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141-651: Lázaro Cárdenas del Río ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈlasaɾo ˈkaɾðenas] ; 21 May 1895 – 19 October 1970) was a Mexican army officer and politician who served as president of Mexico from 1934 to 1940. Previously, he served as a general in the Constitutional Army during the Mexican Revolution and as Governor of Michoacán and President of the Institutional Revolutionary Party . He later served as

282-491: A chauffeur and an aide-de-camp . His fearlessness generated widespread respect for Cárdenas, who had demonstrated his bravery and leadership as a revolutionary general. Cárdenas's cabinet when he was first in office included Calles family members, his oldest son Rodolfo at the Secretariat of Communications and Public Works (1934–1935); Aarón Sáenz Garza , the brother-in-law of Calles's second son, Plutarco Jr. ("Aco"),

423-512: A completely different kind of organization. Although Congress was dominated by Callistas early in his term, Cárdenas persuaded congressmen to his side, “to the point that he commanded a majority in the Chamber.” As noted by one study, “when Calles began to criticize agrarian and labor agitation and pressure the government to moderate its policies in mid-1935, Cardenas purged his cabinet of Calles’s most loyal supporters. This action demonstrated that

564-544: A confidential capacity.” On 21 March 1939, regulations for a maritime inspection service were promulgated. During the Calles Maximato, Mexican education policies were directed at curtailing the cultural influence of the Catholic Church by introducing sex education and leftist ideology via socialist education, and generally aiming to create a national civic culture. Cárdenas as a presidential candidate, under

705-407: A constitutional amendment. The amendment itself was simple and brief, specifying that "mexicanos" referred to both women and men. Many PNR congressmen and senators gave supportive speeches for the amendment, but there was opposition. Cárdenas's impending reorganization of the party, which took place in 1938, was a factor in changing some opponents into supporters. In the end, it passed unanimously and

846-446: A dictator (because of PRI's party discipline), the current times show the president's power as somewhat limited. In 2004, President Fox threatened to veto the budget approved by Congress, claiming the budget overstepped his authority to lead the country, only to learn no branch of government had the power to veto a decree issued by another branch of government (although a different, non jurisprudence -setting ruling stated he could return

987-405: A discreet life. This is partly because they do not want to interfere with the government of the new president and partly because they may not have a good public image. This tradition can be traced back to the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas . Former president Plutarco Elías Calles had personally selected Cárdenas as his successor, and had hoped to control things from behind the scenes as he had for

1128-405: A field command as general. In 1920, after Carranza was overthrown by northern generals, Cárdenas was given the rank of brigadier general at the age of 25. Cárdenas was appointed provisional governor of his home state of Michoacán under the brief presidency of Adolfo de la Huerta . Cárdenas was a political protégé of Calles, but his ideological mentor was revolutionary General Francisco J. Múgica ,

1269-673: A lasting colonial rule. The lands of the Purépecha was subjected to serious deforestation during the Spanish Colonial period. Following the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), Michoacán experienced political unrest. When former revolutionary general Lázaro Cárdenas , originally from a small town in Michoacán, was appointed governor of his state, he began an ambitious program of reform and economic development, which he continued when he became president of Mexico (1934–40). For him,

1410-641: A legal way of access to psychoactive drugs for non-medical purposes, and attempted to guarantee medical attention to people addicted to drugs by authorizing medical professionals to prescribe and administer narcotic drugs. The government allocated funds to create a special budget for clinics or dispensaries to open up in order to effectively treat patients by administering controlled doses of low-cost, safe, quality drugs. Patients were required to officially register with clinics in order to receive treatment. Around six clinics were set up around Mexico City. Around 200 people—as many as 1,000, according to some estimates—attended

1551-430: A lower-middle-class family in the village of Jiquilpan , Michoacán , where his father owned a billiard hall . His family was of prominent Purépecha ancestry. After the death of his father, from the age of 16, Cárdenas supported his family (including his mother and seven younger siblings). By the time he reached 18, he had worked as a tax collector , a printer's devil , and a jail keeper. Although he left school when he

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1692-468: A majority, and might actually be defeated. While the votes were being counted, the tabulation system mysteriously shut down. The government declared Salinas the winner, leading to allegations of electoral fraud. The 1997 federal congressional election saw the first opposition Chamber of Deputies ever, and the 2000 elections saw Vicente Fox of a PAN / PVEM alliance become the first opposition candidate to win an election since 1911. This historical defeat

1833-434: A modest re-distribution of land at the state level, encouraged the growth of peasant and labor organizations, and improved education at a time when it was neglected by the federal government. Cárdenas ensured teachers were paid on time, personally inspected schools, and opened one hundred new rural schools. Due to his grassroots style of governing, Cárdenas made important policy decisions based on direct information received from

1974-444: A move that struck at the financial interests of his patron Calles's cronies, Cárdenas closed down their gambling casinos and brothels, where "prominent Callistas had invested their profits from bribery and industrial activities." Cárdenas did not use armored cars or bodyguards to protect himself. In the presidential campaign of 1934, he traveled through much of the rural areas by auto and horseback, accompanied only by Rafael M. Pedrajo,

2115-581: A patchwork fashion with uneven results. Over years, many regions had experienced peasant mobilization in the face of repression and "low intensity agrarian warfare." The peasant movement in Morelos had mobilized before the Mexican Revolution and had success under Emiliano Zapata 's leadership extinguished the hacienda system in that state. In Cárdenas's agrarian reform, with the revolutionary regime consolidated and agrarian problems still unresolved,

2256-657: A personal power base. The campaign also allowed him to refine and articulate for popular consumption what he considered the important elements of the Six Year Plan. On the campaign trail, he acted more like someone already in office than a candidate, settling disputes between groups. He reached out to Mexican workers, as well as peasants, to whom he promised land reform. Cárdenas promised indigenous peoples schools and educational opportunities, and urged them to join with workers against exploitative practices. As expected, Cárdenas won handily, officially winning over 98 percent of

2397-472: A plan needed to implement its objectives. Interim President Abelardo L. Rodríguez did not get his cabinet's approval for the plan in 1933 so Calles's next move was to present it in draft form to the party convention. "Rather than a blueprint, the Six-Year Plan was a sales prospectus," and a "hopeless jumble" filled with compromises and contradictions, as well as utopian aspirations. But the direction of

