Misplaced Pages

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120-427: When J.P. Morgan , already in his early sixties, bought the book in 1901, it was his first major purchase of a medieval manuscript, setting the direction that much of his subsequent collecting was to follow. The lower or back cover is older than the text and presumably added from another book, perhaps around the time the text was written. It was perhaps originally a front cover. It is the only largely intact example of

240-531: A common English translation reads "I came not to send peace, but a sword". However, the manuscript reads gaudium ("joy") where it should read gladium ("sword"), thus translating as "I came not (only) to send peace, but joy." The lavishly decorated opening page of the Gospel according to John had been deciphered by George Bain as: "In principio erat verbum verum" (In the beginning was the True Word). Therefore,

360-575: A comparable device. Five pages (folios 200r-202v) give an organized decoration of Luke's genealogy of Christ, just before the Temptation narrative. Another three pages contain large illuminated elements not extending throughout the entire page. Folio 40v contains text of the Beatitudes in Matthew (Matthew 5:3 –10 ) where the letters B beginning each line are linked into an ornate chain along

480-756: A continuous preliminary. In other insular manuscripts, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Book of Armagh, and the Echternach Gospels, each Gospel is treated as a separate work and has its preliminaries immediately preceding it. The slavish repetition in Kells of the order of the Breves causae and Argumenta found in Durrow led scholar T. K. Abbott to conclude that the scribes of Kells had either

600-519: A cross, but here a whole Crucifixion scene with a figure of Jesus on the cross and much smaller ones of the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist . Each of these is in a compartment below the arms of the cross, paired with iconographically unusual female figures; the matching compartments above the arms each contain two angels. Identifications for these lower figures vary; they are described by

720-585: A fixed one) remains uncertain and much discussed, but Saint-Denis Abbey outside Paris is one leading possibility. The Arnulf Ciborium (a miniature architectural ciborium rather than the vessel for hosts ), now in the Munich Residenz , is the third major work in the group, along with the frame of an antique serpentine dish in the Louvre . Recent scholars tend to group the Lindau Gospels and

840-402: A folio is not part of a bifolium but is instead a single sheet inserted within a quire. The extant folios are gathered into 38 quires. There are between four and twelve folios (two to six bifolia) per quire; the folios are commonly, but not invariably, bound in groups of ten. Some folios are single sheets, as is frequently the case with the important decorated pages. The folios had lines drawn for

960-404: A fourth of the list for Luke. The list for Luke would require an additional three folios. The structure of the quire in which folio 26 occurs is such that it is unlikely that there are three folios missing between folios 26 and 27, so that it is almost certain that folio 26 is not now in its original location. There is no trace of the lists for Mark and John. The first list fragment is followed by

1080-537: A great Gospel Book in Kildare which many have since assumed was the Book of Kells. The description certainly matches Kells: This book contains the harmony of the Four Evangelists according to Jerome , where for almost every page there are different designs... and other forms almost infinite... Fine craftsmanship is all about you, but you might not notice it. Look more keenly at it and you will penetrate to

1200-692: A group of manuscripts in what is known as the Insular style , produced from the late 6th through the early 9th centuries in monasteries in Britain and Ireland and in continental monasteries with Hiberno-Scottish or Anglo-Saxon foundations. These manuscripts include the Cathach of St. Columba , the Ambrosiana Orosius , fragmentary Gospel in the Durham Dean and Chapter Library (all from

1320-618: A masterwork of Western calligraphy and the pinnacle of Insular illumination . The manuscript takes its name from the Abbey of Kells , County Meath , which was its home for centuries. The illustrations and ornamentation of the Book of Kells surpass those of other Insular Gospel books in extravagance and complexity. The decoration combines traditional Christian iconography with the ornate swirling motifs typical of Insular art. Figures of humans, animals and mythical beasts, together with Celtic knots and interlacing patterns in vibrant colours, enliven

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1440-522: A miniature of Christ enthroned, flanked by peacocks . Peacocks function as symbols of Christ throughout the book. According to earlier accounts given by Isidore of Seville and Augustine in The City of God , the peacocks' flesh does not putrefy ; the animals therefore became associated with Christ via the Resurrection . Facing the portrait of Christ on folio 33r is the only carpet page in

1560-601: A portrait of the Virgin and Child , three pages of evangelist symbols informed by the tetramorphs described in Ezekiel and Revelation , two evangelist portraits , a portrait of Christ enthroned, a carpet page , and scenes of the Arrest of Jesus and Temptation of Christ . Twelve fully decorated text pages embellish the book's verses, of which the most extreme examples are the four incipits beginning each Gospel, together with

1680-411: A pulsating rhythm. The kinetic energy of their contours escapes into freely drawn appendices, a spiral line which in turn generates new curvilinear motifs...". The illustrations feature a broad range of colours, with purple, lilac, red, pink, green, and yellow being the colours most often used. Earlier manuscripts tend toward more narrow palettes: the Book of Durrow, for example, uses only four colours. As

1800-582: A scriptorium for the reproduction of books in both genres. Later, the Carolingian period introduced the innovation of copying texts onto vellum, a material much more durable than the papyrus to which many ancient writings had been committed. Gradually, these traditions spread throughout the European continent and finally to the British Isles. Kells Abbey was pillaged by Vikings many times at

1920-437: A single page (folio 334v): in 1568 one Geralde Plunket noted his annotations of the Gospel's chapter numbers throughout the book. A second note from 1588 gave a folio count, and a third note by James Ussher reported 344 folios in the book as of 1621. The bifolium 335-336 was lost and subsequently restored in 1741, recorded in two notes on folio 337r. Plunket's accretions were varied and significant. He inscribed transcriptions in

