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133-782: The M28 or M29 Davy Crockett Weapon System was a tactical nuclear recoilless smoothbore gun for firing the M388 nuclear projectile, armed with the W54 nuclear warhead, that was deployed by the United States during the Cold War . It was the first project assigned to the United States Army Weapon Command in Rock Island, Illinois . It remains one of the smallest nuclear weapon systems ever built, with

266-768: A plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapon . The 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces was trained and equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress , and deployed to Tinian in the Mariana Islands . The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on 26 July 1945,

399-402: A strategic nuclear weapon has a yield from 100 kilotons to over a megaton , with much larger warheads available. Use of tactical nuclear weapons against similarly-armed opponents may carry a significant danger of escalating the conflict beyond anticipated boundaries, from the tactical to the strategic . The existence and deployment of small, low-yield tactical nuclear warheads could be

532-616: A Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima. Three days later, a Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki. Over the next two to four months, the effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000 to 166,000 people in Hiroshima and 60,000 to 80,000 people in Nagasaki; roughly half occurred on the first day. For months afterward, many people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness , and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition. Despite Hiroshima's sizable military garrison, most of

665-456: A concept ("escalate to de-escalate") of using both tactical and strategic nuclear threats and strikes to de-escalate or cause an enemy to disengage from a conventional conflict threatening what Russia considers a strategic interest. The lowered threshold for use of nuclear weapons by Russia is disputed by other experts. Ten NATO member countries have advanced a confidence-building plan for NATO and Russia that could lead to treaties to reduce

798-742: A costly invasion of the Japanese mainland . This undertaking was preceded by a conventional bombing and firebombing campaign that devastated 64 Japanese cities, including an operation on Tokyo . The war in the European theatre concluded when Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945, and the Allies turned their full attention to the Pacific War . By July 1945, the Allies' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bombs: " Little Boy ", an enriched uranium gun-type fission weapon , and " Fat Man ",

931-467: A dangerous encouragement to forward-basing and pre-emptive nuclear warfare , as nuclear weapons with destructive yields of 10 tons of TNT (e.g., the W54 warhead design) might be used more willingly at times of crisis than warheads with yields of 100 kilotons . The use of tactical nuclear weapons presents a risk of escalating the conflict until it reaches a tipping point that provokes the use of strategic nuclear weapons such as ICBMs . Additionally,

1064-417: A diameter of 11 inches (28 cm) at its widest point; a subcaliber piston at the back of the shell was inserted into the launcher's barrel for firing. The M388 atomic projectile was mounted on the barrel-inserted spigot via bayonet slots. Once the propellant was discharged, the spigot became the launching piston for the M388 atomic projectile; this was necessary because the fission round was unable to tolerate

1197-587: A greater loss of life; according to critics, the bombings were unnecessary for the war's end and were a war crime , raising moral and ethical implications. In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. Most Japanese military units fought fiercely, ensuring that the Allied victory would come at an enormous cost. The 1.25 million battle casualties incurred in total by

1330-494: A large fraction of the city may be destroyed. The Emperor's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value." Edwin O. Reischauer , a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service , was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto. In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim: ... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction

1463-529: A large part of the peak nuclear weapons stockpile levels during the Cold War . The risk that use of tactical nuclear weapons could unexpectedly lead to a rapid escalation of a war to full use of strategic weapons has led to proposals being made within NATO and other organizations to place limitations on—and make more transparent—the stockpiling and use of tactical weapons. As the Cold War came to an end in 1991,

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1596-423: A large war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns. The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of

1729-761: A leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese "...   we cannot promise that only these cities will be among those attacked   ..." Hiroshima was not listed. In 1943, the United States and the United Kingdom signed the Quebec Agreement , which stipulated that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of

1862-558: A leaflet. Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice "to appeal to their compatriots". In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer-led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb and against a special leaflet warning. Those decisions were implemented because of

1995-530: A meeting with the President and commanders on 18 June 1945, General George C. Marshall stated that "there was reason to believe" casualties for the first 30 days would not exceed the price paid for Luzon . Additionally, with the Japanese position rendered "hopeless" by an invasion of their mainland, Marshall speculated that Soviet entry into the war might be "the decisive action" needed to finally "[leverage] them into capitulation." Marshall began contemplating