2538-479: A poor and marginal state of Mexico, but had risen to political prominence by his military skills on the battlefield but importantly he had chosen the correct side of decisive splits since 1913. When he was chosen as the presidential candidate in 1934, no one expected him to be anything other than being loyal to Calles, the "Jefe Máximo", and power behind the presidency since 1929. As the PNR's candidate, Cárdenas's election

2679-466: A position in the Calles administration in the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP). Although initially an assimilationist for Mexico's indigenous, he shifted his perspective after a period of residence in a Purépecha village, which he published as Carapan: Bosquejo de una experiencia . He came to see indigenous culture as having value. Sáenz advocated for educational and economic reforms that would better

2820-404: A reform was made on Article 34 reordering the colors of the sash. A new sash was made putting the colors of the sash back to the previous order that was used from 1924 through 2009. In swearing-in ceremonies, the outgoing President turns in the sash to the current President of the Chamber of Deputies , who in turn gives it to the new president after the latter has sworn the oath of office. The sash

2961-623: A seat of power since the Aztec Empire , with the materials of the current building taken from the palace of the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II . The President also has the use of Chapultepec Castle , formerly the imperial palace of the Second Mexican Empire , then the official residence of Mexican presidents until 1934, when Lázaro Cárdenas established the presidential residence at Los Pinos . Andrés Manuel López Obrador moved

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3102-506: A shortage of resources and the inability to purchase drugs from Europe due to World War II . Not mentioned in the official declaration were the increasing economic and political pressures from the U.S. to repeal the law. The Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (PRM) came into being on March 30, 1938, after the party founded in 1929 by Calles, the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), was dissolved. Cárdenas's PRM

3243-685: A significant increase personnel and budget; 350 employees in 1938 and a budget of $ 2.77 million pesos and in 1939, the high point in the department's budget, there were 850 employees with a budget of $ 3.75 million pesos. In 1940, the budget remained robust at $ 3 million pesos, with 650 employees. The function of the department was primarily economic and educational. Specifically it was tasked with defending indigenous villages and communities, holders of ejidos ( ejidatarios ) and indigenous citizens from persecution and abuse that could be committed by any type of authority. It defended ejido officials ( comisariados ejidales ) and agricultural cooperatives. The goals that

3384-637: A strongly anticlerical, secular socialist. President Calles appointed Cárdenas Chief of Military Operations in the Huasteca , an oil-producing region on the Gulf Coast. Cárdenas saw first-hand the operations of foreign oil companies. In the Huasteca, U.S. oil companies extracted oil, avoided taxes owed to the Mexican government, and treated the region as “conquered territory.” Múgica also was posted to

3525-432: A wider academic background. Although Presidents Calderón (2006–2012) and Peña Nieto (2012–2018) were both lawyers, President Fox (2000–2006) studied business administration, Andrés Manuel López Obrador , (2018-2024) studied political sciences and current President Claudia Sheinbaum studied physics. The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1904, when President Porfirio Díaz extended it to six years for

3666-662: Is a Purépecha town, unmarried men will dance the Dance of the Cúrpites. The dance is used to help the man express their masculinity and court their sweetheart. The dance is celebrated during the Christian holiday of Epiphany . The Purépecha language is spoken by nearly 200,000 people in Michoacán . Since Mexico's 2000 indigenous language law, indigenous languages like Purépecha were granted official status equal with Spanish in

3807-424: Is a cornerstone of Mexican politics). In fact, tradition called for the incumbent president to fade into the background during the campaign to elect their successor. This renewed command helped maintain party discipline and avoided the stagnation associated with a single person holding power for decades, prompting Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa to call Mexico's political system "the perfect dictatorship" since

3948-574: Is issued by Congress. The president's office may suggest a budget, but at the end of the day, it is Congress that decrees how to collect taxes and how to spend them. A Supreme Court ruling on Vicente Fox's veto of the 2004 budget suggests that the President may have the right to veto decrees from Congress. Since 1997, the Congress has been plural, usually with opposition parties having a majority. Major reforms (tax, energy) have to pass by Congress, and

4089-530: Is the head of state and head of government of Mexico . Under the Constitution of Mexico , the president heads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander in chief of the Mexican Armed Forces . The office, which was first established by the federal Constitution of 1824 , is currently held by Claudia Sheinbaum , who was sworn-in on October 1, 2024. The office of

4230-693: Is the symbol of the Executive Federal Power, and may only be worn by the current President. According to Article 35 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem , the President must wear the sash at the swearing-in ceremony, when they make their annual State of the Union report to Congress, during the commemoration of the Grito de Dolores on 15 September of each year, and when they receive

4371-547: The Calles Law soon after he became president in 1934. Cárdenas earned respect from Pope Pius XI and had a close friendship with Mexican Archbishop Luis María Martínez , a major figure in Mexico's Catholic Church who successfully persuaded Mexicans to obey the government's laws peacefully. However, he also implemented educational reforms, particularly socialist education and the elimination of religious schooling. Nevertheless,

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4512-598: The Electoral Tribunal of the Federal Judicial Power ; after it has heard and ruled on them, the Tribunal must either declare the election invalid or certify the results of the elections in accordance to their rulings. Once the Tribunal declares the election valid, it issues a Constancia de Mayoría (English: Certificate of Plurality , lit.   'Certificate of Majority') to

4653-680: The Maximato (1928–1934) and expected to maintain that role when Cárdenas took office. Cárdenas, however, out-maneuvered him politically and forced Calles into exile. He established the structure of the National Revolutionary Party, eventually renamed the Party of the Mexican Revolution (PRM), on the sectoral representation of peasant leagues, labor union confederations , and the Mexican Army . Cárdenas's incorporation of

4794-641: The National Polytechnic Institute (IPN) and El Colegio de México (Colmex). His foreign policy supported and gave asylum to Republicans during the Spanish Civil War . An achievement of Cárdenas was his complete surrender of power in December 1940 to his successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho , who was a political moderate without a distinguished military record. Cárdenas has been praised as "the greatest constructive radical of

4935-762: The Pre-Columbian era . The capital city was Tzintzuntzan . Purépecha architecture is noted for step pyramids in the shape of the letter "T". Pre-Columbian Purépecha artisans made feather mosaics that extensively used hummingbird feathers, which were highly regarded as luxury goods throughout the region. During the Pre-Colonial era, the Purépecha kingdom engaged in conflict with the Aztecs. The Purépecha kingdom expanded through conquest. However, many avoided conquest and bloodshed and, in order to maintain their freedom, exchanged goods and resources such as metal with