2040-636: A slightly smaller book. Treasure covers are relatively easy to transfer, as they are only attached to the wooden boards of the binding by small nails. On the other hand, the additional sections enlarging the lower cover are clearly early medieval. In 1803 the convent was dissolved by the state and its possessions distributed among the canonesses. The book was given to Canoness Antoinette, Baroness von Enzberg. From her heirs and Joseph von Laßberg it passed via Henry G. Bohn to Bertram Ashburnham, 4th Earl of Ashburnham (1797–1878) in 1846. Ashburnham's great collections were gradually dispersed by his son, and in 1901

2160-465: A strange order: first, come the Breves causae and Argumenta for Matthew, followed by the Breves and Argumenta for Mark, then, quite oddly, come the Argumenta of both Luke and John, followed by their Breves causae . This anomalous order mirrors that found in the Book of Durrow, although in the latter instance, the misplaced sections appear at the very end of the manuscript rather than as part of

2280-582: A stylistic similarity to the carved image on the lid of St. Cuthbert's coffin of 698. The iconography of the miniature seems to derive from Byzantine, Armenian or Coptic art. The miniature of the Virgin and Child faces the first page of the text, which begins the Breves causae of Matthew with the phrase Nativitas Christi in Bethlem (the birth of Christ in Bethlehem). The beginning page ( folio 8r ) of

2400-572: A very early Insular metal bookcover to survive, although we know from documentary records that famous works like the Book of Kells and the Lindisfarne Gospels had them. A few Irish cumdachs or metal book-shrines or reliquaries for books have survived, which show broadly comparable styles, and use crosses as the central feature of their designs. The style is close to that of the other main survival of essentially Anglo-Saxon work executed on

2520-755: Is a black figure of Satan . Above him hover two angels. Throughout the body of the Gospels, six fully decorated text pages receive treatment comparable to that of the page which began the Breves causae of Matthew. Of these, five correspond to episodes in the Passion story, and one refers to the Temptation. The verso of the folio containing the Arrest of Christ ( 114v ) has a full page of decorated text which reads "Tunc dicit illis Iesus omnes vos scan(dalum)" (Matthew 26:31 ), where Jesus addresses his disciples immediately before his arrest. A few pages later ( folio 124r )

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2640-466: Is accompanied by many full-page miniature illustrations, while smaller painted decorations appear throughout the text in unprecedented quantities. The decoration of the book is famous for combining intricate detail with bold and energetic compositions. The characteristics of the insular manuscript initial, as described by Carl Nordenfalk, here reach their most extreme realisation: "the initials ... are conceived as elastic forms expanding and contracting with

2760-481: Is always on display at Trinity, opened at either a major decorated page or a text page with smaller decorations. In 2000, the volume containing the Gospel of Mark was sent to Canberra , Australia, for an exhibition of illuminated manuscripts. This was only the fourth time the Book of Kells had been sent abroad for exhibition. The volume suffered what has been called "minor pigment damage" while en route to Canberra. It

2880-538: Is associated with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles II (the Bald) , and often called his "Palace School". Its location (if it had a fixed one) remains uncertain and much discussed, but Saint-Denis Abbey outside Paris is one leading possibility. The Arnulf Ciborium (a miniature architectural ciborium rather than the vessel for hosts ), now in the Munich Residenz , is the third major work in

3000-463: Is found a very similar decoration of the phrase "Tunc crucifixerant Xpi cum eo duos latrones" (Matthew 27:38 ), Christ's crucifixion together with two thieves. In the Gospel of Mark, another decorated page ( folio 183r ) gives a description of the Crucifixion (Mark 15:25 ), while the final (and decorated) page of Mark (folio 187v) describes Christ's Resurrection and Ascension (Mark 16:19 –20 ). In

3120-489: Is found on folios 1 through 19v, folios 276 through 289, and folios 307 through the end of the manuscript. Hand A, for the most part, writes eighteen or nineteen lines per page in the brown gall ink common throughout the West. Hand B is found on folios 19r through 26 and folios 124 through 128. Hand B has a somewhat greater tendency to use minuscule and uses red, purple and black ink and a variable number of lines per page. Hand C

3240-503: Is found throughout the majority of the text. Hand C also has a greater tendency to use minuscule than Hand A. Hand C uses the same brownish gall ink used by hand A and wrote, almost always, seventeen lines per page. Additionally a fourth scribe named Hand D has been hypothesized, to whom folio 104r was attributed. There are several differences between the text and the accepted Gospels. In the genealogy of Jesus , which starts at Luke 3:23, Kells names an extra ancestor. At Matthew 10:34 ,

3360-507: Is handmade of gold, and decorated with precious gemstones, sapphires, emeralds, and pearls. At the centre of the cover appears Christ in Majesty , in repoussé relief , seated on the globe of the world and holding on his knee a book inscribed with the words: "I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No man cometh to the Father, but by me." The inclusion of this inscription again identifies

3480-443: Is likewise awash in a mass of swirling and knotted decoration. Within this mass of decoration are hidden animals and insects. Three angels arise from one of the cross arms of the chi. This miniature is the largest and most lavish extant Chi Rho monogram in any Insular Gospel book, the culmination of a tradition that started with the Book of Durrow. The Book of Kells contains two other full-page illustrations, which depict episodes from