2128-689: A nuclear war". Like all but the second and third nuclear weapons ever completed, the Davy Crockett was never used in combat. Since their retirement Davy Crockett systems have been preserved in many museums throughout the United States. In 2005 the Army announced that it uncovered 600 pounds (270 kg) of depleted uranium from the training sites used for the Davy Crockett's inert rounds to be practice fired. They said that 12,405 acres (5,020 ha) of land could likely be tainted by these training days. Projectile, Atomic, Supercaliber 279mm XM388 for

2261-553: A peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government . At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000–350,000. Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned

2394-590: A press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash ( yakinaoshi ) of the Cairo Declaration , that the government intended to ignore it ( mokusatsu , "kill by silence"), and that Japan would fight to the end. The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change

2527-506: A request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. There were two uranium-235 components, a hollow cylindrical projectile and a cylindrical target insert. The projectile

2660-521: A return of US-owned and -operated, short range, low yield nuclear weapons (called "tactical" by the US military) to provide a local strategic deterrent to the North's growing domestically-produced nuclear arsenal and delivery systems. Some tactical nuclear weapons have specific features meant to enhance their battlefield characteristics, such as variable yield , which allow their explosive power to be varied over

2793-406: A safety switch with 'safe' and 'arm' positions and a time setting dial that allowed a time delay between 1 and 50 seconds before the fuze armed. If the time delay was greater than the time-of-flight, the weapon would hit the ground before it armed and not detonate. The time dial also had a 'safe' setting, and so acted as a second safety switch. The complete round was 31 inches (79 cm) long, with

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2926-544: A series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū . This was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet , the capture of the Kantō Plain , near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First , Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date

3059-465: A series of raids on strategic targets in Japan. This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities. Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam , Tinian , and Saipan in

3192-534: A single Davy Crockett could replace 40–50 salvos of a whole divisional artillery park – allowing the funds and troops normally needed for this artillery to be invested into further troops, or not having to be spent at all. US NATO commanders strongly opposed Strauss's ideas, as they would have made the use of tactical nuclear weapons almost mandatory in case of war, further reducing the ability of NATO to defend itself without resorting to atomic weapons. The Davy Crockett Weapon System's use of depleted uranium in

3325-478: A small tactical nuclear weapon (e.g., the M29 Davy Crockett ) were in imminent danger of being overwhelmed by enemy forces, he could request permission to fire it and, due to decentralized control of warhead authorization, his request might quickly be granted during a crisis. For these reasons, stockpiles of tactical nuclear warheads in most countries' arsenals have been dramatically reduced c. 2010, and

3458-691: A study by the Joint War Plans Committee, drawing on the experience of the Battle of Leyte , estimated that Downfall would result in 132,500 to 220,000 U.S. casualties, with U.S. dead and missing in the range from 27,500 to 50,000. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson commissioned his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley , who estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million. In

3591-587: A tactical nuclear weapon either against Ukraine or in a demonstration strike over unpopulated areas, given that the course of the war does not seem favorable to what the Kremlin anticipated, and several members of the Russian government have threatened the use of nuclear weapons. On 25 March 2023, President Putin announced the stationing of tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus. Russia would maintain control of

3724-801: A tripod launcher transported by an M113 armored personnel carrier , or they were carried by a Jeep (the M38 , and later the M38A1"D" variant) . The Jeep was equipped with an attached launcher for the M28 or the M29, as required, whereas the Davy Crockett carried by an armored personnel carrier was set up in the field on a tripod away from the carrier. The M113 was equipped to carry up to ten nuclear rounds. Weapons assigned to infantry units were carried in M113s, those allocated to airborne units were carried on Jeeps. The M28 launcher

3857-436: A wide range for different situations, or enhanced radiation weapons (the so-called " neutron bombs "), which are meant to maximize ionizing radiation exposure and to minimize blast effects. Strategic missiles and bombers are assigned preplanned targets including enemy airfields, radars, and surface-to-air defenses, not only counterforce strikes on hardened or wide area bomber, submarine, and missile bases. The strategic mission

3990-411: A yield of 20 tonnes of TNT (84 GJ). It is named after American folk hero, soldier, and congressman Davy Crockett . By 1950, there had been rapid developments made in the use of nuclear weapons after the detonation of " Little Boy " and " Fat Man " in 1945. These developments paved the way for nuclear warheads to be created at a smaller size. Advances in nuclear weapons technology, spurred on by