5076-607: The Purépecha Empire , now in present-day Michoacán , explored some parts of Guanajuato in the early 1520s. A legend relates of a 16- or 17-year-old Purépecha, Princess Eréndira , who led her people into a fierce war against the Spanish. Using stolen Spanish horses, her people learned to ride into battle. In 1529 to 1530, the Spanish forces entered Michoacán and some parts of Guanajuato with an army of 500 Spanish soldiers and more than 10,000 Native warriors. Then, in 1530,

5217-605: The Secretary of National Defence . During his presidency, which is considered the end of the Maximato , he implemented massive land reform programs , led the expropriation of the country's oil industry , and implemented many key social reforms. Born in Jiquilpan , Michoacán , to a working-class family, Cárdenas joined the Mexican Revolution and became a general in the Constitutionalist Army . Although he

5358-425: The armed forces (typically the army ) or the law. President Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–1946) was the last president to have been a career military officer. Most of his successors have been lawyers; in fact, all the presidents between 1958 and 1988 graduated from law school . Presidents Salinas (1988–1994) and Zedillo (1994–2000) were both trained as economists . Since the democratic transition, presidents have

5499-456: The 1917 Constitution, the president exercised nearly absolute control over the country. Much of this power came from the de facto monopoly status of the PRI. As mentioned above, they effectively chose their successor as president by personally nominating the PRI's candidate in the next election. In addition, the unwritten rules of the PRI allowed them to designate party officials and candidates all

5640-475: The 1917 Constitution, to accompany him to Yucatán to implement the land reform, even though Molina Enríquez was not a big supporter of the collective ejido system. Although he could not go due to ill health, he defended Cárdenas's action against Luis Cabrera , who argued that the Ejidal Bank that Cárdenas established when he embarked on his sweeping redistribution of land was, in fact, making the Mexican state

5781-587: The Aztecs, the Aztecs still traded with them, mainly for metal tools and weapons. After hearing of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and having the native population much diminished by an epidemic of smallpox , the cazonci Tangaxuan II pledged his allegiance as a vassal of the King of Spain without a fight in 1525. It is believed that the Spanish conquistador Cristóbal de Olid , upon arriving in

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5922-597: The Confederation of Mexican Workers ( Confederación de Trabajadores Mexicanos ) were, by virtue of their membership umbrella organizations, also members of Cárdenas's reorganized party, the Party of the Mexican Revolution or PRM, done in 1938. In practice, however, women were marginalized from power. Women could not stand for national or local governmental elections or vote. The Constitution of 1917 did not explicitly address women's rights and so to enfranchise women required

6063-598: The Constitution were published in the Official Journal of the Federation . The succession provisions have come into play only twice since the current constitution was enacted. In 1928, after the assassination of president-elect Álvaro Obregón , Congress appointed Emilio Portes Gil as Interim President; Portes Gil served in the position for 14 months while new elections were called. Pascual Ortiz Rubio

6204-422: The Constitution which include the following: A decree is a legislative instrument that has an expiration date and that is issued by one of the three branches of government. Congress may issue decrees, and the President may issue decrees as well. They have all the power of laws but cannot be changed by a power that did not issue them. They are very limited in their extent. One such decree is the federal budget, which

6345-539: The Cárdenas sexenio there were two congresses each year, but sparser attendance at around 200 pueblos each. The government attempted to engage the active participation of the indigenous pueblos, seeing that such engagement was the key to success, but the fall-off in the last two years indicates decreased mobilization. The department published 12 edited books with a total publication run of 350 as well as 170 tape recorded materials in indigenous languages. In February 1940,

6486-483: The Cárdenas administration bridged a gap between church and state, developed a working and friendly relationship with the church, and helped subdue the bitter animosity between Catholics and leftists that had lingered since the Mexican Revolution, with the Holy See eventually supporting Cárdenas in comparison to condemning the militant atheism of Calles. The attempts to make peace with the Catholic Church came in spite of

6627-588: The Department of Labour into silicosis in mines and byssinosis in the cotton industry “led to the adoption of measures to ensure notification and compensation of these diseases.”Regulations dealing with general industrial hygiene were issued on the 6th of June 1936. Dust-exhaust apparatus and respirators “were made compulsory for factories using certain raw materials (wool, padding, etc.), and the Federal Department of Public Health issued regulations for

6768-649: The Factory Inspection Service was instructed by the Federal authorities “to make arrangements to secure regular and effective supervision of working hours and to prevent infringements of the 8-hour day.” Under an Act of 20 February 1936 that concerned the payment of wages for the weekly rest day, the State authorities “are free to allow for the special circumstances and needs of each locality when promulgating administrative regulations.” An enquiry made by

6909-655: The Federal forces in Michoacán and moved north, where he served initially with Álvaro Obregón , then Pancho Villa , and after 1915 when Villa was defeated by Obregón to Plutarco Elías Calles , who served Constitutionalist leader Venustiano Carranza . Although Cárdenas was from the southern state of Michoacán, his key experiences in the Revolution were with Constitutionalist northerners, whose faction won. In particular, he served under Calles, who tasked him with military operations against Yaqui Indians and against Zapatistas in Michoacán and Jalisco, during which time he rose to

7050-472: The Huasteca and he and Cárdenas became close. During their time in the Huasteca, Múgica told Cárdenas that “socialism [is] the appropriate doctrine for resolving conflicts in Mexico.” Cárdenas was appointed governor of his home state of Michoacán in 1928, which was undergoing the political conflict between state and Church, known as the Cristero War . His ideological mentor Múgica had previously served as

7191-516: The Interior for a period of up to sixty days until the President reassumes executive powers. As per Article 83, no person who has already served as president, whether elected, provisional, interim, or substitute, can be designated as provisional, interim, or substitute president. The designation of the Secretary of the Interior as the immediate successor dates to August 2012, when the changes to

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7332-474: The Mexican Confederation of Workers or CTM. The CTM's alliance with Cárdenas was tactical and conditional, seeing their interests being forwarded by Cárdenas, but not controlled by him. As with the agrarian sector with mobilized peasants, mobilized and organized workers had long agitated and fought for their interests. Article 123 of the Constitution was a tangible result of their participation in