3600-469: Is missing the Evangelist portrait but retains its Evangelist symbols page ( folio 129v ). The Gospel of Luke is missing both the portrait and the Evangelist symbols page. The Gospel of John, like the Gospel of Matthew, retains both its portrait (folio 291v, see at right) and its Evangelist symbols page ( folio 290v ). It can be assumed that the portraits for Mark and Luke and the symbols page for Luke at one time existed but have been lost. The ornamentation of

3720-448: Is presented as an interlaced ornament within the b of the lib monogram. Generationis is broken into three lines and contained within an elaborate frame in the right lower quadrant of the page. The entire assemblage is contained within an elaborate border, further decorated with elaborate spirals and knot work , many of which are zoomorphic. The opening words of the gospel of Mark, Initium evangelii Iesu Christi ("The beginning of

Lindau Gospels - Misplaced Pages Continue

3840-547: Is represented, following the Gospels. The border contains most of the gems, held in typically Carolingian plant motif settings, which are exceptionally finely executed. The cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram , which can be precisely dated to 870, is probably a product of the same workshop, though there are differences of style. This workshop is associated with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles II (the Bald) , and often called his "Palace School". Its location (if it had

3960-547: Is thought that the vibrations from the aeroplane's engines during the long flight may have caused the damage. The Book of Kells contains the four Gospels of the Christian scriptures written in black, red, purple, and yellow ink in an insular majuscule script, preceded by prefaces, summaries, and concordances of Gospel passages. Today, it consists of 340 vellum leaves, or folios, totalling 680 pages. Almost all folios are numbered at recto, bottom left. One folio number, 36,

4080-482: Is usual with insular work, there was no use of gold or silver leaf in the manuscript. The pigments for the illustrations included red and yellow ochre, green copper pigment (sometimes called verdigris ), indigo, and possibly lapis lazuli . These would have been imported from the Mediterranean region and, in the case of the lapis lazuli (also known as ultramarine ), from northeast Afghanistan . Though

4200-480: The Agate Casket of Oviedo . These show "brightly coloured, long-legged birds" set into and surrounded by the plain gold background , as opposed to the normal champlevé technique of "full enamel" ( vollschmelz ) where the whole surface of a plaque section is covered in enamel. The original book covered was slightly smaller, and parts of the borders, which do not match each other, were added to bring it up to

4320-503: The Gospel of Matthew in the Lindisfarne Gospels and in the Book of Kells , both of which feature intricate decorative knotwork patterns inside the outlines formed by the enlarged initial letters of the text. (For a more complete list of related manuscripts, see: List of Hiberno-Saxon illustrated manuscripts ). The Abbey of Kells in Kells, County Meath , had been founded, or refounded, from Iona Abbey , construction taking from 807 until

4440-590: The Old Library at Trinity since the 19th century. The manuscript's rise to worldwide fame began in the 19th century. The association with St. Columba, who died the same year Augustine brought Christianity and literacy to Canterbury from Rome, was used to demonstrate Ireland's cultural primacy, seemingly providing "irrefutable precedence in the debate on the relative authority of the Irish and Roman churches". Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were invited to sign

4560-580: The Royal Gold Cup . Book of Kells The Book of Kells ( Latin : Codex Cenannensis ; Irish : Leabhar Cheanannais ; Dublin, Trinity College Library, MS A. I. [58], sometimes known as the Book of Columba ) is an illustrated manuscript and Celtic Gospel book in Latin , containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables. It

4680-493: The St Cuthbert Gospel , both with Saint Cuthbert , it may have been produced to mark the "translation" or moving of Columba's remains into a shrine reliquary, which probably had taken place by the 750s. There are at least four competing theories about the manuscript's place of origin and time of completion. First, the book, or perhaps just the text, may have been created at Iona and then completed in Kells. Second,

4800-516: The 9th century coincides with Viking raids on Lindisfarne and Iona, which began c. 793-794 and eventually dispersed the monks and their holy relics into Ireland and Scotland. There is another tradition, with some traction among Irish scholars, that suggests the manuscript was created for the 200th anniversary of the saint's death. Alternatively, as is thought possible for the Northumbrian Lindisfarne Gospels and also

4920-480: The Abbey of Kells; recording charters in important books was a common custom in the medieval period. James Ussher transcribed the charters in his collected works, and they were later translated into English. A blank page at the end of Luke (folio 289v) contains a poem complaining of taxation upon church land, dated to the 14th or 15th century. In the early 17th century one Richardus Whit recorded several recent events on

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5040-699: The Arnulf Ciborium in closer relation to each other than the Codex Aureus to either. The text is the " Four Gospels preceded by the Epistle of S. Jerome: Ad Damasum , Canon Tables and Prefaces, followed by a Capitulary ", written and illuminated in "a not particularly elegant" Carolingian minuscule , the miniatures perhaps or probably by Folchard of St Gall , who portrayed himself in the Folchard Psalter . The style of illumination lacks

5160-539: The Book of Durrow or a common model in hand. The Book of Kells contains the text of the four Gospels based on the Vulgate . It does not, however, contain a pure copy of the Vulgate. There are numerous differences from the Vulgate, where Old Latin translations are used in lieu of Jerome's text. Although such variants are common in all the insular Gospels, there does not seem to be a consistent pattern of variation amongst

5280-444: The Book of Kells, which is rather anomalous; the Lindisfarne Gospels have five extant carpet pages and the Book of Durrow has six. The blank verso of folio 33 faces the single most lavish miniature of the early medieval period, the Book of Kells Chi Rho monogram, which serves as incipit for the narrative of the life of Christ. At Matthew 1:18 (folio 34r), the actual narrative of Christ's life starts . This "second beginning" to Matthew

