical, and it is also popular in large farm vehicles and trucks. Some of the modern European Intercity buses also utilize four-wheel steering to assist maneuverability in bus terminals, and also to improve road stability. Mazda were pioneers in applying four-wheel steering to automobiles, showing it on their 1984 Mazda MX-02 concept car, where the rear wheels counter-steered at low speeds. Mazda proceeded to offer

1292-431: Is normally achieved by changing the rates of the rubber bushings in the suspension. Some suspensions typically have compliance oversteer due to geometry, such as Hotchkiss live axles , semi-trailing arm IRS, and rear twist beams, but may be mitigated by revisions to the pivot points of the leaf spring or trailing arm, or additional suspension links, or complex internal geometry of the bushings. Passive rear-wheel steering

1360-415: Is not a new concept, as it has been in use for many years, although not always recognized as such. Articulated steering is a system by which a vehicle is split into front and rear halves which are connected by a vertical hinge. The front and rear halves are connected with one or more hydraulic cylinders that change the angle between the halves, including the front and rear axles and wheels, thus steering

1428-402: Is not generally considered to give as good handling as a double wishbone or multi-link suspension, because it allows the engineers less freedom to choose camber change and roll center . Cars that have cockpit adjustable ride height generally cannot have MacPherson struts because of the camber changes that are an unavoidable part of the design. Ride suffers because the shock absorber has almost

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1496-417: Is not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels make in the vertical plane, known as camber angle , also influences steering dynamics as do the tires. Steering wheel turning is often measured in terms of number of full 360-degree turns to go lock-to-lock . This is when the steering input mechanism is restrained at its mechanical limit from the full right-turn stop to the left-turn stop. Many modern cars have

1564-586: Is very simple and can be pre-assembled into a unit. As well, the elimination of the upper control arm allows for more width in the engine compartment, which is useful for smaller cars, particularly with transverse -mounted engines, such as most front wheel drive vehicles have. The assembly can be further simplified, if needed, by substituting an anti-roll bar ( torsion bar ) for the radius arm . For those reasons, it has become almost ubiquitous with low cost manufacturers. Furthermore, it offers an easy method to set suspension geometry. Many modern versions replace

1632-742: The THX II -certified car audio system. The Lincoln MKR concept was introduced along with what became Lincoln's flagship sedan, the Lincoln MKS . The MKR represented a full expression of Lincoln's future design strategy, which included seven primary design features: Special Projects Inc., located in Plymouth, Michigan , was hired to be responsible for the building of the MKR. Special Projects has built many other concept vehicles for Ford including Ford 427, Ford Super Chief , Ford Flex , and Lincoln Blackwood . The MKR did not enter production, but many of

1700-548: The ThrustSSC . In cars, rear-wheel steering tends to be unstable because, in turns, the steering geometry changes, hence decreasing the turn radius (oversteer), rather than increasing it (understeer). Rear-wheel steering is meant for slower vehicles that need high-maneuverability in tight spaces, e.g. fork lifts. For heavy haulage or for increased maneuverability, some semi-trailers are fitted with rear-wheel steering, controlled electro-hydraulically. The wheels on all or some of

1768-457: The bushings to correct this tendency and steer the wheels slightly to the inside of the corner. This improves the stability of the car through the turn. This effect is called compliance understeer ; it, or its opposite, is present on all suspensions. Typical methods of achieving compliance understeer are to use a Watt's link on a live rear axle, or the use of toe control bushings on a twist beam suspension . On an independent rear suspension it

1836-418: The clutch and brakes, to achieve a change of direction. Common steering system components include: The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired direction to move the vehicle as required. This is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots, and gears. One of the fundamental concepts is that of caster angle . Each wheel is steered with a pivot point ahead of

1904-473: The pitman arm , which is connected to the steering linkage and thus steers the wheels. The recirculating ball version of this apparatus reduces the considerable friction by placing large ball bearings between the screw and the nut. At either end of the apparatus, the balls exit from between the two pieces into a channel internal to the box, which connects them with the other end of the apparatus. Thus, they are "recirculated". The recirculating ball mechanism gives

1972-435: The propeller pod only (i.e., Volvo Penta IPS drive). Steering wheels may be used to control the rudder or propeller. Modern ships with diesel-electric drive use azimuth thrusters . Boats powered by oars or paddles are steered by generating a higher propulsion force on the side of the boat opposite of the direction of turn. Jet skis are steered by weight-shift induced roll and water jet thrust vectoring . The rudder of

2040-471: The 1959 Mercedes-Benz W111 Fintail, along with crumple zones. This safety feature first appeared on cars built by General Motors after an extensive and very public lobbying campaign enacted by Ralph Nader . Ford started to install collapsible steering columns in 1968. Audi used a retractable steering wheel and seat belt tensioning system called procon-ten , but it has since been discontinued in favor of airbags and pyrotechnic seat belt pre-tensioners. See