7473-650: The Mexican Revolution on the Constitutionalist side. In fact, workers organized by the Casa del Obrero Mundial , a radical labor organization, fought in the Red Battalions against the peasant revolutionaries led by Emiliano Zapata. Lombardo Toledano and the CTM supported Cárdenas's exile of Calles and in the same stroke Cárdenas also exiled CROM's discredited leader, Luis Napoleón Morones. Cárdenas nationalized

7614-404: The Mexican Revolution", for implementing its ideals, but has also been criticized as an "authoritarian populist". He was the first Mexican president to serve for a sexenio , a practice that continues today. According to numerous opinion polls and analysts, Cárdenas is the most popular Mexican president of the 20th century. Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was born on 21 May 1895, one of eight children in

7755-481: The Mexican presidency. After Huerta's coup and Madero's assassination, Cárdenas joined a group of Zapatistas , but Huerta's forces scattered the group, where Cárdenas had served as captain and paymaster. Given that revolutionary forces were voluntary organizations, his position of leadership points to his skills and his being a paymaster to the perception that he would be honest in financial matters. Both characteristics followed him through his subsequent career. He escaped

7896-568: The Mexican state was firmly on the side of workers. A labor organization already existed when Cárdenas took office, the CROM union of Luis Morones . Morones was forced out of his cabinet post in Calles's government and the CROM declined in power and influence, with major defections of Mexico City unions, one of which was led by socialist Vicente Lombardo Toledano . Cárdenas promoted Toledano's "purified" Confederation of Mexican Workers , which evolved into

8037-510: The PNR presidential candidate in 1929, held the position of Foreign Secretary (1934–1935). Cárdenas chose his comrade-in-arms and mentor General Francisco José Múgica as Secretary of the National Economy (1934–1935). As Cárdenas began to chart his course and outflank Calles politically, he replaced Calles loyalists in 1935 with his own men. As a revolutionary general, Cárdenas followed in the tradition of his immediate predecessors in

8178-613: The Party of the Mexican Revolution and is now the Institutional Revolutionary Party . From then, the PRI ruled Mexico as a virtual one-party state until 1989, when Ernesto Ruffo Appel was elected the first state governor from an opposition party. Toward the end of their term, the incumbent president, in consultation with party leaders, selected the PRI's candidate in the next election in a procedure known as [el dedazo] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |links= ( help ) ( transl.  appointed by

8319-658: The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States and the laws that emanate from it, and to perform loyally and patriotically the office of President of the Republic which the people have conferred upon me, in all actions looking after the good and prosperity of the Union; and if I were not to do so, may the Nation demand it of me. Note that Article 83 of the mexican constitution states that

8460-435: The Purépecha include the baptism of newborns after forty days of separate rest for the mother and child. The infant is then swaddled for six weeks and kept in physical contact with the mother or a close female relative.this is only for the Christian villages a Temples created by Purépecha did not look like their Mesoamerican counterparts. Purépecha today celebrate many holidays. One of the most popular holidays celebrated by

8601-591: The Purépecha is the Day Of The Dead or "Día De Los Muertos" . While it is celebrated throughout Mexico in the same way, Purépechans celebrate slightly differently. On November 1 and 2, family members take part in all-night vigils at the graves of their loved ones. Purépecha believe that the souls of the dead watch over their living relatives on the Day of the Dead. In the town of San Juan Nuevo Parangaricutiro, which

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8742-482: The Purépecha kingdom. The Purépecha empire was never conquered by the Aztec Empire , in fact there is no record of the Aztecs ever defeating them in battle. This was most likely due to the presence of metal ores within their empire, and their knowledge of metallurgy, which was far superior to that of the Aztecs [1] ; such skills have persisted in their descendants and are still widely regarded today, particularly their coppersmithing . Even though they were enemies with

8883-550: The United Nations and in the private sector, but outside of Mexico. It is speculated he lives in a self-imposed exile to avoid the hatred of some of his fellow members of the PRI for having acknowledged the PRI's defeat in the 2000 presidential election. Carlos Salinas de Gortari also lived in a self-imposed exile in Ireland, but returned to Mexico. He campaigned intensely to have his brother, Raúl Salinas , freed after he

9024-611: The United States and taught at the universities where they formerly studied: Zedillo at Yale University and Calderón at Harvard Kennedy School . Two former presidents, Vicente Fox and Andrés Manuel López Obrador, live in Mexico. As of September 2024, Carlos Salinas de Gortari lived in the United Kingdom and both Felipe Calderón and Enrique Peña Nieto lived in Spain. Pur%C3%A9pecha They are also known by

9165-469: The areas in which they are spoken. Recently, educational instruction in Purépecha has been introduced in the local school systems. Additionally, many Purépecha communities offer classes and lessons in the language. Princess Eréndira of the Purépecha was depicted in the 2006 film Erendira Ikikunari ( Erendira the Untamable ). The 2017 Disney film, Coco presents a character named “Mama Coco”, who

9306-469: The army into the party structure was a deliberate move to diminish the power of the military and prevent their intervention in politics through coups d'état. A left-wing economic nationalist , Cárdenas led the expropriation of the Mexican oil industry and the creation of the state-owned oil company Pemex in 1938. He implemented large-scale land reform programs in Mexico , redistributing large estates to smallholders in lands termed ejidos . He created

9447-441: The army leadership as well. Cárdenas sought to serve as president in his own right, not be a puppet of Calles, and to do that he needed to broaden his base of support. Cárdenas sought to arm the peasantry as a counterpoise to the army, a move that disturbed the more conservative generals. Cárdenas cultivated the loyalty of the junior officer corps, providing better housing, pensions, and schooling for their children. Cárdenas repealed

9588-525: The budget with observations). Upon taking office, the President raises their right arm to shoulder-level and takes the following oath: Protesto guardar y hacer guardar la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos y las leyes que de ella emanen, y desempeñar leal y patrióticamente el cargo de Presidente de la República que el pueblo me ha conferido, mirando en todo por el bien y prosperidad de la Unión; y si así no lo hiciere que la Nación me lo demande . Translation: I affirm to follow and uphold

9729-410: The candidate of the PNR in 1934, Calles had expected to continue to be the real power in Mexico. Cárdenas might have been one of the short-term, powerless presidents of the years 1929–1934, but instead he built a large and mobilized base of support of industrial workers and peasants and forced Calles into exile in 1935. Cárdenas further consolidated power by dissolving the PNR and creating a new party with