5400-487: The Book of Kells. The description in the Annals of the book as "of Columkille"—that is, having belonged to, and perhaps being made by Columba—suggests that the book was believed at that time to have been made on Iona. Regardless, the book was certainly at Kells in the 12th century, when land charters pertaining to the Abbey of Kells were copied onto some of its blank pages. The practice of copying charters into important books

5520-677: The Chi Rho monogram, a page receiving comparable treatment which heralds a "second beginning" of Matthew, the narrative of Christ's life following his genealogy. Another six fully decorated text pages emphasize various points in the Passion story, while a seventh corresponds to the Temptation. The first eleven pages of the extant manuscript begin with a decorated list of Hebrew names, followed by ten pages of Eusebian canon tables framed by architectural elements. Additionally, fourteen pages feature large decorative elements which do not extend throughout

5640-532: The Continent, the Tassilo Chalice , and also a number of works executed by local workshops in several parts of Europe. However, the St Cuthbert Gospel ( British Library ), a decorated leather binding thought to date from around 700 to 730, is the earliest intact European binding. The design centres on a cross pattée , that is, a cross with curving, spreading members. The spaces between the members of

5760-548: The Evangelists), and Eusebian canon tables . It is probable that, like the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Books of Durrow and Armagh, part of the lost preliminary material included the letter of Jerome to Pope Damasus I beginning Novum opus , in which Jerome explains the purpose of his translation. It is also possible, though less likely, that the lost material included the letter of Eusebius to Carpianus, in which he explains

5880-771: The Gospel Book with Christ. The verse makes equal sense if we read the speaker as Christ or as the Gospel Book. Surrounding Christ outside a frame are four seated evangelist portraits , above or below each of which is a scene from their Gospel. Reading from top left, clockwise, these are: Christ and the Adulterous Woman, the Expulsion of the Money-lenders from the Temple, Healing of the Blind Man, Healing of

6000-495: The Gospel of Jesus Christ"), Luke, Quoniam ("Forasmuch"), and John, In principio erat verbum verum ("In the beginning was the True Word"), are all given similar treatments. Although the decoration of these pages was most extensive in the Book of Kells, they are all decorated in the other Insular Gospel books. The Gospel of Matthew begins with a genealogy of Jesus , followed by his portrait. Folio 32v (top of article) has

6120-550: The Gospel of Luke, folio 203r faces the illustration of the Temptation, itself an illumination of the text (Luke 4:1 ) beginning the Temptation narrative. Finally, folio 285r is a fully decorated page corresponding to another moment of the Passion, (Luke 23:56 -Luke 24:1 ) between the Crucifixion and the Resurrection. Since the missing folios of John contain another Passion narrative, it is likely that John contained full pages of decorated text that have been lost. Apart from

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6240-510: The Gospels is further emphasised by the decoration of the Eusebian canon tables. The canon tables illustrate the unity of the Gospels by organising corresponding passages from the Gospels. The Eusebian canon tables normally require twelve pages. In the Book of Kells, the makers of the manuscript planned for twelve pages (folios 1v through 7r) but for unknown reasons, condensed them into ten, leaving folios 6v and 7r blank. This condensation rendered

6360-690: The Insular elements of that work. The borders are grand and elegant variations on classicising foliage motifs, and the large initials reflect the Carolingian development of Insular motifs such as interlace within an essentially classicising style. Six or seven scribes worked on the text, one shared with the Folchard Psalter. The illuminations, unlike the covers, entirely lack human figures. The two pages imitating textiles interest scholars because many carpet pages , as their name suggests, may do

6480-515: The Latin language after the fall of the Roman Empire and the establishment of monastic life which entailed the production of texts. Cassiodorus in particular advocated both practices, having founded the monastery Vivarium in the sixth century and having written Institutiones , a work which describes and recommends several texts—both religious and secular—for study by monks. Vivarium included

6600-559: The Leper. During the Carolingian era, King Charlemagne believed in the spiritual powers of gemstones and minerals, and their magical connection to heaven. He believed sapphires symbolized an image of heaven, heavenly virtues, and eternal life. Charlemagne passed down his interest in the spiritual qualities of gemstones to his grandson, Charles the Bald, who ordered the Codex Aureus and Lindau Gospels to be written in 870. The artisans created

6720-480: The Morgan Library as anonymous mourners, "two dishevelled female figures thought to be personifications of Christian souls saluting their Redeemer" as their file note puts it but Peter Lasko , calls them instead "the curiously duplicated figure of St Mary Magdalen (?)" To Needham they are Mary Magdalene and Mary Cleophas . All eight figures are represented crouching or sideways, or hovering horizontally in

6840-521: The Passion story. The text of Matthew is illustrated with a full-page illumination of the Arrest of Christ ( folio 114r ). Jesus is shown beneath a stylised arcade while being held by two much smaller figures. In the text of Luke, there is a full-sized miniature of the Temptation of Christ ( folio 202v ). Christ is shown from the waist up on top of the Temple. To his right is a crowd of people, perhaps representing his disciples. To his left and below him

6960-405: The Vulgate text of the Gospels. The tables in the Book of Kells are however unusable, first because the scribe condensed the tables in such a way as to make them confused. Second and more importantly, the corresponding chapter numbers were never inserted into the margins of the text, making it impossible to find the sections to which the canon tables refer. The reason for the omission remains unclear:

