106-565: The Maximato was a transitional period in the historical and political development of Mexico from 1 December 1928 to 1 December 1934. Named after former president Plutarco Elías Calles 's sobriquet el Jefe Máximo (the maximum leader), the Maximato was the period in which Calles continued to exercise power and exert influence without holding the presidency. The six-year period was the term that President-elect Alvaro Obregón would have served if he had not been assassinated immediately after
212-516: A European royal on the throne did not pass; Creole military officer Iturbide became Emperor Agustín I. His increasingly autocratic rule dismayed many, and a coup overthrew him in 1823. Mexico became a federated republic and promulgated a constitution in 1824 . While General Guadalupe Victoria became the first president, serving his entire term, the presidential transition became less of an electoral event and more of one by force of arms. Insurgent general and prominent Liberal politician Vicente Guerrero
318-627: A climate far milder than the current one. In particular, the Valley of Mexico contained several large paleo-lakes (known collectively as Lake Texcoco ) surrounded by dense forest. Deer were found in this area, but most fauna were small land animals and fish and other lacustrine animals were found in the lake region. Such conditions encouraged the initial pursuit of a hunter-gatherer existence. Indigenous peoples in western Mexico began to selectively breed maize ( Zea mays ) plants between 5,000 and 10,000 years ago. The diet of ancient central and southern Mexico
424-519: A coup against the viceroy, arresting him in September 1808. Spanish conspirators named Spanish military officer Pedro de Garibay viceroy. His tenure was brief, from September 1808 until July 1809, when he was replaced by Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont , whose tenure was also short until the arrival of viceroy Francisco Javier Venegas from Spain. Two days after he entered Mexico City on 14 September 1810, Father Miguel Hidalgo called to arms in
530-716: A coup. Later, Mexico would see the return of the Spanish monarchy and a later stalemate with insurgent guerrilla forces. Events in Spain during the Peninsular War and the Trienio Liberal upended the situation in New Spain. After Spanish military officers overthrew the absolutist monarch Ferdinand VII and returned to the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 , conservatives in New Spain who had staunchly defended
636-529: A labor force with a history of tribute and a population to convert to Christianity. Territories populated by nomadic peoples were harder to conquer. Although the Spanish explored much of North America , seeking the fabled " El Dorado ," they made no concerted effort to settle the northern desert regions in what is now the United States until the end of the 16th century (Santa Fe, 1598). Colonial law with native origins but with Spanish historical precedents
742-671: A lower position and were looked down upon by the Spaniards and the Creoles. The poorest, most marginalized group in New Spain was the Natives, descendants of pre-Columbian peoples. They had less power and endured harsher conditions than other groups. Natives were forced to work as laborers on the ranches and farms (called haciendas ) of the Spaniards and Creoles. In addition to the four main groups, some Africans were in colonial Mexico. These Africans were imported as enslaved people and shared
848-612: A mixed-race casta population in a process known as mestizaje . Mestizos , people of mixed European-indigenous ancestry, constitute most of Mexico's population. Colonial Mexico was part of the Spanish Empire and was administered by the Viceroyalty of New Spain . New Spain became the largest and most important Spanish colony. During the 16th century, Spain focused on conquering areas with dense populations that had produced pre-Columbian civilizations. These populations were
954-435: A month after Obregón's assassination, he declared that "There is no personality of indisputable stature, with a firm hold on public opinion and enough personal and political force to merit general confidence through is mere name and prestige." He went on to call for "the peaceful evolutionary development of Mexico as an institutional country, in which men may become, as they should be, mere accidents with no real importance beside
1060-495: A network of merchant houses in the major cities the situation was bleak. "Trade was stagnant. Imports did not pay, contraband drove prices down, private and public debts went unpaid, merchants suffered all manner of injustices and operated at the mercy of weak and corruptible governments." Inspired by the American and French Revolutions, Mexican insurgents saw an opportunity for independence in 1808 when Napoleon invaded Spain, and
1166-577: A prolonged struggle marked by the Mexican War of Independence . The country faced numerous challenges in the 19th century, including regional conflicts, caudillo power struggles, the Mexican–American War , and foreign interventions like the French invasion . Efforts at modernization during La Reforma included promoting civil liberties and the separation of church and state , but the country
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#17327653633361272-585: A university strike, he defused the situation by convening a special session of Congress, which ultimately enacted the legislation granting autonomy to the National University of Mexico . His settling the strike is one of the acts for which he is best remembered as president. He also attempted to negotiate the withdrawal of the United States troops from Nicaragua , in exchange for the surrender of Nicaraguan General Augusto Sandino . When
1378-478: A wealthy tribute empire comprising 10 million people, almost half of Mexico's estimated population of 24 million. Their empire stretched from ocean to ocean and extended into Central America. The westward expansion of the empire was halted by a devastating military defeat at the hands of the Purepecha (who possessed weapons made of copper). The empire relied upon a system of taxation (of goods and services), which