9870-412: The candidate who obtained a plurality . That candidate then becomes President-elect. The final decision is made in September, two months after the election. The 1917 Constitution borrowed heavily from the Constitution of the United States , providing for a clear separation of powers while giving the president wider powers than their American counterpart. For the first 71 years after the enactment of

10011-516: The children of their workers.” The Government also undertook to give effect to Article 123 of the Constitution, which provides “that all agricultural, industrial and mining undertakings shall supply comfortable and healthy living accommodation for their employees.” Under an Act of 27 September 1938, which was promulgated on 5 December 1938, “laying down the Federal Civil Servants' Statute, hours of work and other conditions of employment are regulated for all Federal civil servants other than those employed in

10152-483: The church-state conflict of the late 1920s, the Cristero Rebellion , giving material aid to Cristero armies, and even forming a secret society, Feminine Brigades of St. Joan of Arc . The concern about Mexican women taking advice from priests on voting had some foundation in the example of the leftist Spanish Republic of the 1930s. Many Spanish women indeed supported the position of the Catholic Church which

10293-569: The clinics daily. The state-controlled monopoly on drugs made it so they could provide high quality drugs at a low cost, and much lower and safer than what was sold on the streets of Mexico City at the time. The law was in effect for about 5 months when, on July 3, 1940, the Mexican government repealed the Reglamento in a decree published in the Diario Oficial de la Federación . The formal government explanation attributed this decision to

10434-591: The department established a separate medical/sanitary section with 4 clinics in Chihuahua and one in Sonora, but the largest number were in central in southern Mexico. In 1940, the first Interamerican Indigenista Congress met in Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, with Cárdenas giving a plenary address to the participants. Cárdenas had pushed for women's suffrage in Mexico, responding to the pressure from women activists and from

10575-402: The department worked toward were primarily economic and education, with cultural actions second. Social measures and public health/sanitation were less important in terms of action for this department. The department promoted a series of national indigenous congresses, bringing together different indigenous groups to meet as indigenous and discuss common issues. The government's aim in doing this

10716-418: The derogatory term " Tarascan ", an exonym , applied by outsiders and not one they use for themselves. The Purépecha occupied most of Michoacán but also some of the lower valleys of both Guanajuato and Jalisco . Celaya , Acambaro , Cerano , and Yurirapundaro . Now, the Purépecha live mostly in the highlands of central Michoacán, around Lakes Patzcuaro and Cuitzeo . It was one of the major empires of

10857-417: The diplomatic credentials of accredited foreign ambassadors and ministers. They are also expected to wear it "in those official ceremonies of greatest solemnity". The sash is worn from right shoulder to left hip, and should be worn underneath the coat. The only exception is during the swearing-in ceremony, when it is worn over the coat so that the out-going president may easily take the sash off and drape it over

10998-425: The early 1980s when a grave economic crisis created discomfort both in the population and inside the party, and the president's power was no longer absolute but still impressive. An important characteristic of this system is that the new president was effectively chosen by the old one (since the PRI candidate was assured of election) but once they assumed power, the old one lost all power and influence ("no reelection"

11139-476: The executive power for coordinated action to promote and manage measures considered to be in the interests of centers of indigenous populations. Most indigenous people were found in Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, and Yucatán, according to the 1930 national census. In 1936 and 1937, the department had approximately 100 employees and a budget of $ 750,000 pesos, but as with other aspects of the Cárdenas regime, 1938 marked

11280-416: The fact that Cardenas himself was an atheist who even once reportedly said "Man should not put his hope in the supernatural. Every moment spent on ones knees is a moment stolen from humanity." During Cárdenas' presidency, the government enacted land reform that was "sweeping, rapid, and, in some respects, innovative". He redistributed large commercial haciendas, some 180,000 km of land to peasants. With

11421-620: The finger ). Until 1988, the PRI's candidate was virtually assured of election, winning by margins well over 70 percent of the vote. In 1988, the PRI ruptured and the dissidents formed the National Democratic Front with rival center-left parties (now the PRD ). Discontent with the PRI, and the popularity of the Front's candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas led to worries that PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari would not come close to

11562-453: The first time in Mexico's history, and then again from 1917 to 1928 after a new constitution reversed the change made by Díaz in 1904. Finally, the presidential term was set at six years in 1928 and has remained unchanged since then. The president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a simple plurality of the national vote is elected; there is no runoff election . The former president, Andrés Manuel López Obrador ,

11703-458: The following requirements must be met: The ban on any sort of presidential re-election dates back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the Mexican Revolution , which erupted after Porfirio Díaz 's fraudulent victory on his seventh re-election in a row. It is so entrenched in Mexican politics that it has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution

11844-472: The government's role by creating rural militias or reserves, which armed some 60,000 peasants by 1940, which were under the control of the army. The armed peasantry helped promote political stability against regional strongmen ( caudillos ). They could ensure that government land reform was accomplished. Peasant reserves could protect recipients of reform against estate owners and break rural strikes that threatened government control. Agrarian reform took place in

11985-523: The government. Peasants' rights were acknowledged, but peasants were to be responsible allies of the political regime. The radical Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM) and the Mexican Communist Party (PCM) sought to organize peasants, but Cárdenas asserted the government's right to do that since it was in charge of land reform and warned that their attempting to organize the peasantry would sow dissension. Cárdenas further strengthened

12126-677: The incoming president (Article 36). In addition to the Presidential Sash, each president receives a Presidential Flag; the flag has imprinted the words Estados Unidos Mexicanos in golden letters and the national coat of arms also in gold. The official residence and workplace of the President is the National Palace , a building facing the Plaza de la Constitución ( Constitution Square ) in Mexico City . The site has been

12267-439: The indigenous heritage of Michoacán was foundational for the construction of Mexico's post-revolutionary identity. Although the Aztecs loomed large in Mexican history and the construction of identity, Cárdenas saw the Purépecha as "purer" source. The Purépecha had never been conquered by the Aztecs, but in the era of the Spanish conquest, the resistance of the Purépecha was a point of regional pride. In particular, Cárdenas promoted

12408-429: The indigenous, and this became the aim of the department Cárdenas created. The official 1940 government report on the Cárdenas administration states that “the indigenous problem is one of the most serious that the revolutionary government has had to confront.” The aim of the department was to study fundamental problems concerning Mexico's indigenous, particularly economic and social conditions, and then propose measures to