7080-534: The artist Helen Campbell D'Olier in the 19th century. She used vellum and reproduced the pigments used in the original manuscript. Photographs of her drawings were included in Sullivan's study of the Book of Kells, first printed in 1913. In 1951, the Swiss publisher Urs Graf Verlag Bern produced the first facsimile of the Book of Kells. The majority of the pages were reproduced in black-and-white photographs, but

7200-570: The beginning of the Breves causae of Matthew. The book was designed so that each of the Gospels would have an elaborate introductory decorative programme. Each Gospel was originally prefaced by a full-page miniature containing the four evangelist symbols, followed by a blank page. Then came a portrait of the evangelist which faced the opening text of the Gospel, itself given an elaborate decorative treatment. The Gospel of Matthew retains both its Evangelist portrait ( folio 28v ) and its page of Evangelist symbols (folio 27v, see above). The Gospel of Mark

7320-599: The beginning of the 9th century, and how the book survived is not known. The earliest historical reference to the book, and indeed to the book's presence at Kells, can be found in a 1007 entry in the Annals of Ulster . This entry records that "the great Gospel of Columkille [Columba], the chief relic of the Western World, was wickedly stolen during the night from the western sacristy of the great stone church at Cenannas on account of its wrought shrine ". The manuscript

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7440-456: The body of the text, after folios 177, 239, and 330. The missing bifolium 335-36 was found and restored in 1741. The extant book contains preliminary matter, the complete text of the Gospels of Matthew , Mark and Luke , and the Gospel of John through John 17:13. The remaining preliminary matter consists of two fragmentary lists of Hebrew names contained in the Gospels, Breves causae (Gospel summaries), Argumenta (short biographies of

7560-468: The book in 1849. The book's artistry was influential on the Celtic Revival ; several Victorian picture books of medieval illuminations featured designs from the book which were in turn extensively copied and adapted, patterns appearing in metalwork, embroidery, furniture and pottery among other crafts. Over the centuries, the book has been rebound several times. During a 19th-century rebinding,

7680-421: The book in its present state came together. The text may well be the Gospel book commissioned by Hartmut, Abbot of St Gall between 872–883, which is a plausible date for the text. It is recorded that this book was "decorated with gold and silver and precious stones". In 1545 these gospels were said still to be in the Abbey library of Saint Gall , shortly before the library was attacked by Calvinists , and some of

7800-474: The book may have been produced entirely at Iona. Third, the manuscript may have been produced entirely in the scriptorium at Kells. Finally, it may have been the product of Dunkeld or another monastery in Pictish Scotland, though there is no actual evidence for this theory, especially considering the absence of any surviving manuscript from Pictland. Although the question of the exact location of

7920-552: The book was bought by J.P. Morgan (1867–1943) and later donated to his Morgan Library. The purchase was encouraged by Morgan's nephew, who wrote from London that "the British Museum would like to buy it but have not the money necessary", and that an offer of £8,000 by another had been refused, and £10,000 was being asked for. A few years earlier the British Museum had had considerable difficulty raising £8,000 to buy

8040-408: The book's production will probably never be answered conclusively, the first theory, that it was begun at Iona and continued at Kells, is widely accepted. Regardless of which theory is true, it is certain that the Book of Kells was produced by Columban monks closely associated with the community at Iona. The historical circumstances which informed the Book of Kells' production were the preservation of

8160-416: The canon tables of Eusebius of Caesarea . These tables, which predate the text of the Vulgate, were developed to cross-reference the Gospels. Eusebius divided the Gospel into chapters and then created tables that allowed readers to find where a given episode in the life of Christ was located in each of the Gospels. The canon tables were traditionally included in the prefatory material in most medieval copies of

8280-492: The canon tables unusable. The decoration of the first eight pages of the canon tables is heavily influenced by early Gospel Books from the Mediterranean, where it was traditional to enclose the tables within an arcade (as seen in the London Canon Tables ). The Kells manuscript presents this motif in an Insular spirit, where the arcades are not seen as architectural elements but rather become stylised geometric patterns with Insular ornamentation. The four evangelist symbols occupy

8400-459: The case of the angels, above and below clusters of gems. Sol and Luna, personifications of the sun and moon, occupy the top of the cross's shaft, a common feature in Crucifixion scenes of the period, although unusually they are here shown on the shaft of the cross itself, above Christ and with Luna above Sol. More usually they are to either side of the cross-shaft, or at the ends of the arms. Also Sol here lacks his usual rays, suggesting an eclipse

8520-413: The colours used were derived from a wide range of substances, some of which were imported from distant lands. The manuscript is on display to visitors in Trinity College Library, Dublin , and shows two pages at any one time, rotated every 12 weeks. A digitised version of the entire manuscript may also be seen online. The Book of Kells is one of the finest and most famous, and also one of the latest, of

8640-461: The consecration of the church in 814. The manuscript's date and place of production have been subjects of considerable debate. Traditionally, the book was thought to have been created in the time of Columba , possibly even as the work of his own hands. This tradition has long been discredited on paleographic and stylistic grounds: most evidence points to a composition date c.  800, long after St. Columba's death in 597. The proposed dating in

8760-525: The contents destroyed or dispersed. The manuscript is first certainly documented in 1691 when it was described by a visitor to an aristocratic convent on the island of Lindau on the Bavarian side of the Bodensee , which was founded long after the book was created. The leather spine of the book is stamped with the date 1594, but it is not absolutely certain where the book was when it was rebound, nor can