1484-619: A widespread religious rebellion, the Cristero War , which Calles had provoked by aggressively enforcing anticlerical laws. As president, Portes Gil secretly negotiated the end to the conflict between the Catholic Church and the Mexican government, which created a modus vivendi that lasted decades. He had reassured the Catholic Church that its officials could petition congress to amend laws that it found to be offensive and that
1590-495: The Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), which held presidential power from 1929 to 2000. The interim presidency of Emilio Portes Gil lasted from 1 December 1928 to 4 February 1930. He was passed over as candidate for the newly formed PNR in favor of a political unknown, Pascual Ortiz Rubio , who resigned in September 1932 in protest at Calles's continued wielding of the real power. The successor
1696-416: The encomienda system of forced labor. Indigenous communities were pressed for labor and tribute but were not enslaved. Their rulers remained indigenous elites who retained their status under colonial rule and were useful intermediaries. The Spanish also used forced labor, often outright slavery, in mining. The capture of Tenochtitlan marked the beginning of a 300-year colonial period, during which Mexico
1802-477: The Gold Shirts , led by General Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco , which harassed communists, Jews and Chinese . Cárdenas started to isolate Calles politically by removing the callistas from political posts and exiling his most powerful allies: Tomás Garrido Canabal , Fausto Topete , Emilio Portes Gil , Saturnino Cedillo , Aarón Sáenz , and finally Calles himself. Calles and Luis Napoleon Morones , one of
1908-575: The Mexican Constitution of 1917 forbade re-election of a serving president, incumbent President Plutarco Elías Calles could not formally retain the presidency. Portes Gil replaced him, but Calles, the "Jefe Máximo", retained effective political power during what is known as the Maximato . Portes Gil was of Dominican descent and was born in Ciudad Victoria , the capital of the state of Tamaulipas , in northeastern Mexico. He
2014-583: The Old World . Hernán Cortés led a new expedition to Mexico, landing ashore at present-day Veracruz on 22 April 1519, a date which marks the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region. The Spanish conquest of Mexico denotes the conquest of the central region of Mesoamerica, where the Aztec Empire was based. The fall of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1521 was a decisive event, but
2120-759: The Philippines , on the Pacific, to Asia. Education was encouraged by the Crown: Mexico boasts the first primary school ( Texcoco , 1523), the first university, the University of Mexico (1551) and the first printing press (1524) of the Americas . Indigenous languages were studied mainly by the religious orders during the first centuries and became official languages in the so-called Republic of Natives, only to be outlawed and ignored after independence by
2226-561: The pre-Columbian Americas . Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals . Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica. The city is thought to have been established around 100 BCE and continued to be built until about 250 CE. The city may have lasted until sometime between
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#17327653633362332-402: The 16th century), mariachi (18th), jarabe (17th), charros (17th) and Mexican cuisine . American-born Spaniards (creoles), mixed-race castas, and Natives often disagreed, but all resented the small minority of Iberian-born Spaniards monopolizing political power. By the early 1800s, many American-born Spaniards believed that Mexico should become independent of Spain, following the example of
2438-445: The 7th and 8th centuries CE. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas. At this time, it may have had more than 200,000 inhabitants, placing it among the world's largest cities in this period. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with
2544-635: The Atlantic coast (in what is now the state of Tabasco ) in the period 1500–900 BCE. The Olmecs were the first Mesoamerican culture to produce an identifiable artistic and cultural style and may also have been the society that invented writing in Mesoamerica. By the Middle Preclassic Period (900–300 BCE), Olmec artistic styles had been adopted as far away as the Valley of Mexico and Costa Rica. Maya cultural characteristics, such as
2650-561: The July 1928 elections. There needed to be some kind of political solution to the presidential succession crisis. Calles could not hold the presidency again because of restrictions on re-election without an interval out of power, but he remained the dominant figure in Mexico. There were two solutions to the crisis. Firstly, an interim president was to be appointed, followed by new elections. Secondly, Calles created an enduring political institution,
2756-468: The Mexican government and the Cristeros signed a peace treaty. The PNR candidate chosen for the 1929 was a political unknown, Pascual Ortiz Rubio , who had no independent power base. During the two years that Ortiz Rubio was titular president of Mexico, Calles was the power behind the presidency. Ortiz Rubio won the controversial 1929 election, in which he defeated the philosopher José Vasconcelos of
2862-519: The Nahuatl language, the word "Toltec" came to take on the meaning "artisan." The Aztec oral and pictographic tradition also described the history of the Toltec empire, giving lists of rulers and their exploits. Among modern scholars, it is a matter of debate whether the Aztec narratives of Toltec history should be given credence as descriptions of actual historical events. Other controversies relating to