12549-448: The national government with no outlet for independent organization or the formation of alliances with Mexican urban workers. The other key sector of reform was industrial labor. Article 123 of the 1917 Constitution had empowered workers in an unprecedented way, guaranteeing human rights such as the minimum wage, an eight-hour workday and the right to strike and form trade unions, but in a more comprehensive fashion, Article 123 signaled that

12690-462: The new Mexican state." Scholars differ as to Cárdenas's intent for the CNC, with some viewing it as an autonomous organization that would advocate for peasants regarding land tenure, rural projects, and peasant political interests, while others see the CNC as in patron-client relationship with the state, restricting its autonomy. The CNC was created with the idea of "peasant unification" and was controlled by

12831-664: The new hacienda owner. For Molina Enríquez, the Yucatecan henequen plantations were an "evil legacy" and "hellholes" for the Maya. As a lifelong supporter of land reform, Molina Enríquez's support of Cárdenas's "glorious crusade" was important. Cárdenas knew that peasant support was important and as a presidential candidate in 1933, he reached out to an autonomous peasant organization, the Liga Nacional Campesina (National Peasant League) and promised to integrate it into

12972-429: The office of the president closely follow the presidential system of government. Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the executive branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president, as well as the qualifications for the office. The president is vested with the "Supreme Executive Power of the Union". To be eligible to serve as president, Article 82 of the Constitution specifies that

13113-546: The party drafted under Calles's direction. Such a multiyear program was patterned after the just-completed Five Year Plan of the Soviet Union. The Six-Year Plan (to span the presidential term 1934–40) was a patchwork of proposals from a variety of participants, but the driving force behind it was Calles, who had given a speech in May 1933, saying that the "Mexican Revolution had failed in most of its important objectives," and that

13254-505: The party structure. The Liga split over this question, but one element was integrated into the Partido Nacional Revolucionario. Cárdenas expanded the peasant league's base in 1938 into the Confederación Nacional Campesina (CNC). Cárdenas "believed that an organized peasantry would represent a political force capable of confronting the established landholding elite, as well as providing a critical voting block for

13395-479: The patronage of fierce anticlerical Calles, was in favor of such policies. The opposition to socialist education by the Catholic Church as an institution and rural Catholics in such strongholds as Michoacán, Jalisco, and Durango saw the revival of armed peasant opposition, sometimes known as the Second Cristiada . The extent of the opposition was significant and Cárdenas chose to step back from implementing

13536-505: The plan was toward renewed reform. The plan called for Assured of the backing of the powerful Calles and a presidential victory, Cárdenas took the opportunity to actively campaign in many parts of Mexico rather than remaining in Mexico City. His 25,000-kilometer campaign accomplished several things, including making direct contact with regions and constituents who had never seen a presidential candidate before and thus building Cárdenas

13677-600: The political climate that emphasized equality of citizens. Mexico was not alone in Latin America in not enfranchising women, but in 1932, both Brazil and Uruguay had extended suffrage to women, and Ecuador had also done so. Women had made a significant contribution to the Mexican Revolution, but had not made gains in the postrevolutionary phase. Women who were members of the National Peasants Confederation ( Confederación Nacional Campesina ) or

13818-662: The power of the Jefe Máximo was more apparent than real. In its wake, Cardenistas took over the PNR, Congress, and the governments of 14 states.” As noted by another study, “Calles left the country and the Cardenista blocs in the Union Congress became the majority.” President of Mexico The president of Mexico (Spanish: Presidente de México ), officially the president of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos ),

13959-712: The powers of Article 27 of the Mexican constitution, he created agrarian collectives, or ejidos , which in early twentieth-century Mexico were an atypical form of landholding. Two high-profile regions of expropriation for Cárdenas's agrarian reform were in the productive cotton-growing region in northern Mexico, known as La Laguna, and in Yucatán, where the economy was dominated by henequen production. Other areas that saw significant land reform were Baja California and Sonora in northern Mexico, his home state of Michoacán and Chiapas in southern Mexico. In 1937, Cárdenas invited Andrés Molina Enríquez , intellectual father of Article 27 of

14100-460: The presidency who had standing as military leaders but sought to curb the power of the military. Obregón and Calles sought to downsize and professionalize the Mexican military and make it subordinate to the civilian government . Cárdenas's election had not triggered revolts by disgruntled military men with ambitions to the presidency, as had happened in 1923, 1928, and 1929. Much of the military remained loyal to Calles, but Cárdenas had supporters among

14241-586: The president begins his term at 00:00 ( UTC-06:00 ) on October 1st, so the president assumes the powers of the office at that time, regardless of when the oath is taken. The Mexican Presidential sash has the colors of the Mexican flag in three bands of equal width, with green on top, white in the center, and red on the bottom, worn from right shoulder to left waist; it also includes the National Seal, in gold thread, to be worn chest-high. In November 2018,

14382-409: The president courted mobilized agraristas , who now found the state attentive to their issue. Land reform, with some exceptions such as in Yucatán, took place in areas of previous mobilization. Peasants themselves pushed for agrarian reform and to the extent it was accomplished, they were integral agents not merely the recipients of top-down state largesse. However, the peasantry was under the control of

14523-502: The president is considered to be revolutionary, in the sense that the powers of office are derived from the Revolutionary Constitution of 1917 . Another legacy of the Mexican Revolution is the Constitution's ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single six-year term, called a sexenio . No one who has held the post, even on a caretaker basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and

14664-644: The president of the Real Audiencia , Nuño de Guzmán , a conquistador notorious for his ruthlessness and brutality towards the natives, plundered the region and executed Tangaxuan II, destroying the Purépecha State and provoking a chaotic situation and widespread violence. In 1533, the Crown sent an experienced Oidor (Judge of the Audiencia) and later bishop, Don Vasco de Quiroga , who established

14805-454: The president's powers were cloaked by democratic practice. With the democratic reforms of recent years and fairer elections, the president's powers have been limited in fact as well as in name. Vargas Llosa, during the Fox administration, called this new system "The Imperfect Democracy". The current rights and powers of the president of Mexico are established, limited and enumerated by Article 89 of

14946-432: The presidential candidate. Calles agreed, believing he could control Cárdenas as he had controlled his predecessors. Not only had Cárdenas been associated with Calles for two decades, but he had prospered politically with Calles' patronage. Cárdenas resigned as secretary of war and the navy on May 15, 1933, and he accepted the PNR's nomination on June 5. Cárdenas ran on the Six Year Plan for social and political reform that