4123-627: Is Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War at the time, who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier. Extant sources show that while Stimson was personally familiar with Kyoto, this was the result of a visit decades after his marriage, not because he honeymooned there. On 30 May, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance. Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about

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4256-487: Is no exact definition of the "tactical" category in terms of range or yield of the nuclear weapon . The yield of tactical nuclear weapons is generally lower than that of strategic nuclear weapons, but larger ones are still very powerful, and some variable-yield warheads serve in both roles. For example, the W89 200 kiloton warhead was intended to arm both the tactical Sea Lance anti-submarine rocket-propelled depth charge and

4389-416: Is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target." The Target Committee stated that "It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are (1) obtaining

4522-403: Is to eliminate the enemy nation's national defenses to enable following bombers and missiles to threaten the enemy nation's strategic forces, command, and economy more realistically, rather than targeting mobile military assets in nearly real time by using tactical weapons that are optimized for time-sensitive strike missions that are often close to friendly forces. Tactical nuclear weapons were

4655-1172: The B54 ) was developed and saw service between 1964 and 1989. SADM was so different from the W54 warhead that consideration was given to renaming the weapon with its own unique mark number. Mod numbers between the Mark 54/W54 and B54/SADM are not shared. A later development of the W54 was the W72 warhead for the AGM-62 Walleye television-guided glide bomb system. The following museums have a Davy Crockett casing in their collection: Tactical nuclear weapon Tactical nuclear weapons include gravity bombs , short-range missiles , artillery shells , land mines , depth charges , and torpedoes which are equipped with nuclear warheads. Also in this category are nuclear armed ground-based or shipborne surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and air-to-air missiles . Small, two-man portable or truck-portable tactical weapons (sometimes misleadingly referred to as suitcase nukes ), such as

4788-601: The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , as a result of the effectiveness and acceptability of USAF use of precision munitions with little collateral damage in the Kosovo conflict in what amounted to strategic destruction once only possible with nuclear weapons or massive bombing, Vladimir Putin , then-secretary of Security Council of Russia , formulated

4921-628: The Combined Policy Committee , which included one Canadian representative, was held at the Pentagon on 4 July 1945. Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by

5054-544: The Einstein–Szilard letter to Roosevelt in 1939. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939. Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 to 10 kilograms of isotopically -pure uranium-235 were needed for a bomb instead of tons of natural uranium and a neutron moderator like heavy water . Consequently,

5187-652: The Inner German border in the Fulda Gap the Davy Crocketts accompanied their battalions. All Seventh Army's V Corps (including 3rd Armored Division) combat maneuver battalions had preassigned positions in the Fulda Gap. These were known as GDP (General Defense Plan) positions. The Davy Crockett sections were included in these defensive deployment plans. In addition to the Davy Crocketts (e.g., assigned to

5320-560: The Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear technology . They agreed that the atomic bomb was to be used (1) against Japan at the earliest opportunity, (2) without special warning, and (3) on a "dual target" of military installation surrounded by other buildings susceptible to damage. During

5453-936: The Little Feller II weapons effects test shot, and again in an actual firing of the Davy Crockett from a distance of 1.7 miles (2.7 km) in the Little Feller I test shot on July 17, 1962. This was the last atmospheric test detonation at the Nevada Test Site . Development of this weapon proved to be costly in all aspects of design, modifications, and labor. Over a 5 year period from 1958 to 1963, total expenses soared to nearly $ 20 million (equivalent to $ 199 million in 2023). The initial allotted development costs varied from year to year, starting with $ 1.1 million in 1958, $ 9.15 million in 1959, $ 5 million in 1960, $ 2.4 million in 1961, $ 1.5 million in 1962, and $ 250,000 in 1963. One of

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5586-522: The Mariana Islands would better serve as B-29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands. Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war, and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed, and B-29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944. The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on 18 November 1944. The early attempts to bomb Japan from

5719-552: The Special Atomic Demolition Munition and the Davy Crockett recoilless rifle (recoilless smoothbore gun) have been developed, but the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability could limit their military utility. In wartime, such explosives could be used for demolishing "chokepoints" to enemy offensives, such as at tunnels , narrow mountain passes, and long viaducts . There

5852-494: The US and USSR withdrew most of their tactical nuclear weapons from deployment and disposed of them. The thousands of tactical warheads wielded by both sides in the late-1980s declined to an estimated 230 American and 1,000 to 2,000 Russian Federation warheads in 2021, although estimates for Russia vary widely. The yield varies for a tactical nuclear weapon from a fraction of a kiloton to approximately 50 kilotons. In comparison,