2968-569: The National Antireelectionist Party (PNA), whose campaign was supported mainly by university students, and Pedro Rodríguez Triana of the Mexican Communist Party (PCM). The election was marred by violence and fraud, and Vasconcelos refused to accept the result. Dozens of anti-reelectionists were killed, and Vasconcelos left the country. Once the conflict-ridden 1929 election was over, Ortiz Rubio
3074-545: The Northern leadership of the Constitutionalist Army , particularly Álvaro Obregón , who had defeated Pancho Villa 's forces and eliminated them as a political or military factor in Mexico after 1915. Key to his subsequent political career was Sonoran general Plutarco Elías Calles . Portes Gil demonstrated skills as a lawyer and administrator, which catapulted him into the presidency of Mexico when Obregón
3180-671: The Spaniards and their indigenous allies, such as the Tlaxcalans , in the Chichimeca War (1550–1590). The northern indigenous populations had gained mobility via the horses that Spaniards had imported to the New World. The region was important to the Spanish because of its rich silver deposits. The Spanish mining settlements and trunk lines to Mexico City needed to be made safe for supplies to move north and silver to move south to central Mexico. The most important source of wealth
3286-477: The Spanish Empire, now saw that their only path was independence through rebellion. Emilio Portes Gil Emilio Cándido Portes Gil ( Spanish pronunciation: [eˈmiljo ˈpoɾtes xil] ; 3 October 1890 – 10 December 1978) was President of Mexico from 1928 to 1930, one of three to serve out the six-year term of President-elect General Álvaro Obregón , who had been assassinated in 1928. Since
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3392-414: The Spanish king Charles IV was forced to surrender. Napoleon placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. In New Spain, viceroy José de Iturrigaray proposed to provisionally form an autonomous government, with the support of American-born Spaniards on the city council of Mexico City. Peninsular-born Spaniards in the colony saw this as undermining their power, and Gabriel J. de Yermo led
3498-601: The Spanish king to send friars from the mendicant orders, particularly the Franciscan , Dominican , and Augustinian, to convert the indigenous to Christianity. This has often been called the "spiritual conquest of Mexico." Christian evangelization began in the early 1520s and continued into the 1560s. Many of the mendicant friars, especially the Franciscans and Dominicans, learned the native languages and recorded aspects of native culture. The Spanish colonizers introduced
3604-528: The Spanish monarchy changed course and pursued independence. Royalist army officer Agustín de Iturbide became an advocate of independence and persuaded insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero to join in a coalition, forming the Army of the Three Guarantees . Within six months of that joint venture, royal rule in New Spain collapsed, and independence was achieved. The constitutional monarchy envisioned with
3710-545: The Toltecs include how best to understand the reasons behind the perceived similarities in architecture and iconography between the archaeological site of Tula and the Maya site of Chichén Itzá – no consensus has emerged yet about the degree or direction of influence between the two sites. The Nahua people began to enter central Mexico in the 6th century CE. By the 12th century, they had established their center at Azcapotzalco ,
3816-458: The United States. Calles won, and served from 1924 to 1928. Obregón remained a powerful presence behind the Calles presidency, and Calles pushed through a constitutional change that allowed for a non-consecutive presidential re-election. That would allow Obregón to run for re-election in 1928, and potentially Calles to run in the election after that. Obregón was duly elected as Calles's successor, but
3922-593: The United States. The man who touched off the revolt against Spain was the Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla . He is remembered today as the Father of the Nation . This period was marked by unanticipated events that upended the three hundred years of Spanish colonial rule. The colony went from rule by the legitimate Spanish monarch and his appointed viceroy to an illegitimate monarch and viceroy put in place by
4028-403: The arrival of Europeans. The indigenous peoples, who had no immunity to it, eventually died in the millions . A third of all the natives of the Valley of Mexico succumbed to it within six months of the Spaniards' arrival. Tenochtitlan was almost destroyed by fire and cannon fire. Cortés imprisoned the royal families of the valley. To prevent another revolt, he tortured and killed Cuauhtémoc ,
4134-404: The assassination to gain power himself; and toward the assassin, Toral. Toral's interrogation was left to Obregón's supporters. Since Calles could not succeed himself in the presidency but wished to retain power, he sought a political solution. The long-term solution he conceived was momentous for Mexican politics. In his final informe or report to congress on 1 September 1928, a little more than
4240-610: The benefit of ordinary Mexicans. In Mexico City, a new hospital for tuberculosis patients was inaugurated; the physical plant of the National Preparatory School, housed in the colonial-era Colegio de San Ildefonso, was expanded; a major sports center open to all, built on a former city dump; and new police and fire stations built in Art Deco design. He handed on the presidential sash to Pascual Ortiz Rubio on 5 February 1930, but effective power still remained in
4346-564: The biggest city in the world, Tenochtitlan . Aztec religion was based on the belief in the continual need for regular offerings of human blood to keep their deities beneficent; to meet this need, the Aztecs sacrificed thousands of people. This belief is thought to have been common throughout the Nahuatl people. To acquire captives in times of peace, the Aztecs resorted to ritual warfare called flower war . The Tlaxcalteca, among other Nahuatl nations, were forced into such wars. Though human sacrifice