15087-543: The presidential residence back to the National Palace upon the start of his term in 2018. Articles 84 and 85 of the Mexican Constitution state that "in case of absolute absence of a President" the following should happen: Article 85 additionally states that if the president requests a temporary absence – once authorized by the Congress – executive powers devolve provisionally upon the Secretary of

15228-428: The previous five years. When Cárdenas showed he would rule in name and fact, Calles publicly criticized him, prompting Cárdenas to have Calles escorted out of the country by military police. Cárdenas himself remained silent on the policies of his successor Manuel Ávila Camacho , establishing a tradition that former presidents do not interfere with their successors. For example, Ernesto Zedillo holds important offices in

15369-466: The protection of the health of workers in the woollen industry.” The Industrial Hygiene Regulations of 6 June 1936 “make it compulsory for factories to establish a medical service.” Regulations for the inspection of boilers were laid down on 30 August 1936, while regulations of 25 June 1936 “concerning industrial hygiene provide that the Department of Health must determine the cases in which industrial undertakings are to establish crêches and day nurseries for

15510-436: The public rather than on the advice of his confidants. During his term as governor, Cárdenas sought to bring peace to the state, unite its population divided by the on-going Cristero War, and make Michoacán, especially the historic town of Pátzcuaro into a tourist destination. Once he was president of Mexico, he continued to devote government funding to the project. Cárdenas built a house in Pátzcuaro when he became governor of

15651-650: The radical educational policies, particularly as he became engaged with undermining Calles's power. Cárdenas gained support from the Catholic Church when he distanced himself from anticlerical policies. An important addition to higher education in Mexico was when Cárdenas established the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), a technical university in Mexico City, in the wake of the 1938 oil expropriation to train engineers and scientists. A basic Act on Education, which contained detailed provisions on technical and professional training and education,

15792-623: The railway system creating the Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México in 1938 and put under a "workers' administration." His most sweeping nationalization was that of the petroleum industry in 1938. Various measures affecting labor were also introduced under Cárdenas. A decree was issued “giving binding force throughout the Republic to a collective agreement which establishes a maximum working week of 48 hours for persons employed in sugar-cane plantations, sugar factories (including by-products), and all similar undertakings.” In addition,

15933-605: The region. Many traditions live on, including the Jimbani Uexurhina (New Fire), which is celebrated on February 2. It has both traditional indigenous and Catholic elements. The community lights a fire, called the chijpiri jimbani or "new fire," as part of a ceremony that honors the four elements. Mass is also celebrated in the Purhépecha language. They believed in God of the sky, earth, and underworld. The God of

16074-488: The rise and fall of the Purépecha Empire at the time of the Spanish conquest. The murals and the texts "appropriate national historical narratives in order to supplant the national myths and locate Mexico's ideal foundations in Michoacán." Calles tapped Cárdenas to be the party's president. Of the revolutionary generals, Cárdenas was considered "honest, able, anti-clerical, and politically astute," He had come from

16215-458: The ruling President usually found their efforts blocked: the PRI's Zedillo by opposing PAN/PRD congressmen, and later the PAN's Fox by the PRI and PRD. The PAN would push the reforms it denied to the PRI and vice versa. This situation, novel in a country where Congress was +90% dominated by the president's party for most of the century, has led to a legal analysis of the president's power. Formerly almost

16356-575: The sky and war, Kurikaweri. The Goddess of earth, controlling life and climate, Kweawaperi. The Goddess of the sea and the underworld, Xaratenga. The Purépecha are mainly fishers because they mainly lived around the Patzcuaro lakes. They are also known for their skill in weaving, pottery and their skill in battle. Many live in wooden cabins within compounds surrounded by dry-stone walls. However, many of these structures are being replaced with homes made out of brick and concrete. One distinctive practice of

16497-560: The state's governor and had attempted to counter the power of the Catholic Church in Mexico through laws. He mobilized groups to support his positions, creating “political shock troops,” consisting of public school teachers and members of a disbanded agrarian league, forming the Confederación Revolucionaria Michoacana del Trabajo , under the slogan of “Union, Land, Work.” The organization

16638-470: The state, naming it "La Quinta Eréndira," after the Purépecha princess , who has been identified as Mexico's first anticolonial heroine for her resistance to the Spanish conquest, and a contrasting figure to Malinche , Cortés's cultural translator. Eréndira became a popular historical figure under Cárdenas. At his estate, he commissioned murals for the house, which are now lost, but it is known from historical sources that they had indigenous themes, particularly

16779-491: The story of Princess Eréndira who is said to have fought against the Spanish. He named the house he built in Pátzcuaro "La Quinta Eréndira" and commissioned muralists to depict Purépecha history in his residence and elsewhere. Purépecha traditions of folkloric performance became a source of indigenista pride. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first century social scientists have studied Purépecha out-migration from

16920-486: The title "president" until death but are rarely referred by it; they are commonly called ex-presidents. They were also given protection by the former Estado Mayor Presidencial . Prior to 2018, former presidents also received a lifetime pension, though they could refuse it, as Ernesto Zedillo did. The system was abolished in 2018. Unlike in some other republics, former presidents of Mexico do not continue to be important national figures once out of office, and usually lead

17061-527: The vote , or 2,268,507 votes. Cárdenas was inaugurated on December 1, 1934. His first action after taking office was to have his presidential salary cut in half. He became the first occupant of the official presidential residence of Los Pinos , seized from the Martínez del Río family. He had the previous residence, the ostentatious Chapultepec Castle , turned into the National Museum of History. In

17202-452: The way down to the local level. They thus had an important (but not exclusive) influence over the political life of the country (part of their power had to be shared with unions and other groups, but as an individual, they had no peers). This and their constitutional powers made some political commentators describe the president as a six-year dictator, and to call this system an "imperial presidency". The situation remained largely unchanged until

17343-406: Was a foregone conclusion. It was politically impossible for his patron, Calles, to serve as president again, but he continued to dominate Mexico after his presidency (1924–28) through "puppet administrations" in a period known as the Maximato . After two of his hand-picked men held office, the PNR balked in 1932 at supporting his first choice, Manuel Pérez Treviño . Instead, they selected Cárdenas as