8880-421: The covers with emeralds, sapphires, rubies, garnets, agate, and pearls. The standard of the work is extremely refined, with each of the gems in a setting that rises up from the plane of the cover and is decorated with fine detail. The "claws" holding the gems in place are minutely formed as acanthus leaves; earlier jewelled metalwork usually used plain "claw"-type settings. According to the Book of Exodus in

9000-533: The cross are filled with chip-carved interlace including snake-like beasts and a central stud set with a gem. Each arm of the cross has a figure of Christ with a cruciform halo . What distinguishes the cover from the few other surviving pieces of Insular metalwork is the extensive use of enamel , which it is thought may have been learned from north Italy. Some of the enamels are in a style of "sunk enamel" ( senkschmelz in German) only found here and in plaques on

9120-791: The early 7th century), and the Book of Durrow (from the second half of the 7th century). From the early 8th century come the Durham Gospels , the Echternach Gospels , the Lindisfarne Gospels (see illustration at right), and the Lichfield Gospels . Among others, the St. Gall Gospel Book belongs to the late 8th century and the Book of Armagh (dated to 807–809) to the early 9th century. Scholars place these manuscripts together based on similarities in artistic style, script, and textual traditions. The fully developed style of

9240-470: The edition also featured forty-eight colour reproductions, including all the full-page decorations. Under licence from the Board of Trinity College Dublin, Thames and Hudson produced a partial facsimile edition in 1974, which included a scholarly treatment of the work by Françoise Henry. This edition included all the full-page illustrations in the manuscript and a representative selection of the ornamentation of

9360-408: The entire page. It is highly probable that there were other pages of miniature and decorated text that are now lost. Henry identified at least three distinct artists. The "Goldsmith" was responsible for the Chi Rho page, using colour to convey metallic hues. The "Illustrator" was given to idiosyncratic portraits, having produced the Temptation and the Arrest of Christ. The "Portrait Painter" executed

9480-441: The folios were of no standard size, but they were cropped to the current size during a 19th-century rebinding. The text area is approximately 250 by 170 mm. Each text page has 16 to 18 lines of text. The manuscript is in remarkably good condition considering its age, though many pages have suffered some damage to the delicate artwork due to rubbing. The book must have been the product of a major scriptorium over several years, yet

9600-573: The group, along with the frame of an antique serpentine dish in the Louvre . Recent scholars tend to group the Lindau Gospels and the Arnulf Ciborium in closer relation to each other than the Codex Aureus to either. It was produced for the Holy Roman Emperor Charles II (the Bald) in 870 at his Carolingian Palace School. It is not known for certain where the Palace School was then based (after its previous base at St Martin's Abbey in Tours

9720-577: The incipit is a free translation into Latin of the Greek original λογος rather than a mere copy of the Roman version. Over the centuries multiple annotations have been written in the book, recording page information and historical events. During the 19th century, former Trinity Librarian J.H. Todd numbered the book's folios at recto, bottom left. On several of the blank pages among the preliminaries (folios 5v-7r and 27r) are found land charters pertaining to

9840-476: The left margin of the page. Folio 127v has an embellished line beginning the final chapter of Matthew, which gives an account of the Resurrection. A similar treatment is given to a line in folio 188v (Luke 1:5 ), which begins an account of the Nativity. The book had a sacramental rather than educational purpose. Such a large, lavish Gospel would have been left on the high altar of the church and removed only for

9960-420: The left-hand column of folio 1r. A miniature of the four evangelist symbols, now much abraded, occupies the right-hand column. The miniature is oriented so that the volume must be turned ninety degrees to view it properly. The four evangelist symbols are a visual theme that runs throughout the book. They are almost always shown together to emphasise the doctrine of the four Gospels' unity of message. The unity of

10080-422: The manuscript's pages. Many of these minor decorative elements are imbued with Christian symbolism and so further emphasise the themes of the major illustrations. The manuscript today comprises 340 leaves or folios ; the recto and verso of each leaf total 680 pages. Since 1953, it has been bound in four volumes, 330 mm by 250 mm (13 inches by 9.8 inches). The leaves are high-quality calf vellum ;

10200-415: The margins of the major illuminated folios 8r, 29r, 203r and 292r. On folio 32v, he added the annotation "Jesus Christus" in the spandrels of the composition's architecture, identifying the portrait's subject as Christ; in the 19th century, this annotation was covered by white paint, altering the composition. Plunket also wrote his name on multiple pages, and added small animal embellishments. The text

10320-419: The new size. Inside the border there are four plaques in the corners showing the Four Evangelists with their symbols, which are 16th century additions. Around the central topaz are four monograms : "IHS, XPS, DNS, NOS" (Jesus Christ Our Lord). The upper cover (not illustrated here, see note for image) is very lavishly studded with large gems, and uses low repoussé relief . The composition also centres on

10440-490: The numbers for the canon tables, are not used on the text pages of the Gospels. It is unlikely that these numbers would have been used, even if the manuscript had been completed, because the chapter numbers corresponded to old Latin translations and would have been difficult to harmonise with the Vulgate text. The Argumenta are collections of legends about the Evangelists. The Breves causae and Argumenta are arranged in

10560-410: The opening few words of each Gospel is lavish; their decoration is so elaborate that the text itself is almost illegible. The opening page (folio 29r) of Matthew may stand as an example. (See illustration at left.) The page consists of only two words: Liber generationis ("The book of the generation"). The lib of Liber is turned into a giant monogram which dominates the entire page. The er of Liber

10680-476: The ornamentation of the Book of Kells places it late in this series, either from the late 8th or early 9th century. The Book of Kells follows many of the iconographic and stylistic traditions found in these earlier manuscripts. For example, the form of the decorated letters found in the incipit pages for the Gospels is surprisingly consistent in Insular Gospels. Compare, for example, the incipit pages of