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4452-624: The century marked a significant shift in Mexico's political landscape, with the opposition National Action Party (PAN) winning the presidency in 2000, ending the PRI's long-standing dominance and ushering in a new era of Mexican politics. The 21st century has seen economic disparities, drug-related violence, and corruption. Administrations have focused on addressing these issues, with mixed success. The election of Andrés Manuel López Obrador in 2018 marked another significant shift, as his government has aimed to combat corruption, reduce inequality, and address
4558-559: The city of the Tepanecs. The Mexica people arrived in the Valley of Mexico in 1248 CE. They had migrated from the deserts north of the Rio Grande over a period traditionally said to have been 100 years. They may have thought of themselves as the heirs to the prestigious civilizations that had preceded them. What the Aztecs initially lacked in political power, they made up for with ambition and military skill. In 1325, they established
4664-451: The classic period, during which the Maya kingdoms supported a population numbering in the millions. Tikal , the largest of the kingdoms, alone had 500,000 inhabitants, though the average population of a kingdom was much smaller—somewhere under 50,000 people. Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico , containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in
4770-564: The conquest of other regions of Mexico, such as Yucatán, extended long after the Spaniards consolidated control of central Mexico. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples of the Maya civilization in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico and northern Central America . Smallpox ( Variola major and Variola minor ) began to spread in Mesoamerica immediately after
4876-514: The country in 1936. The Maximato was a transitional period of personal power for ex-President Calles, but the institutionalization of political power in the party structure was a major achievement in Mexican history. Enshrined in the ideologies of those that carried out the Mexican Revolution was the premise of "no re-election", since a hallmark of the preceding Porfiriato was President Díaz's perennial, protracted re-election over
4982-460: The course of more than three decades. After the Revolution, Adolfo de la Huerta , Alvaro Obregón , and Plutarco Elías Calles dominated Mexican politics in the 1920s, each being revolutionary generals from the northwestern state of Sonora. When the term of President Venustiano Carranza ended in 1920, he attempted to install Ignacio Bonillas in the office as his puppet successor, this caused
5088-520: The current president of the Republic of Mexico come to occupy that position again." That declaration was a repudiation of the constitutional change that had allowed re-election of previous president and forestalled any president in the future from seeking re-election. Not all the generals were on board with the new political arrangement. General José Gonzalo Escobar led a rebellion in March 1929 against
5194-501: The dominant force. Throughout the 20th century, Mexico implemented land reforms, nationalized key industries, and expanded social welfare, but these achievements were marred by corruption, violence, and economic crises. In the 1980s and 1990s, Mexico shifted towards privatization and trade liberalization, culminating in the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994. The turn of
5300-430: The early settlement over 13,000 years ago. Central and southern Mexico, known as Mesoamerica , saw the rise of complex civilizations that developed glyphic writing systems, recording political histories and conquests. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century established New Spain , bringing Spanish rule, Christianity, and European influences. Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821, after
5406-507: The encomenderos, were the conquerors involved in the campaign leading to the fall of Tenochtitlan and later their heirs and people with influence but not conquerors. Forced labor could be directed toward developing land and industry. Land was a secondary source of wealth during this immediate conquest period. Where indigenous labor was absent or needed supplementing, the Spanish brought enslaved people, often as skilled laborers or artisans. Europeans, Africans, and indigenous intermixed, creating
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#17327653633365512-426: The entrance to temples, symbolizing a cavern or cave on the flanks of the mountains that allowed access to the depths of Mother Earth and the shadowy roads that lead to the underworld. Cults connected with the jaguar and jade especially permeated religion throughout Mesoamerica. Jade , with its translucent green color, was revered along with water as a symbol of life and fertility. The jaguar, agile, powerful, and fast,
5618-452: The fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521, it took decades of warfare to subdue the rest of Mesoamerica , particularly the Mayan regions of southern New Spain, and into what is now Central America. Spanish conquests of south Mesoamerica's Zapotec and Mixtec regions were relatively rapid. Outside the zone of settled Mesoamerican civilizations were semi-nomadic northern peoples who fought fiercely against
5724-802: The first mainland explorations. The Spanish crown extended the Reconquista effort, completed in Spain in 1492, to non-Catholic people in new territories. In 1502, on the coast of present-day Colombia, near the Gulf of Urabá , Spanish explorers led by Vasco Núñez de Balboa explored and conquered the area near the Atrato River . The conquest was of the Chibcha -speaking nations, mainly the Muisca and Tairona indigenous people that lived here. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509—abandoned within