17484-836: Was a modus vivendi with the Catholic Church in Mexico . During the last years of his mandate, Cárdenas impulsed groundbreaking drug policy reforms in the country, assisted by Leopoldo Salazar Viniegra who was head of the Drugs authority in the Department of Public Health (departamento de salubridad pública). Salazar's scientific investigations and writings served as the intellectual foundation for Lázaro Cárdenas' Reglamento Federal de Toxicomanías (English: Federal Regulation on Drug Addictions ), signed into law on January 5, 1940 The law decriminalized sales and purchases of small quantities of drugs, eliminating former punishments for drug offenses. In addition, drug users jailed for small criminal drug offenses were released. The law also in effect created

17625-403: Was accepted on election night by the PRI in the voice of President Zedillo; while this calmed fears of violence, it also fueled questions about the role of the president in the electoral process and to whom the responsibility of conceding defeat should fall in a democratic election. After a presidential election, political parties may issue challenges to the election. These challenges are heard by

17766-431: Was amended to allow city mayors , congresspeople and senators to run for a second consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election. The president remains barred from even non-consecutive reelection. The Constitution does not establish formal academic qualifications to serve as president. Most presidents during the 19th and early 20th centuries had careers in one of two fields:

17907-455: Was apparently based on the real Purépecha woman María Salud Ramírez Caballero, although it was never officially confirmed by Pixar . The 2022 film, Black Panther: Wakanda Forever , introduces Namor , whose mythos is rewritten to include an indigenous Meso American background with influences from Mayan and Aztec culture. Tenoch Huerta , who portrays Namor, comes from a Purépecha background. The 2024 film, The Casagrandes Movie , based on

18048-430: Was appointed the administrator for Mexico City (1934–1935), a cabinet-level position. Others with loyalty to Calles were radical Tomás Garrido Canabal at the Secretariat of Agriculture and Development (1934–1935); Marxist Narciso Bassols held the post of Secretary of Finance and Public Credit (1934–1935); Emilio Portes Gil , who had been interim president of Mexico following the assassination of Obregón but not chosen as

18189-479: Was disillusioned by the program. He expropriated haciendas and created ejidos , collectively held, state-controlled landholdings. Ejiditarios, members of the ejido, worked individual plots of land but did not hold title to it as private property. Opposition to the program came from estate owners ( hacendados ), the clergy, and in some cases, tenant farmers, but Cárdenas continued land reform programs in his state. During his four years as governor, Cárdenas initiated

18330-416: Was elected in 2018 with a modern-era record of 53% of the popular vote in 2018. The previous president, Enrique Peña Nieto won 38% of the popular vote in 2012. Former President Felipe Calderón won with 36.38% of the votes in the 2006 general election , finishing only 0.56% above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (who contested the official results ). In 2000, former President Vicente Fox

18471-410: Was elected president in the special elections that followed in 1930, but he resigned in 1932. Abelardo L. Rodríguez was then appointed Interim President to fill out the remainder of Ortiz Rubio's term (under current law Rodríguez would be Substitute President, but at the time there was no distinction between Interim, Substitute, and Provisional presidents). Former presidents of Mexico continue to carry

18612-457: Was elected with a plurality of 43% of the popular vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48.7% of the vote in 1994, and his predecessor Carlos Salinas won with a majority of 50.4% in the 1988 election. After the fall of dictator Porfirio Díaz in 1910 following the Mexican Revolution , the government was unstable until 1929, when all the revolutionary leaders united in one political party: the National Revolutionary Party, which later changed its name to

18753-459: Was eleven, he used every opportunity to educate himself and read widely throughout his life, especially works of history. Cárdenas set his sights on becoming a teacher but was drawn into the military during the Mexican Revolution after Victoriano Huerta overthrew President Francisco Madero in February 1913, although Michoacán was far from the revolutionary action that had brought Madero to

18894-408: Was funded by the state government, although not listed as an official expenditure. It became the single-most powerful organization representing both workers and peasants. Mobilizing worker and peasant support and controlling the organization to which they belonged became the model for Cárdenas when he became president. As governor, Cárdenas also prioritized land reform at a time when President Calles

19035-481: Was jailed in the early days of Zedillo's term, accused of drug trafficking and planning the assassination of José Francisco Ruiz Massieu . Carlos Salinas also wrote a book on neo-liberal Mexico, secured a position with the Dow Jones Company in the United States, and worked as a professor at several universities in that country. Ernesto Zedillo and Felipe Calderón two surviving former presidents lived in

19176-548: Was not from the state of Sonora , whose revolutionary generals dominated Mexican politics in the 1920s, Cárdenas was hand-picked by Plutarco Elías Calles , Sonoran general and former president of Mexico, as a presidential candidate and won in the 1934 general election . After founding the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) in the wake of the assassination of president-elect Álvaro Obregón , Plutarco Elías Calles had unofficially remained in power during

19317-432: Was opposed to the republic's anticlerical policies. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was for Mexico a cautionary tale, the failure of a leftist regime after a military coup. Cárdenas was unable to overcome opposition to women's suffrage although he personally was committed to the cause. Women did not get the vote in Mexico until 1953, when the Mexican government was pursuing economic policies friendlier to business and there

19458-502: Was promulgated on 30 December 1939. Cárdenas created the new cabinet-level Department of Indigenous Affairs ( Departamento de Asuntos Indígenas ) in 1936, with Graciano Sánchez, an agrarista leader in charge. After a controversy at the DAI, Sánchez was replaced by a scholar, Prof. Luis Chávez Orozco. Cárdenas was influenced by an advocate of indigenismo , Moisés Sáenz , who earned a doctorate in education from Columbia University and had held

19599-473: Was reorganized again in 1946 as the Institutional Revolutionary Party . Calles founded the PNR in the wake of President-elect Obregón's assassination in order to create some way for revolutionary leaders to maintain order and power. Calles could not be re-elected as president, but did hold power through the newly created party. Often called the "official party", it "was created as a cartel to control localized political machines and interests." When Cárdenas ran as

19740-500: Was sent to the states to ratify it. Despite the speeches and the ratifications, opponents used a loophole to block the amendment's implementation by refusing to publish notice of the change in the Diario official . Skeptics of women's suffrage were suspicious that conservative Catholic women would take instructions on voting from priests and so undermine the progressive gains of the Revolution. Conservative Catholic women had mobilized during

19881-445: Was to have them move in concert toward the “integral liberation” ( liberación integral ), with their rights respected by the primary goal was to incorporate indigenous into the larger, national population on an equal basis. Initially in 1936 and 1937, there was one annual conference. The first one drew approximately 300 pueblos, while the second only 75. In 1938, there were two conferences with 950 pueblos represented. The last two years of

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