10800-399: The pages were badly cropped, with small parts of some illustrations being lost. The book was also rebound in 1895, but that rebinding broke down quickly. By the late 1920s, several folios had detached completely and were kept separate from the main volume. In 1953, bookbinder Roger Powell rebound the manuscript in four volumes and stretched several pages that had developed bulges. One volume

10920-450: The portraits of Christ and the Evangelists. Almost every page contains a decorative element incorporating colour; throughout the text pages, these are commonly stylized capitals. Only two pages—folios 29v and 301v—are devoid of pigment colouration or overt pictorial elements, but even they contain trace decorations in ink. The extant folios of the manuscript start with the fragment of the glossary of Hebrew names. This fragment occupies

11040-588: The possibility be entirely excluded that the present combination of text and covers only dates back this far. Paul Needham notes that while the upper cover is from the Imperial workshop, and in the grandest and most luxurious style of the period, the text, while richly illuminated, does not appear to quite match the cover in richness, and is not even the most lavishly decorated text written in St Gall during this period. The cover also appears to have been designed for

11160-441: The presence of lapis lazuli has long been considered evidence of the great cost required to create the manuscript, recent examination of the pigments has shown that lapis lazuli was not used. The lavish illumination programme is far greater than any other surviving Insular Gospel book. Thirty-three of the surviving pages contain decorative elements which dominate the entire page. These include ten full-page miniature illustrations:

11280-599: The reading of the Gospel during Mass, with the reader probably reciting from memory more than reading the text. It is significant that the Chronicles of Ulster state the book was stolen from the sacristy , where the vessels and other accoutrements of the Mass were stored, rather than from the monastic library. Its design seems to take this purpose in mind; that is, the book was produced with appearance taking precedence over practicality. There are numerous uncorrected mistakes in

11400-457: The same page in "clumsy" Latin, including a famine in 1586, the accession of James I , and plague in Ireland during 1604. The signature of Thomas Ridgeway , 17th century Treasurer of Ireland , is extant on folio 31v, and the 1853 monogram of John O. Westwood , author of an early modern account of the book, is found on 339r. Three notes concerning the book's pagination are found together on

11520-473: The same. In both cases the idea may have been the "emulation of a textile shroud or cover", such as those used to wrap relics. Similar pages are found in the Ottonian Codex Aureus of Echternach . In a similar way carpet pages may have been regarded as a form of interior cover. The main decorated pages are: It cannot be said with any certainty when, where and how the three main elements of

11640-464: The scribe may have planned to add the references upon the manuscript's completion, or he may have deliberately left them out so as not to spoil the appearance of pages. The Breves causae and Argumenta belong to a pre-Vulgate tradition of manuscripts. The Breves causae are summaries of the Old Latin translations of the Gospels and are divided into numbered chapters. These chapter numbers, like

11760-448: The spaces under and above the arches. The last two canon tables are presented within a grid. This presentation is limited to Insular manuscripts and was first seen in the Book of Durrow. The preliminary matter is introduced by an iconic image of the Virgin and Child (folio 7v), the first representation of the Virgin Mary in a Western manuscript. Mary is shown in an odd mixture of frontal and three-quarter pose. This miniature also bears

11880-428: The text of the Breves causae is decorated and contained within an elaborate frame. The two-page spread of the miniature and the text makes a vivid introductory statement for the prefatory material. The opening lines of six of the other seven pieces of preliminary matter are enlarged and decorated (see above for the Breves causae of Luke), but no other section of the preliminaries is given the same full-page treatment as

12000-399: The text pages, together with some enlarged details of the illustrations. The reproductions were all in full colour, with photography by John Kennedy, Green Studio, Dublin. In 1979, Swiss publisher Faksimile-Verlag Luzern requested permission to produce a full-colour facsimile of the book. Permission was initially denied because Trinity College officials felt that the risk of damage to the book

12120-503: The text, sometimes on both sides, after the bifolia were folded. Prick marks and guidelines can still be seen on some pages. The vellum is of high quality, although the folios have an uneven thickness, with some being close to leather while others are so thin as to be almost translucent. As many as twelve individuals may have collaborated on the book's production, of whom four scribes and three painters have been distinguished. The book's current dimensions are 330 by 250 mm. Originally,

12240-400: The text. Lines were often completed in a blank space in the line above. The chapter headings that were necessary to make the canon tables usable were not inserted into the margins of the page. In general, nothing was done to disrupt the look of the page: aesthetics were given priority over utility. Some of the first faithful reproductions made of pages and elements of the Book of Kells were by

12360-490: The thirty-three fully illuminated pages, fourteen receive substantial decoration not extending over the entire page. Among the Preliminaries and apart from the fully decorated page beginning the Breves causae of Matthew, six pages begin six of the eight sections of Breves causae and Argumenta with embellished names. The exception is folio 24v which introduces the final section of the Breves causae of John without

12480-420: The unprecedentedly elaborate ornamentation that covers them includes ten full-page illustrations and text pages that are vibrant with decorated initials and interlinear miniatures, marking the furthest extension of the anti-classical and energetic qualities of Insular art. The Insular majuscule script of the text appears to be the work of at least three different scribes. The lettering is in iron gall ink , and