5830-432: The government would not interfere with its internal operations. The government also granted a general amnesty to Cristero fighters. In 1929 Paramahansa Yogananda, founder of Self-Realization Fellowship, spent two months in Mexico, during which time President Portes Gil hosted the great guru. President Portes Gil afterwards became a longtime admirer of Yogananda’s teachings and later served as ambassador to India. Faced with
5936-559: The hands of Calles. Portes Gil later served for 18 months as interior minister. He subsequently traveled to Europe as Mexico's first representative to the League of Nations . Under later presidents, he served in various capacities, including ambassador to India, foreign minister, attorney-general , and president of the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (National Revolutionary Party). In 1933, Lázaro Cárdenas
6042-567: The harbor of Santiago de Cuba to explore the shores of southern Mexico. During this expedition, many of Hernández's men were killed, most during a battle near the town of Champotón against a Maya army. Hernández himself was injured and died a few days shortly after his return to Cuba. This was the Europeans' first encounter with a civilization in the Americas with buildings and complex social organizations that they recognized as comparable to
6148-413: The interim Portes Gil government. The U.S. backed the interim government and Escobar was unable to obtain arms, so the revolt failed. Although short-lived, it highlighted the necessity of finding a better mechanism for the transfer of the presidency as well as to bring to an end the Cristero War . Calles himself took command of government troops to suppress the months' long Escobar Rebellion . Calles took
6254-493: The last Aztec Emperor; Coanacoch, the King of Texcoco, and Tetlepanquetzal , King of Tlacopan . The small contingent of Spaniards controlled central Mexico through existing indigenous rulers of individual political states ( altepetl ), who maintained their status as nobles in the post-conquest era if they cooperated with Spanish rule. Cortés immediately banned human sacrifice throughout the conquered empire. In 1524, he requested
6360-457: The last remaining influential callistas , were charged with conspiring to blow up a railroad, placed under arrest under the order of President Cárdenas, and deported on April 9, 1936, to the United States. At the time of his arrest, Calles was reportedly reading a Spanish translation of Mein Kampf . History of Mexico The history of Mexico spans more than three millennia, beginning with
6466-590: The lead in founding the Partido Nacional Revolucionario or PNR, the predecessor of today's Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI). It was the institutionalized way for Calles's faction to control presidential succession. It succeeded as a party by bringing in a number of different elements, including regional and local political organizations, organized labor, organized peasants, and professionals such as government bureaucrats and teachers. The party gained secure revenue and organizational strength by requiring members of constituent organizations be dues-paying members of
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#17327653633366572-510: The low status of the Natives. They made up about 4% to 5% of the population, and their mixed-race descendants, called mulattoes , eventually grew to represent about 9%. From an economic point of view, New Spain was administered principally for the benefit of the Empire and its military and defensive efforts. Mexico provided more than half of the Empire 's taxes and supported the administration of all North and Central America . Competition with
6678-515: The metropolis was discouraged; for example, cultivation of grapes and olives , introduced by Cortés himself, was banned out of fear that these crops would compete with Spain's. To protect the country from the attacks by English, French, and Dutch pirates , as well as the Crown's revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade— Veracruz on the Atlantic, connecting through Havana at Cuba to Spain; and Acapulco , connecting through Manila at
6784-582: The old; they initially joined the ever-growing family of deities or were merged with existing ones that seemed to share similar characteristics or responsibilities. Mesoamerica is the only place in the Americas where Indigenous writing systems were invented and used before European colonization. While the types of writing systems in Mesoamerica range from minimalist "picture-writing" to complex logophonetic systems capable of recording speech and literature, they all share some core features that make them visually and functionally distinct from other writing systems of
6890-514: The outbreak of the Mexican Revolution and in late 1914, he allied himself with "First Chief" Venustiano Carranza , head of the Constitutionalist faction, who would assume the presidency of the country the following May. When Portes Gil graduated from law school in 1915, he had already begun his career in the public administration with a posting in the Constitutionalist faction's Department of Military Justice. Portes Gil became part of
6996-444: The party. It became a national party, designed to exist as an institution rather than a coalition that came into being only during elections, and was successful in elections for local, state, and national offices. Officially, after 1929, Calles served as minister of war, as he continued to suppress the rebellion of the Cristero War ; however, a few months later, following the intervention of the United States ambassador Dwight Morrow ,