5985-469: The strategic bomber -launched SRAM II stand off missile. Modern tactical nuclear warheads have yields up to the tens of kilotons, or potentially hundreds, several times that of the weapons used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Specifically on the Korean Peninsula , with a nuclear North Korea facing off against a NPT -compliant South Korea , there have been calls to request

6118-446: The 155 mm (6.1 in) M29 , with a range of 2.5 miles (4.0 km). The limited firing range was due to the combination of poor aerodynamics of the "watermelon with fins" (some soldiers referred to the warhead as the "atomic watermelon") type shape and the warhead's inability to withstand being fired like a traditional artillery round. This meant that it had to be fired out of a short range recoilless rifle. Both weapons fired

6251-399: The 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on 2 August. At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army , which commanded

6384-422: The 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city. Hiroshima was a supply and logistics base for the Japanese military. The city was a communications center, a key port for shipping, and an assembly area for troops. It supported

6517-831: The 3rd Armored Division in Germany in the 1960s many Davy Crockett Sections (all of which were in the Heavy Mortar Platoons, in Headquarters Companies of Infantry or Armor Maneuver Battalions) received what became a mix of M28 and M29 launchers (e.g., one of each per D/C section). Eventually, the M28s were replaced by M29s, so that both the armored personnel carriers and the Jeeps carried the M29. Both recoilless guns proved to have good accuracy in testing, most training shots landing within ten feet (3.0 m) of

6650-491: The 3rd Armored Division), Seventh Army's V Corps had nuclear artillery rounds and atomic demolition munitions , and these were also for potential use in the Fulda Gap. On the Korean peninsula, Eighth Army units assigned the Davy Crockett weapons primarily planned to use the passes that funneled armor as killing grounds, creating temporarily deadly radioactive zones roadblocked by destroyed tanks and other vehicles. Production of

6783-481: The 509th Composite Group about the possibility of a B-29 crashing on takeoff, Birch had modified the Little Boy design to incorporate a removable breech plug that would permit the bomb to be armed in flight. The first plutonium core , along with its polonium - beryllium urchin initiator , was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for

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6916-538: The 509th Composite Group moved by rail on 26 April 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington. On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of

7049-523: The 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta , known as the 1st Technical Detachment. The 509th Composite Group's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B-29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel-injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible-pitch propellers , pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements. The ground support echelon of

7182-456: The Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross register tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. The lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout

7315-1017: The Army began to officially refer to the BGADS as the Davy Crockett, after the American folk hero, who died at the Battle of the Alamo in 1836. After four years of testing at Forts Greeley and Wainwright in Alaska, and the Yuma Test Station in Arizona, the M28/M29 Davy Crockett entered service in May 1961. Davy Crockett sections were assigned to United States Army Europe which included Seventh United States Army, and to Pacific Theater Eighth United States Army armor units and mechanized and non-mechanized infantry battalions. During alerts to

7448-464: The Davy Crockett began at Picatinny Arsenal following the August 15, 1958, approval of the design. There was approval for funding of 6,247 to be manufactured, but a total of 2,100 were actually made. 714 M101 depleted uranium finned spotter rounds were fired in training between 1962 and 1968 at the Pohakuloa Training Area on Hawaiʻi island . The weapon was deployed with US Army forces from 1961 to 1971. The 55th and 56th Infantry Platoons, attached to

7581-479: The Davy Crockett contained a W54 Mod 2 nuclear warhead. It was a very compact pure fission device weighing 50.9 pounds (23.1 kg) and when packaged in the M388 round weighed 76 pounds (34 kg). The weapon had an official yield of 20 tonnes of TNT (84 GJ) and contained 26 pounds (12 kg) of high explosives. Controls on the projectile included a two-position height-of-burst switch that could be set to 2 feet (0.61 m) and 40 feet (12 m) airburst,

7714-474: The Division Artillery of the US 82nd Airborne Division, were the last units equipped with the M29 Davy Crockett weapons system. These two units were parachute deployed and, with a 1 ⁄ 2 -short-ton (0.45 t) truck per section (three per platoon), were fully air droppable. The units were deactivated in mid-1968. The Davy Crockett's nuclear warhead, the M388, was removed from US Army Europe (in West Germany) in August 1967. The last nuclear-equipped warhead