2108-615: The 2011 time frame, most likely having been assembled at Flat Rock Assembly Plant in Flat Rock, Michigan alongside the Mustang, with which it would have shared a platform. MacPherson struts The MacPherson strut is a type of automotive suspension system that uses the top of a telescopic damper as the upper steering pivot. It is widely used in the front suspension of modern vehicles. The name comes from American automotive engineer Earle S. MacPherson , who invented and developed

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2176-559: The Cottin-Desgouttes front suspension was in turn inspired by a 1904 design by American engineer J. Walter Christie . MacPherson designed the strut for all four wheels, but it is normally used for the front suspension only, where it provides a steering pivot as well as a suspension mounting for the wheel. The first production car to use MacPherson struts is often cited incorrectly as the French 1949 Ford Vedette , but it

2244-483: The aircraft, it is usually used to minimize adverse yaw , rather than as a means to directly cause the turn. On the ground, aircraft are generally steered at low speeds by turning the nosewheel or tailwheel (using a tiller or the rudder pedals) or through differential braking, and by the rudder at high speeds. Missiles, airships and large hovercraft are usually steered by a rudder, thrust vectoring , or both. Small sport hovercraft have similar rudders, but steer mostly by

2312-409: The amount of assistance is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed, and driver preference. An added benefit is the elimination of the environmental hazard posed by leakage and disposal of hydraulic power-steering fluid. In addition, electrical assistance is not lost when the engine fails or stalls, whereas hydraulic assistance stops working if the engine stops, making the steering doubly heavy as

2380-460: The capstan and bowstring mechanism) is also found on some home-built vehicles such as soapbox cars and recumbent tricycles . Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of its engine power to assist in swiveling the steered road wheels about their steering axes. As vehicles have become heavier and switched to front-wheel drive , particularly using negative offset geometry, along with increases in tire width and diameter,

2448-405: The components that enable its control. Steering is achieved through various arrangements, among them ailerons for airplanes, rudders for boats, cylic tilting of rotors for helicopters, and many more. Aircraft flight control systems are normally steered when airborne by the use of ailerons , spoileron , or both to bank the aircraft into a turn; although the rudder can also be used to turn

2516-508: The concept's design themes and features were adopted for the production Lincoln MKS , MKZ , MKX , and MKT vehicles, starting with the 2009 model year MKS, 2010 for the MKZ and MKT, and 2011 for the MKX. The Lincoln C concept also shares design themes with the MKR, in a smaller compact platform. If the MKR had been approved, as an all new vehicle it would have likely been scheduled to launch around

2584-588: The current 5, 6, and 7 series, as an option. Renault introduced an optional all-wheel steering called '4control' in 2009, at first on the Laguna GT , which is currently available on the Talisman , Mégane and Espace vehicle lines. In 2013, Porsche introduced a system on the 911 Turbo as standard equipment. Since 2016, the Panamera has been offered with optional all-wheel steering. The 2014 Audi Q7

2652-466: The design. Earle S. MacPherson was appointed the chief engineer of Chevrolet's Light Car project in 1945. He was tasked with developing a new, smaller car for the immediate post-war market, an effort that led to the Chevrolet Cadet. The Cadet was poised to be a groundbreaking vehicle, and the three prototypes that had been built by 1946 displayed a wide range of innovations. One of these was

2720-487: The driver can feel the road better and have more precise control over the car's movement. BMW was one of the first manufacturers to adopt rack and pinion steering systems in the 1930s, with many other European manufacturers following suit. Auto manufacturers in the United States began to use rack and pinion steering with the 1974 Ford Pinto . Older designs use two main principles: the worm and sector design and

2788-548: The driver must now turn not only the very heavy steering—without any help—but also the power-assistance system itself. Speed-sensitive steering allows for highly assisted steering at low speeds for maneuverability, and lightly assisted steering at high speed for stability. The first vehicle with this feature was the Citroën SM with its DIRAVI system, first sold in France in 1970. The hydraulic steering system applied force on

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2856-493: The effort needed to turn the wheels about their steering axis has increased, often to the point where major physical exertion would be needed were it not for power assistance. To alleviate this, auto makers have developed power steering systems, or more correctly power-assisted steering, since on road-going vehicles there has to be a mechanical linkage as a fail-safe . There are two types of power steering systems: hydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic-electric hybrid system

2924-608: The front suspension, as seen in the Porsche 911 GT3 and Cayman GT4 , as well as the Subaru Impreza WRX STI . Finally, struts can package more efficiently than other types of front suspension, which allows for significant front cargo space in rear/mid-engined cars, such as the Porsche 911 and Boxster . Geometric analysis shows the assembly cannot allow vertical movement of the wheel without some degree of either camber angle change, sideways movement, or both. It