7102-492: The perpetual and august serenity of institutions and laws." Calles had already called on thirty prominent generals, who might have vied for power in the wake of Obregón's assassination, to agree to a civilian as interim president until new elections could take place. Emilio Portes Gil became interim president, taking office on 1 December 1928 and serving until 5 February 1930. Calles retained power, despite his having said that "never, for any motivation and in no circumstances will
7208-415: The politically fragmented Maya) extended their political and cultural reach across Mexico and beyond. They consolidated power and exercised influence in trade, art, politics, technology, and religion. Over 3,000 years, other regional powers made economic and political alliances with them; many made war on them. But almost all found themselves within their spheres of influence. The Olmec first appeared along
7314-442: The presidential term was extended to six years. Rodríguez's secretary of education Narciso Bassols tried to implement a system of " socialist education ", and the constitution was amended for this purpose, although its provisions which sought to suppress religion were removed from the constitution in 1946. The introduction of sex education proved to be very controversial, and after the protestations of conservative parents, Bassols
7420-529: The prevailing Spanish -speaking creoles . Mexico produced important cultural achievements during the colonial period, such as the literature of seventeenth-century nuns, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz , and Ruiz de Alarcón , as well as cathedrals, civil monuments, forts and colonial cities such as Puebla , Mexico City , Querétaro , Zacatecas and others, today part of Unesco's World Heritage . The syncretism between indigenous and Spanish cultures gave rise to many modern Mexican staples like tequila (since
7526-455: The rebels of César Sandino in Nicaragua ; strikes were no longer tolerated; and the government ceased redistributing lands among poorer peasants. Calles had once been the candidate of the workers, and at one point had used Communist unions in his campaign against competing labor organizers; but later, having acquired wealth and engaging in finance, suppressed Communism. Overall, the Maximato
7632-461: The rise of the ahau , or king, can be traced from 300 BCE onward. During the centuries preceding the classical period, Maya kingdoms stretched from the Pacific coasts of southern Mexico and Guatemala to the northern Yucatán Peninsula . The egalitarian Maya society of pre-royal centuries gradually led to a society controlled by a wealthy elite that began building large ceremonial temples and complexes. The earliest known long-count date, 199 AD, heralds
7738-455: The site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano. Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan was the center of a state empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the Nahua , Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups. Scholars have also suggested that Teotihuacan
7844-538: The source of its wealth until other viceroyalties were created in Spanish South America in the late 18th century. This wealth made Spain a dominant power in Europe. Spain's silver mining and crown mints created high-quality coins, the currency of Spanish America , the silver peso or Spanish dollar that became a global currency. Spain did not bring all areas of the Aztec Empire under its control. After
7950-478: The southern region extending into what is now Central America) in what has come to be known as Mesoamerica . The civilizations that rose and declined over millennia were characterized by: The history of Mexico before the Spanish conquest is known through the work of archaeologists , epigraphers , and ethnohistorians, who analyze Mesoamerican indigenous manuscripts, particularly Aztec codices , Mayan codices , and Mixtec codices . Accounts written by Spaniards at
8056-492: The talks failed, he granted Sandino political asylum in Mexico and a parcel of land in Temixco . Portes Gil attempted to steer government officials away from self-enrichment during their terms of office. He wanted his office-holders to "know how to be loyal to institutions, and like the country want the triumph of the Revolution." His administration embarked on public works projects building schools, hospitals, and housing for
8162-457: The three Sonoran generals to revolt. They issued the Plan of Agua Prieta to justify their actions, and De la Huerta served as interim president for a six-month span between June and November 1920. Obregón then contested and won the 1920 presidential election, serving a four-year term. To succeed him in the 1924 election, Obregón backed Calles over De la Huerta, who led a failed revolt and then fled to
8268-650: The time of the conquest (the conquistadores ) and by Indigenous chroniclers of the postconquest period constitute the principal source of information regarding Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Few pictorial manuscripts (or codices ) of the Maya , Mixtec , and Mexica cultures of the Post-Classic period survive, but progress has been made particularly in the area of Maya archaeology and epigraphy. The presence of people in Mesoamerica
8374-420: The village of Hidalgo. France and the Spanish king invaded Spain, was deposed, and Joseph Bonaparte imposed. New Spain's viceroy José de Iturrigaray , sympathetic to Creoles, sought to create a legitimate government but was overthrown by powerful Peninsular Spaniards; hard-line Spaniards clamped down on any notion of Mexican autonomy. Creoles who had hoped that there was a path to Mexican autonomy, perhaps within
8480-423: The violence that has plagued the country for decades. The Mexican history has been divided into three phases: Pre-Hispanic, Colonial and Independent. Although such chronology is evidently eurocentric it has not been proposed another general historical divisions that would take in consideration a non-eurocentric World histoy. Large and complex civilizations developed in the center and southern regions of Mexico (with