7847-410: The Manhattan Project took place at dozens of sites across the United States, and even some outside of its borders. It would ultimately cost over US$ 2 billion (equivalent to about $ 27 billion in 2023) and employ over 125,000 people simultaneously at its peak. Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , where bomb design work

7980-596: The Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China-based B-29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so-called high-altitude precision bombing , aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results. These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action. Hansell's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay , assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use

8113-403: The Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines , recaptured Burma , and invaded Borneo . Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville , New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa , where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from five to one in

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8246-413: The Philippines to two to one on Okinawa. Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner , most fought until they were killed or committed suicide . Nearly 99 percent of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April to June 1945, 94 percent were killed; 7,401 Japanese soldiers surrendered, an unprecedentedly large number. As

8379-442: The Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin , the leader of the Soviet Union , at the upcoming Potsdam Conference , as this also required British concurrence. Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on 25 July under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy ,

8512-531: The USAAF; and scientists John von Neumann , Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on 27 April; at Los Alamos on 10 May, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there; and finally in Washington on 28 May, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman . The Target Committee nominated five targets: Kokura (now Kitakyushu ),

8645-419: The United States in World War II included both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action . Nearly one million of the casualties occurred during the last year of the war, from June 1944 to June 1945. In December 1944, American battle casualties hit an all-time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive . Worried by the losses sustained, President Roosevelt suggested

8778-439: The acting chief of staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman. It read in part: That day, Truman noted in his diary that: This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as

8911-399: The air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men, flew by C-54 to North Field on Tinian, between 15 and 22 May. There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee, who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on

9044-452: The air raids to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion. By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B-29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, to conserve supplies of fuel. In July 1945, the Japanese had 137,800,000 litres (1,156,000 US bbl) of avgas stockpiled for the invasion of Japan. About 72,000,000 litres (604,000 US bbl) had been consumed in

9177-537: The alternative being "prompt and utter destruction". The Japanese government ignored the ultimatum. The consent of the United Kingdom was obtained for the bombing, as was required by the Quebec Agreement , and orders were issued on 25 July by General Thomas Handy , the acting chief of staff of the United States Army , for atomic bombs to be used against Hiroshima, Kokura , Niigata , and Nagasaki. These targets were chosen because they were large urban areas that also held militarily significant facilities. On 6v August,

9310-435: The atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a failure, as the Trinity test was that of a stationary device, not an air-dropped bomb. In addition, although more bombs were in production, only two would be available at

9443-402: The barrel was titanium – and it was possible to break the smaller M28 weapon into three loads that could be carried by the crew, with the other two crew carrying two radios and accessories. The weight of the M28 launcher was 185 lb (84 kg) while the bigger M29 weighed 440 lb (200 kg). Operating the M28 or M29 versions of the weapon with a three-man crew was also possible. In

9576-477: The bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall. Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka , the U.S. fire-bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities. The Japanese military

9709-442: The chance that one of them might be a dud. If the test were made on some neutral territory, it was hard to believe that Japan's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed. If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender, the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective. On the contrary, it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could. Though

9842-426: The city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B-29s shot down by flak and fighters. By May, 75 percent of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan's "paper cities". By mid-June, Japan's six largest cities had been devastated. The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing

9975-411: The dead were civilians. Scholars have extensively studied the effects of the bombings on the social and political character of subsequent world history and popular culture , and there is still much debate concerning the ethical and legal justification for the bombings. According to supporters, the atomic bombings were necessary to bring an end to the war with minimal casualties and ultimately prevented

10108-527: The defense of all of southern Japan, and was located in Hiroshima Castle . Hata's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated. Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army , the 5th Division and the 224th Division , a recently formed mobile unit. The city was defended by five batteries of 70 mm and 80 mm (2.8 and 3.1 inch) anti-aircraft guns of

10241-589: The designation of XW-51 . However, the development of the warhead was reassigned to Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in January 1959 and redesignated the XW-54 . This produced the Mark 54 mod 0 and Mark 54 Mod 2 warheads for Falcon and Davy Crockett use respectively, which were only distinguishable by the environmental sensing device employed. Later, the Special Atomic Demolition Munition ( SADM – sometimes designated

10374-470: The entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate. Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on 8 May 1945, plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall , the Allied invasion of Japan. The operation had two parts: set to begin in October 1945, Operation Olympic involved