12600-572: The use of the canon tables. Of all the insular Gospels, only the Lindisfarne manuscript contains this letter. There are two fragments of the lists of Hebrew names; one on the recto of the first surviving folio and one on folio 26, which is currently inserted at the end of the prefatory matter for John. The first list fragment contains the end of the list for the Gospel of Matthew. The missing names from Matthew would require an additional two folios. The second list fragment, on folio 26, contains about

12720-459: The various insular texts. Evidence suggests that when the scribes were writing the text they often depended on memory rather than on their exemplar. The manuscript is written primarily in insular majuscule with some occurrences of minuscule letters (usually e or s ). The text is usually written in one long line across the page. Françoise Henry identified at least three scribes in the manuscript, whom she named Hand A, Hand B, and Hand C. Hand A

12840-556: The very shrine of art. You will make out intricacies, so delicate and subtle, so exact and compact, so full of knots and links, with colours so fresh and vivid, that you might say that all this was the work of an angel, and not of a man. Since Gerald claims to have seen this book in Kildare, he may have seen another, now lost, book equal in quality to the Book of Kells, or he may have misstated his location. The Book of Kells remained in Kells until 1654. In that year, Cromwell 's cavalry

12960-491: Was apparently never finished, the projected decoration of some pages appearing only in outline. It is believed that the original manuscript consisted of about 370 folios, based on gaps in the text and the absence of key illustrations. The bulk of the missing material (or, about 30 folios) was perhaps lost when the book was stolen in the early 11th century. In 1621 the prominent Anglican clergyman James Ussher counted just 344 folios; presently another four or five are missing from

13080-525: Was created in a Columban monastery in either Ireland or Scotland, and may have had contributions from various Columban institutions from each of these areas. It is believed to have been created c.  800 AD. The text of the Gospels is largely drawn from the Vulgate , although it also includes several passages drawn from the earlier versions of the Bible known as the Vetus Latina . It is regarded as

13200-656: Was destroyed in 853), but it had probably moved to the Basilica of St Denis outside Paris by the time of the Codex Aureus's production. Charles gave it to Arnulf of Carinthia . 11th century sources state it was produced in 893 and given to emperor Arnulf of Carinthia , who in turn donated it to St. Emmeram Abbey , then under abbot Tuto. On secularisation in 1811 it was given to the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich (catalogue reference Clm 14000). It

13320-533: Was for most of its history (named after Emmeram of Regensburg ) and is lavishly illuminated. The cover of the codex is decorated with gems and relief figures in gold, and can be precisely dated to 870, and is an important example of Carolingian art , as well as one of very few surviving treasure bindings of this date. The upper cover of the Lindau Gospels is probably a product of the same workshop, though there are differences of style. This workshop

13440-402: Was given a decorative programme equal to those prefacing the Gospels, its Chi Rho monogram having grown to consume the entire page. The letter chi dominates the page with one arm swooping across the majority of the page. The letter rho is snuggled underneath the arms of the chi. Both letters are divided into compartments which are lavishly decorated with knotwork and other patterns. The background

13560-407: Was given emphasis in many early Gospel Books, so much so that the two sections were often treated as separate works. The second beginning starts with the word Christ . The Greek letters chi and rho were normally used in medieval manuscripts to abbreviate the word Christ . In Insular Gospel books, the initial Chi Rho monogram was enlarged and decorated. In the Book of Kells, this second beginning

13680-400: Was mistakenly double-counted. As a result, the pagination of the entire book is reckoned thus: folio 1r — 36v, 36*r — 36*v (the double-counted folio), and 37r — 339v. The majority of the folios are part of larger sheets, called bifolia , which are folded in half to form two folios. The bifolia are nested inside of each other and sewn together to form gatherings called quires . On occasion,

13800-476: Was published in 1990 in a two-volume set containing the full facsimile and scholarly commentary. One copy is held by the Anglican Church in Kells, on the site of the original monastery. Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram The Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 14000) is a 9th-century illuminated Gospel Book . It takes its name from Saint Emmeram's Abbey , where it

13920-511: Was quartered in the church at Kells, and the governor of the town sent the book to Dublin for safekeeping. Henry Jones , then Bishop of Clogher and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Dublin , presented the manuscript to Trinity College in Dublin in 1661, and it has remained there ever since, except for brief loans to other libraries and museums. It has been on display to the public in

14040-421: Was recovered a few months later—minus its golden and bejewelled cover—"under a sod ". It is generally assumed that the "great Gospel of Columkille" is the Book of Kells. If this is correct, then the book was in Kells by 1007 and had been there long enough for thieves to learn of its presence. The force of ripping the manuscript free from its cover may account for the folios missing from the beginning and end of

14160-400: Was too high. By 1986, Faksimile-Verlag had developed a process that used gentle suction to straighten a page so that it could be photographed without touching it and so won permission to publish a new facsimile. After each page was photographed, a single-page facsimile was prepared so the colours could be carefully compared to the original and adjustments made where necessary. The completed work

14280-415: Was widespread in the medieval period, and such inscriptions in the Book of Kells provide concrete evidence about its location at the time. The Abbey of Kells was dissolved because of the ecclesiastical reforms of the 12th century. The abbey church was converted to a parish church in which the Book of Kells remained. The 12th-century writer Gerald of Wales , in his Topographia Hibernica , described seeing

14400-527: Was written out by the monks Liuthard and Beringer. Seven full-page miniatures show the four evangelists, Charles the Bald enthroned, the Adoration of the Lamb and a Christ in Majesty . It also includes twelve canon tables , ten illuminated initials and incipits . The text is written in golden uncial letters, with each page framed. It measures 420 mm by 330 mm and has 126 vellum folios. The cover

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