8586-569: The world. Although many indigenous manuscripts have been lost or destroyed, texts known as Aztec codices , Mayan codices , and Mixtec codices still survive and are of intense interest to scholars. During the pre-Columbian period, many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige. Ancient Mexico can be said to have produced five major civilizations: the Olmec, Maya, Teotihuacan, Toltec, and Aztec. Unlike other indigenous Mexican societies, these civilizations (except
8692-490: The year, and in 1510, the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement in America, Santa María la Antigua del Darién . The first Europeans to arrive in modern-day Mexico were the survivors of a Spanish shipwreck in 1511. Only two survived, Gerónimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero , until further contact was made with Spanish explorers years later. On 8 February 1517, an expedition led by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba left
8798-535: Was Abelardo L. Rodríguez , who served out the rest of the term that ended in 1934. As President, Rodríguez exerted more independence from Calles than had Ortiz Rubio. That year's election was won by the former revolutionary general Lázaro Cárdenas , who had been chosen as the candidate for the PNR. Following the election, Calles attempted to exert control over Cárdenas, but with strategic allies Cárdenas outmaneuvered Calles politically and expelled him and his major allies from
8904-500: Was Minister of the Interior (Gobernación) in the cabinet of Plutarco Elías Calles. When president-elect Álvaro Obregón was assassinated on 17 July 1928 by a Catholic opponent, a political solution to the crisis that did not include Calles returning to the presidency was necessary. Portes Gil, with the agreement of Calles, assumed office as interim president for a period of 14 months, when fresh elections were called. Portes Gil inherited
9010-476: Was a multiethnic state. The Toltec culture is an archaeological Mesoamerican culture that dominated a state centered in Tula, Hidalgo , in the early post-classic period of Mesoamerican chronology (ca 800–1000 AD). The later Aztec culture saw the Toltecs as their intellectual and cultural predecessors and described Toltec culture emanating from Tollan ( Nahuatl for Tula) as the epitome of civilization; indeed, in
9116-549: Was a relative of Trina de Moya , a Dominican poet and former first lady of the Dominican Republic. Although his grandfather had been a prominent politician in Tamaulipas, Portes Gil's father died when Emilio was young. He lived with his widowed mother in straitened circumstances, but a state grant helped Portes Gil receive certification as a schoolteacher. He sought to study law. He was in law school during
9222-509: Was an ally and protégé of Calles. Since Ortiz Rubio had resigned having served a sufficient length of time as president not to trigger a new election, Rodríguez was appointed substitute president by congress. Although Calles remained influential during Rodríguez's term of office, he was not as involved politically due to his own ill health and the illness and then death of his young second wife in 1932. Rodríguez established clear boundaries around Calles's actions and made it clear that he, Rodríguez,
9328-509: Was assassinated in 1928. Over the ensuing years, he continued to serve the government in both a legal capacity –(supreme state court judge in Sonora ; legal advisor to the Ministry of War) and in elective office: he was elected to Congress in 1917, 1921, and 1923, and he served as governor of his native Tamaulipas on two occasions (1920 and 1925). Between 28 August and 30 November 1928, he
9434-420: Was assassinated in July by José de León Toral , a Catholic militant, before he could take office. Public reaction to the assassination was "surprise, confusion, [and] sometimes hysteria". Calles allowed the anger of Obregón's supporters to flow, and deflected it elsewhere—toward the labor leader Luis N. Morones of the powerful Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers (CROM), who might have been responsible for
9540-501: Was briefly president in 1829, then deposed and judicially murdered by his Conservative opponents. Mexico experienced political instability and violence in the first years after independence, with more to come until the late nineteenth century. The presidency changed hands 75 times in the next half-century. The new republic's situation did not promote economic growth or development, with the silver mines damaged, trade disrupted, and lingering violence. Although British merchants established
9646-405: Was characterized by growing polarization and radicalization on both sides of the political spectrum, with left-wing and right-wing groups often fighting against each other in the streets of Mexico's cities. In 1932, Calles forced Ortiz Rubio to step down because of the latter's appointment of several anti-Callists in public functions. Ortiz Rubio was succeeded by General Abelardo L. Rodríguez , who
9752-441: Was chosen as the party's official candidate for the 1934 presidential elections. Calles attempted to retain his own power as he had endeavored to do throughout the Maximato , but Cárdenas outmaneuvered Calles politically and eventually exiled him from Mexico. Cárdenas put Portes Gil in charge of purging the party of Callista elements. Since Portes Gil was "one of the 'puppet presidents' so unceremoniously dumped by Calles, [Portes Gil]
9858-474: Was collected through an elaborate bureaucracy of tax collectors, courts, civil servants, and local officials who were installed as loyalists to the Triple Alliance. By 1519, the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan , the site of modern-day Mexico City , was one of the largest cities in the world, with an estimated population between 200,000 and 300,000. A phase of inland expeditions and conquest followed