10507-429: The final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack, a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure. Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made. It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available, followed afterwards by others at all-too-long intervals. We could not afford

10640-789: The first detonation of the Soviet nuclear bomb in 1949, led to great reductions in the size of nuclear weapons. By 1957, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) declared that it had created a small fission warhead that could be deployed for frontline use by infantrymen. AEC made Major General John H. Hinrichs the leader in turning the warhead into a weapon system under the Battle Group Atomic Delivery System (BGADS) program, which began at Picatinny Arsenal in New Jersey in January 1958. In August 1958,

10773-579: The government position. Japan's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the kokutai (Imperial institution and national polity ), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands , Korea or Formosa , and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government. At Potsdam, Truman agreed to

10906-454: The greatest psychological effect against Japan and (2) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released.   ... Kyoto has the advantage of the people being more highly intelligent and hence better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. Hiroshima has the advantage of being such a size and with possible focussing from nearby mountains that

11039-409: The ground several hundred meters in front of the weapon while the projectile continued to the target. The Davy Crocketts were operated by a five-man crew, the squad consisting of a Commander, Gunner, Assistant Gunner, Loader and Computer. The commander of the M388 could issue use and have the weapon fired in a matter of minutes. The weapon was made from lightweight metals – the tripod was aluminum,

11172-577: The ground. The practice round had a significant destructive effect in its own right and was intended to be used in combat in an emergency situation. A further type of dummy training round, the M421, was completely inert and not intended to be fired. The M388 could be launched from either of two launchers known as the Davy Crockett Weapon System(s): the 120 mm (4.7 in) M28 , with a range of about 1.25 miles (2.01 km), or

11305-617: The home islands area in April, May and June 1945. While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids. The discovery of nuclear fission in 1938 made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in

11438-498: The home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff , Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi , predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths. The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence. On 15 June 1945,

11571-610: The industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage. It was the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids, primarily because it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command's priority target. On 3 July, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto. The population of Hiroshima had reached

11704-530: The leader of the world for the common welfare cannot drop that terrible bomb on the old capital [Kyoto] or the new [Tokyo]. He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one. The 16 July success of the Trinity Test in the New Mexico desert exceeded expectations. On 26 July, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration , which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. The declaration

11837-568: The lowest selectable yield of a tactical B61 (Mod 3 and Mod 4) is 0.3 kilotons (300 tons), modern PAL mechanisms ensure that centralized political control is maintained over each weapon, including their destructive yields. With the introduction of the B61 Mod 12, the United States will have four hundred identical nuclear bombs whose strategic or tactical nature will be set purely by the mission and target as well as type of aircraft on which they are carried. According to several reports, including by

11970-463: The matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list. Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant. On 25 July, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto. It was a major military port, one of Japan's largest shipbuilding and repair centers, and an important producer of naval ordnance. In early May 1945,

12103-470: The meetings on 31 May and 1 June, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration. Arthur Compton later recalled that: It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery. If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice, the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference. An atomic bomb was an intricate device, still in the developmental stage. Its operation would be far from routine. If during

12236-421: The missions over Japan were flown by single unescorted bombers with a single payload to accustom the Japanese to this pattern. They also simulated actual atomic bombing runs, including the directions of ingress and egress with respect to the wind. Tibbets himself was barred from flying most missions over Japan for fear that he might be captured and interrogated. On 5 April 1945, the code name Operation Centerboard

12369-412: The most fervent supporters of the Davy Crockett was West Germany's defense minister Franz Josef Strauss , in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Strauss promoted the idea of equipping German brigades with the nuclear weapon, to be supplied by the US, arguing that this would allow German troops to become a much more effective factor in NATO's defense of Germany against a potential Soviet invasion. He argued that

12502-538: The nuclear weapons deliveries were completed that October. In May 2024, Vladimir Putin announced that Russia would be holding drills with tactical nuclear weapons, days after responding to comments from senior Western officials. Hiroshima bombing Second Sino-Japanese War On 6 and 9 August 1945, the United States detonated two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , respectively. The bombings killed between 150,000 and 246,000 people, most of whom were civilians, and remain

12635-477: The only use of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict. Japan surrendered to the Allies on 15 August, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union's declaration of war against Japan and invasion of Japanese-occupied Manchuria . The Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender on 2 September, effectively ending the war . In the final year of World War II , the Allies prepared for