2992-450: The latter patent citing designs by Guido Fornaca of FIAT in the mid-1920s. MacPherson's new strut design may have taken inspirations from other earlier designs as well. The strut suspension of the pre-war Stout Scarab could have been an influence, and long-travel struts in aircraft landing gear were well known by that time. The French Cottin-Desgouttes utilized a similar design, albeit with less sophisticated leaf springs , but

3060-442: The lean of the rider and the bicycle: Ships and boats are usually steered with a rudder . Depending on the size of the vessel, rudders can be manually actuated, or operated using a servomechanism , or a trim tab or servo tab system. Rowing may be used to steer rowboats by using specific paddle strokes . Boats using outboard motors steer by rotating the entire drive unit. Boats with inboard motors sometimes steer by rotating

3128-429: The lower control arm with a wishbone. An anti-roll bar is optional and, if present, is attached by a ball-jointed rod to the spring-damper, or by a ball or elastomerically jointed rod to the wishbone. Because MacPherson struts are packaged with a significant structure in the front crash structure of the car, it is easier to engineer cars that pass more stringent small overlap crashes with struts, as opposed to those with

3196-417: The mid to late 2020s. Traditionally, cars feature a collapsible steering column (energy absorbing steering column) which will collapse in the event of a heavy frontal impact to avoid excessive injuries to the driver. Airbags are also generally fitted as standard. Non-collapsible steering columns fitted to older vehicles very often impaled drivers in frontal crashes, particularly when the steering box or rack

3264-435: The mid-1950s, and some German carmakers did not give up recirculating ball technology until the early 1990s. Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Children's toys and go-karts often use a very direct linkage in the form of a bellcrank (also commonly known as a pitman arm) attached directly between the steering column and the steering arms, and the use of cable-operated steering linkages (e.g.

3332-399: The path taken by the front wheel tracks (e.g. to reduce soil compaction when using rolling farm equipment). Many modern vehicles have passive rear-wheel steering. On many vehicles, when cornering, the rear wheels tend to steer slightly to the outside of a turn, which can reduce stability. The passive steering system uses the lateral forces generated in a turn (through suspension geometry) and

3400-416: The pilot shifting their weight from side to side and unbalancing the more powerful lift forces beneath the skirt. Jet packs and flying platforms are steered by thrust vectoring only. Helicopter flight controls are steered by cyclic control, changing the thrust vector of the main rotor(s), and by anti-torque control, usually provided by a tail rotor. A conventional automotive steering arrangement allows

3468-457: The rear axles may be turned through different angles to enable tighter cornering, or through the same angle (crab steering) to move the rear of the trailer laterally. The aim of steer-by-wire technology is to completely remove as many mechanical components (steering shaft, column, gear reduction mechanism, etc.) as possible. Completely replacing conventional steering system with steer-by-wire has several advantages, such as: Steer-by-wire without

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3536-456: The rear wheels are steered by a computer and actuators. The rear wheels generally cannot turn as far as the front wheels. There can be controls to switch off the rear steering and options to steer only the rear wheels independently of the front wheels. At low speed (e.g. parking) the rear wheels turn opposite to the front wheels, reducing the turning radius, sometimes critical for large trucks, tractors, vehicles with trailers and passenger cars with

3604-452: The same kinematic problems. Up until the 1989 model year (964), Porsche 911 used a similar strut design that did not have coil springs, using torsion bar suspension instead. Since then, all Porsche 911s have had front MacPherson struts, except the 992-based 911 GT3, which uses a double wishbone. In recent years, General Motors and Ford have introduced a modified strut set-up, "Hi-Per Strut" and "Revoknuckle" respectively, that split

3672-543: The same vertical motion as the wheel, so there is relatively little leverage to break the stiction in the seals. A standard single pivot MacPherson strut also tends to have positive scrub where the center of the steering axis is offset from the center of the front tires, which results in torque steer. Despite the drawbacks, the MacPherson strut set-up is still used on some high performance cars, because they tend to have relatively small suspension travel, and so do not have

3740-415: The screw and nut. Both types were enhanced by reducing the friction; for screw and nut it is the recirculating ball mechanism, which is still found on trucks and utility vehicles. The steering column turns a large screw, which meshes with the nut by recirculating balls. The nut moves a sector of a gear, causing it to rotate about its axis as the screw is turned; an arm attached to the axis of the sector moves

3808-417: The section § Bicycles . Differential steering is the primary means of steering tracked vehicles , such as tanks and bulldozers; it is also used in certain wheeled vehicles commonly known as skid-steers , and implemented in some automobiles, where it is called torque vectoring , to augment steering by changing wheel direction relative to the vehicle. The bicycle is steered by turning the handlebar and by