9964-568: Was common in Mesoamerica, the scale of human sacrifice under the Aztecs was likely unprecedented in the region. In 1428, the Aztecs led a war against their rulers from the city of Azcapotzalco, which had subjugated most of the Valley of Mexico's peoples. The revolt was successful, and the Aztecs became central Mexico's rulers as the Triple Alliance leaders. The alliance was composed of the city-states of Tenochtitlan , Texcoco , and Tlacopan . At their peak, 350,000 Aztecs presided over
10070-507: Was especially connected with warriors and as spirit guides of shamans. Despite differences in chronology or geography, the crucial aspects of this religious pantheon were shared amongst the people of ancient Mesoamerica. Thus, this quality of acceptance of new gods to the collection of existing gods may have been one of the shaping characteristics for success during the Christianization of Mesoamerica. New gods did not at once replace
10176-486: Was forced to step down and socialist education was eventually abandoned. In 1934, the PNR selected revolutionary general Lázaro Cárdenas from Michoacán as its presidential candidate. Soon after his inauguration, however, conflicts between Calles and Cárdenas started to arise. Calles opposed Cárdenas's support for labor unions, especially his tolerance and support for strikes, and Cárdenas opposed Calles's violent methods and his closeness to fascist organizations, most notably
10282-566: Was happy to serve." Cárdenas reorganized the party as the Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (PRM), setting the structural form of sectoral representation that its 1946 successor retained, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Cárdenas, however, returned Portes Gil to his stronghold in Tamaulipas once the former president had performed his task since the latter had "attempted to build up his own position for
10388-556: Was inaugurated on 5 February 1930, but not without lingering acrimony. During his inauguration ceremony, Ortiz Rubio was wounded in an assassination attempt by an antireelectionist student, Daniel Flores, who was tried and received the death penalty . During the Maximato, Calles became increasingly authoritarian. After a large demonstration in 1930, the Mexican Communist Party was banned; Mexico ended its support for
10494-432: Was indigenous tribute and compelled labor, mobilized in the first years after the conquest of central Mexico through the encomienda . The encomienda was a grant of the labor of a particular indigenous settlement to an individual Spanish and his heirs. Spaniards were the recipients of traditional indigenous products that had been rendered in tribute to their local lords and the Aztec empire. The earliest holders of encomiendas,
10600-621: Was introduced, creating a balance between local jurisdiction (the Cabildos ) and the Crown . The administration was based on a racial separation of the population among the Republics of Spaniards, Natives, and Mestizos, autonomous and directly dependent on the king . The population of New Spain was divided into four main groups or classes. The group a person belonged to was determined by racial background and birthplace. The most powerful group
10706-402: Was known as " New Spain " and ruled by a viceroy in the name of the Spanish monarch. Colonial Mexico had key elements to attract Spanish immigrants: dense and politically complex indigenous populations that could be compelled to work and huge mineral wealth, especially major silver deposits. The Viceroyalty of Peru shared these elements, so New Spain and Peru were the seats of Spanish power and
10812-491: Was once thought to date back 40,000 years, an estimate based on what were believed to be ancient footprints discovered in the Valley of Mexico . This date may not be accurate after further investigation using radiocarbon dating . It is currently unclear whether 23,000-year-old campfire remains found in the Valley of Mexico are the earliest human remains uncovered so far in Mexico. The first people to settle in Mexico encountered
10918-454: Was president of Mexico, due all the honor and power of the office. Rodríguez was known for his progressive reforms. Under his presidency social legislation promised by the Mexican constitution of 1917 was introduced for the first time, including a minimum wage and the 8-hour working day. During Rodríguez's presidency the constitutional amendment that allowed for re-election was repealed and
11024-474: Was still beset by internal strife and external threats, including the Second Mexican Empire . The late 19th-century Porfiriato era brought economic growth but also authoritarianism and social inequality, which eventually fueled the Mexican Revolution in 1910. The revolution led to significant social and political changes, with the emergence of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) as
11130-490: Was the Spaniards, people born in Spain and sent across the Atlantic to rule the colony. Only Spaniards could hold high-level jobs in the colonial government. The second group called criollos , were people of Spanish background but born in Mexico. Many criollos were prosperous landowners and merchants. Even the wealthiest Creoles had little say in government. The third group, the mestizos ("mixed"), were people who had some Spanish ancestors and some Native ancestors. Mestizos had
11236-648: Was varied, including domesticated corn (or maize ), squashes , beans, tomatoes, peppers, cassavas, pineapples, chocolate, and tobacco. The Three Sisters (corn, squash, and beans) constituted the principal diet. Mesoamericans had belief systems where every element of the cosmos and everything that forms part of nature represented a supernatural manifestation. The spiritual pantheon was vast and extremely complex. They frequently took on different characteristics and even names in other areas, but in effect, they transcended cultures and time. Great masks with gaping jaws and monstrous features in stone or stucco were often located at
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