12768-615: The only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries. Like most strategic bombing during World War II , the aim of the air offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale . Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 64 Japanese cities. The firebombing of Tokyo , codenamed Operation Meetinghouse , on 9–10 March, killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed 41 km (16 sq mi) of

12901-479: The point of aim, and CEP under 160 feet (50 m), with a 100% instant casualty radius in excess of 520 feet (160 m). The shell's greatest effect would have been its extreme prompt neutron radiation which would have killed most of the enemy troops inside that circle within minutes. Its blast would do very little if any damage to the enemy's tracked vehicles. Troops further away would have died within hours, days and less than two weeks depending on their range from

13034-418: The point of burst and the thickness of their protection. The weapon's blast was not a danger to the crew as long as they followed normal procedures. The Army created a standard for the crew to follow when firing the M388; they advised that the soldiers shelter their bodies behind a sloped hill and lie in prone position on the ground with their necks and heads covered. The warhead was tested on July 7, 1962, in

13167-605: The possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive, no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war. The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on 11 June and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on 16 June, saying that "we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to

13300-420: The propellant charge. The M388 nuclear projectile was attached to a titanium piston by means of a bayonet mount . When fired, the piston was blown out of the tube by the detonating propellant. The piston was hollow and filled with high-pressure gas from the explosion, this pressure broke shear pins that connected the piston to the nuclear projectile, detaching it after a few meters of flight. The piston would hit

13433-400: The psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area-bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern that the government ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of

13566-433: The purpose by Philip Morrison . Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a neutron reflector . The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C-54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 26 July, and arrived at North Field 28 July. Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s, two from

13699-475: The same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes. Under pressure from United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low-level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were

13832-464: The same projectile, propelled using a separate cartridge. The smaller M28 used a 11 lb (5 kg) explosive cartridge to launch the warhead. The larger M29 used either a 11 lb or a 19 lb (8.5 kg) propellant charge, depending on the desired range. The launcher systems were muzzle loading weapons; a breechloading mechanism was unnecessary as they were intended for a very low rate of fire Davy Crockett launchers were either mounted on

13965-439: The site of one of Japan's largest munitions plants; Hiroshima , an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters; Yokohama , an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries; Niigata , a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery; and Kyoto , a major industrial center. The target selection

14098-514: The smallest types have been completely eliminated. Additionally, the increased sophistication of "Category F" PAL mechanisms and their associated communications infrastructure mean that centralized control of tactical nuclear warheads (by the country's most senior political leaders) can now be retained, even during combat. Some variable yield nuclear warheads such as the B61 nuclear bomb have been produced in both tactical and strategic versions. Whereas

14231-483: The spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons , the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the "Tinian Joint Chiefs". In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from

14364-422: The spotting round led to concerns about troop exposure to the material. However, studies indicated that there was no risk of exposure to the material during use of the weapon. As a nuclear munition, however, an exceptionally strong safety program was required. This included providing render-safe procedure documentation to explosive ordnance personnel before delivery of the first warheads. Program documentation for

14497-400: The start of August, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive. For several months, the U.S. had warned civilians of potential air raids by dropping more than 63 million leaflets across Japan. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings; some were as much as 97 percent destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase

14630-442: The stress of heavy acceleration, something which the spigot/piston, acting as a "pusher tube", was able to facilitate. In flight, four fins on the end deployed to stabilize trajectory and flight. The M390 practice round was outwardly similar to the nuclear round and was designed to be a ballistic match to it. It contained 16 pounds (7.3 kg) of Composition B high explosive that was detonated by an electrical switch on impact with

14763-592: The tactical nuclear weapons in Europe. As of 2012 , NATO was moving forward with a plan to upgrade its tactical nuclear weapons with precision guidance that would make them equivalent to strategic weapons in effects against hardened targets, and to carry them on stealth aircraft that are much more survivable against current air defenses. During the Russian invasion of Ukraine , there has been constant speculation about whether Russia 's president Vladimir Putin will use

14896-402: The tactical nuclear weapons most likely to be used first (i.e., the smallest, low-yield weapons such as nuclear artillery dating from the 1960s) have usually been under less stringent political control at times of military combat crises than strategic weapons. Early Permissive action links (PALs) could be as simple as a mechanical combination lock. If a relatively junior officer in control of