3876-429: The steering wheel into a large linear displacement. Alternatively, it may use a recirculating ball system. The mechanism may be power-assisted , usually by hydraulic or electrical means. The use of a variable rack (still using a normal pinion) was invented by Arthur Ernest Bishop in the 1970s, so as to improve vehicle response and aim to allow for more comfortable steering, especially at high speeds. He also created

3944-406: The strut into two components that handle the up-and-down flexibility and steering dynamics separately. The benefits of this design are greater surface contact and reduction in torque steer. The drawbacks are the additional weight and cost, but it is less expensive than either a double wishbone or multi-link setup. Honda introduced another variation strut set-up, called "dual-axis" , which is used in

4012-490: The suspension design of the Civic Type-R . Another variant of the MacPherson strut is the double pivot front suspension, which splits the lower wishbone into two while retaining the standard upright design of the MacPherson strut. That allows for better control of steering geometry and scrub radius, while allowing for a larger brake assembly. Steering Steering is the control of the direction of motion or

4080-460: The technology at the end of the 2005 model year. Nissan/Infiniti offer several versions of their HICAS system as standard or as an option in much of their line-up. In the early 2000s, a new generation of four-wheel steering systems was introduced into the market. In 2001 BMW equipped the E65 7 series with an all-wheel steering system (optional, called 'Integral Active Steering'), which is available on

4148-824: The use of a steering column was first offered in a production car with the Nissan Infiniti Q50 in 2013. Steer-by-wire continued to be offered with the QX50 and QX55, and as of 2022 is being offered with the Infiniti Q60 coupe. Production battery electric vehicles in the 2020s that offer steer-by-wire with no steering column include the Canoo Lifestyle Vehicle , Lexus RZ 450e , REE Automotive P7-module -based vehicles, Toyota bZ4X , and Tesla Cybertruck . As of 2023 Lotus , Peugeot , and Mercedes-Benz plan to offer steer-by-wire cars in

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4216-755: The vehicle. This system does not use steering arms, king pins, tie rods, etc. as does four-wheel steering. If the vertical hinge is placed equidistant between the two axles, it also eliminates the need for a central differential in four-wheel drive vehicles, as both front and rear axles will follow the same path, and thus rotate at the same speed. Articulated haulers have very good off-road performance. Vehicle-trailer-combinations such as semi-trailers, road trains , articulated buses , and internal transport trolley trains can be regarded as passively-articulated vehicles. A few types of vehicle use only rear-wheel steering, notably fork lift trucks , camera dollies , early pay loaders , Buckminster Fuller 's Dymaxion car , and

4284-399: The wheel, which tends to make the steering self-centered in the direction of travel. The steering linkages connecting the steering box and the wheels usually conform to a variation of Ackermann steering geometry , to account for the fact that in a turn, the inner wheel travels in a path of smaller radius than the outer wheel, so that the degree of toe suitable for driving in a straight path

4352-549: Was an older design, used for example in Willys and Chrysler vehicles, and the Ford Falcon (1960s). To reduce friction, the sector is replaced by a roller or rotating pins on the rocker shaft arm. Generally, older vehicles use the recirculating ball mechanism, and only newer vehicles use rack-and-pinion steering. This division is not very strict, however, and rack-and-pinion steering systems can be found on British sports cars of

4420-554: Was developed before MacPherson, with an independent front suspension based on wishbones and an upper coil spring. Only in 1954, after the Vedette factory had been purchased by Simca , did the revised Simca Vedette switch to using front struts. Following MacPherson's arrival at Ford, the first production car to feature MacPherson struts was the British-built 1950 Ford Consul and the later Zephyr . A MacPherson strut uses

4488-714: Was launched with an optional system. Also the Japanese OEMs offer luxury segment vehicles equipped with all-wheel steering, such as Infiniti on its QX70 model ('Rear Active Steering') and Lexus on the GS. Italian manufacturers have launched the technology in the model years 2016–17 with the Ferrari F12tdf , the Ferrari GTC4Lusso as well as the Lamborghini Aventador S . Crab steering is

4556-412: Was mounted in front of the front axle line, at the front of the crumple zone . This was particularly a problem on vehicles that had a rigid separate chassis frame with no crumple zone. Many modern vehicle steering boxes or racks are mounted behind the front axle on the front bulkhead, at the rear of the front crumple zone. Collapsible steering columns were invented by Béla Barényi and were introduced in

4624-485: Was used on a production pickup truck, the Tesla Cybertruck, in 2023. Four-wheel steering is a system employed by some vehicles to improve steering response, increase vehicle stability while maneuvering at high speed, or to decrease turning radius at low speed. In an active four-wheel steering system, all four wheels turn at the same time when the driver steers. In most active four-wheel steering systems,

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