15029-425: The uncertainty of a successful detonation and also because of the wish to maximize shock in the leadership . No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped. Various sources gave conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton wrote that it was 27 July, and Theodore H. McNelly wrote that it

15162-463: The use of a weapon that was "readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives": poison gas . Quantities of phosgene , mustard gas , tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use. Consideration

15295-408: The use of atomic bombs on Germany as soon as possible, but was informed the first usable atomic weapons were still months away. America's reserves of manpower were running out. Deferments for groups such as agricultural workers were tightened, and there was consideration of drafting women. At the same time, the public was becoming war-weary, and demanding that long-serving servicemen be sent home. In

15428-433: The war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22 percent of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan's production of 70,000 for

15561-405: The war; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use." Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on 21 June to re-examine its earlier conclusions; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target. Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of

15694-539: The weapon indicates that the weapon had a circular error probable (CEP) of less than 160 ft (50 m). Brigadier General Alvin Cowan, Assistant Division Commander of 3rd Armored Division, while discussing the weapon's retirement commended the technical design of the weapon. The W54 warhead used by the Davy Crockett was initially developed for both the Davy Crockett and the AIM-4 Falcon air-to-air missile under

15827-505: The weapons. As of May 2023 the weapons are a small number of Iskander missile warheads. Russia plans to finish a “storage facility” for tactical nuclear weapons by July 1. President Putin told Russian state television: "There is nothing unusual here either…Firstly, the United States has been doing this for decades. They have long deployed their tactical nuclear weapons on the territory of their allied countries ." In December 2023, Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko announced that

15960-536: The work was accelerated, first as a pilot program, and finally in the agreement by Roosevelt to turn the work over to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to construct the production facilities necessary to produce uranium-235 and plutonium-239 . This work was consolidated within the newly created Manhattan Engineer District, which became better known as the Manhattan Project , eventually under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr. . The work of

16093-427: Was 30 July. The USAAF history noted that eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on 27 July, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on 30 July. Leaflet sorties were undertaken on 1 and 4 August. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped. Three versions were printed of

16226-410: Was also equipped with a 20 mm spotting rifle – a single-shot weapon that fired depleted uranium rounds using a high–low system . These rounds flew a similar trajectory to the nuclear projectiles and produced white smoke when they landed, helping determine range. The Davy Crockett was fired remotely. A mechanically-operated detonator at the end of 72 feet (22 m) of detonating cord led to

16359-533: Was also given to using biological weapons . While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long-ranged Boeing B-29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat. Operation Matterhorn involved India-based B-29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make

16492-499: Was assigned. The officer responsible for its allocation in the War Department 's Operations Division was not cleared to know any details of it. The first bombing was later codenamed Operation Centerboard I, and the second, Operation Centerboard II. The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength,

16625-467: Was carried out. Two different types of bombs were eventually developed: a gun-type fission weapon that used uranium-235, called Little Boy , and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon that used plutonium-239, called Fat Man . There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program , but it lacked the human, mineral, and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb. The 509th Composite Group

16758-556: Was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass. Japan's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō , accordingly. The Japanese planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve. In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend

16891-468: Was completed on 15 June, and the target insert on 24 July. The projectile and eight bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the powder charge and fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , California, on 16 July aboard the cruiser USS  Indianapolis , and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. The target insert followed by air on 30 July, accompanied by Commander Francis Birch from Project Alberta. Responding to concerns expressed by

17024-399: Was constituted on 9 December 1944, and activated on 17 December 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets . Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group

17157-460: Was designated as a "composite" rather than a "bombardment" unit. Due to its remoteness, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas and Mountain Home, Idaho . Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs , targeting islands around Tinian and later the Japanese home islands, until as late as 14 August 1945. Some of

17290-476: Was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in "the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland". The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué. On 28 July, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki declared at

17423-405: Was retired in 1971. Brigadier General Alvin Cowan, Assistant Division Commander of 3rd Armored Division, while stating the weapon was a "significant advance" in technical terms and that the laboratory responsible deserved "a great deal of credit", further stated that the Army retired the weapon due to the personnel costs associated with it as well as apparent "great fear that some sergeant would start

17556-471: Was subject to the following criteria: These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids, and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the damage caused by the atomic bombs could be made. Hiroshima was described as "an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it

17689-537: Was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and anti-aircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude. From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept

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