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110-424: Moscow became a separate principality when Daniel ( r.  1263–1303 ), the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky , received the city and surrounding area as an appanage on his father's death. By the end of the 13th century, Moscow was one of the leading principalities within the grand principality of Vladimir , alongside Tver . A struggle between the princes of Moscow and Tver began after Mikhail of Tver became

220-547: A punitive expedition against the Rus' allies of Nogai, attacking the cities of Vladimir, Moscow and Tver, and devastating the countryside. Dmitry fled once again, but it was not until he died in 1294 that the Vladimir throne dispute was resolved in favour of Andrey. After Dmitry's death in 1294, Daniil made an alliance with Mikhail of Tver and Ivan of Pereslavl-Zalessky (Dmitry's son) against Andrey of Gorodets of Novgorod, who

330-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,

440-558: A fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes , a limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in

550-560: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on

660-540: A foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near

770-554: A loyal servant. To secure his position, Ivan began absorbing surrounding principalities. In particular, Ivan was credited by his grandson Dmitry Donskoy in his will with purchasing the principalities of Beloozero , Galich and Uglich . Ivan also developed Moscow to attract people and produce the resources needed to maintain his position, a policy reflected in his sobriquet, Kalita ( lit.   ' moneybag ' ). As grand prince, Ivan collected tribute from not only his own possessions but also from other Russian princes. The khan at

880-524: A monk and, according to his will, was buried in the cemetery of the St. Daniel Monastery. This was a common cemetery and by being buried there he was demonstrating humility. He was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church in 1791 but only for local veneration. In the year 1330, the monastery was moved to Kremlin and the monastery was turned into a common parish. The cemetery became open to

990-527: A native bishop was elected as Metropolitan of Moscow, which was tantamount to a declaration of independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from the Patriarch of Constantinople (1448). Ivan III ( r.  1462–1505 ) succeeded his father and his reign has been considered to mark the end of the appanage period and the beginning of a new period in Russian history known as Muscovite Russia . At

1100-496: A result, Ivan began to rule Russia as a unified monarchy. Having consolidated the core of Russia under his rule, Ivan III became the first Moscow ruler to adopt the titles of tsar and "Ruler of all Rus ' ". Ivan competed with his powerful northwestern rival, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, for control over some of the semi-independent former principalities of Kievan Rus' in the upper Dnieper and Donets river basins. Through

1210-454: A result, Simeon was able to temporarily halt the eastward expansion of Lithuania. He was also able to force Novgorod to make a treaty with Moscow, in which the city recognized Simeon as its prince and agreed to grant him additional tax revenues. Although the khan, Jani Beg , was prepared to support Simeon in his conflict with Lithuania, he was unwilling to provide unlimited support to Moscow, for fear that it would become too strong. He permitted

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1320-609: A resurgence in influence, due to the monastic reform of St. Sergius of Radonezh . Educated by Metropolitan Alexis , Dmitri posed as a champion of Orthodoxy and managed to unite the warring principalities of Rus' in his struggle against the Horde. He challenged Khan's authority and defeated his commander Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). However, the victory did not bring any short-term benefits; Tokhtamysh in 1382 sacked Moscow hoping to reassert his vested authority over his vassal,

1430-503: A war with Lithuania , Vasily captured Smolensk in 1514, and a peace treaty in 1522 confirmed Moscow's gains. Vasily also advanced the Russian border in the east and supported the pro-Russian party in the Khanate of Kazan . The unification of Russia gave rise to a new political system characterized by the dominance of the grand prince, who viewed the country as his personal patrimony. The historian Sergey Platonov wrote: "The authority of

1540-804: Is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine , the United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout

1650-534: Is always cool, silvery, in contrast to Novgorodian painting which inevitably tends towards the warm, the yellowish, the golden". Dionisius continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev and the Moscow school at the turn of the 16th century. The art of the miniature in illuminated manuscripts also continued to develop in Moscow, with manuscripts like the Khitrovo Gospels containing rich illustrations. After

1760-773: Is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system

1870-479: Is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During

1980-519: Is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to

2090-526: Is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around

2200-763: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,

2310-650: Is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with

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2420-495: The Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It

2530-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as

2640-455: The Kulikovo cycle of works, stresses the unity of the Russian princes and describes the principalities of Moscow, Novgorod , and others as being part of the "Russian land". A new form of the name became common by the 15th century; the vernacular Rus was transformed into Ros(s)iya or Rus(s)iya , and borrowed from Greek : Ρωσία , romanized :  Rosía or Latin : Russia . In

2750-409: The Russian Orthodox Church was also moved to Moscow, which later gave it the status as the spiritual center. Ivan I defeated Tver and secured the grand princely title for his sons Simeon ( r.  1340–1353 ) and Ivan II ( r.  1353–1359 ). Following the death of Ivan II, the title was temporarily lost until Dmitry ( r.  1359–1389 ) regained it, after which Moscow

2860-501: The grand prince in 1304. Yury ( r.  1303–1325 ) contested the title and was later made grand prince in 1318 by the khan of the Golden Horde , who held suzerainty over the princes. However, Yury lost the title four years later. Ivan I ( r.  1325–1340 ) won back the title of grand prince and was able to collect tribute for the khan from other Russian princes, which increased Moscow's wealth. The seat of

2970-492: The nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in

3080-488: The public and his grave was lost. On August 30, 1652, many relics from Daniil of Moscow were found and were placed in a tomb in the Danilov Monastery in his honor. His wife was named Maria. They had at least six children: Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized :  Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized :  Hellēnikḗ )

3190-461: The " gathering of the Russian lands " to increase the population and wealth under their rule. In the process, their interests clashed with the expanding Grand Duchy of Lithuania , whose subjects were predominantly East Slavic and Orthodox. Grand Duke Algirdas of Lithuania allied himself by marriage with Tver and undertook three expeditions against Moscow (1368, 1370, 1372) but was unable to take it. The main bone of contention between Moscow and Vilnius

3300-490: The "facade of autocracy" and applied the term to later Muscovite history. Relations between Moscow and the Golden Horde varied at times. In the last two decades of the 13th century, Moscow gained the support of one of the rivaling Mongol statesmen, Nogai , against the principalities that were oriented towards the khan. After the restoration of unity in the Golden Horde in the early 14th century, Moscow generally enjoyed

3410-401: The 1480s, the scribes Ivan Cherny and Mikhail Medovartsev mention Russia under the name Rosia ( Росиа ), and Medovartsev also mentions the sceptre "of Russian lordship" ( Росийскаго господства , Rosiyskago gospodstva ). In the 14th century, the grand princes of Moscow began to style themselves as the rulers of all Russia . During his consolidation of territories, Ivan III adopted

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3520-470: The 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into

3630-540: The Grand Prince, and his own Mongol hegemony, killing 24,000 people. Nevertheless, Dmitri became a national hero. The memory of Kulikovo Field made the Russian population start believing in their ability to end Tatar domination and become a free people. In 1389, he passed the throne to his son Vasily I without bothering to obtain the Khan's sanction. Vasily I (1389–1425) continued the policies of his father. After

3740-486: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit

3850-425: The Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than

3960-495: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in

4070-629: The Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow

4180-685: The Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community

4290-485: The Horde was attacked by Tamerlane , he desisted from paying tribute to the Khan but was forced to pursue a more conciliatory policy after Edigu 's incursion on Moscow in 1408. Married to the only daughter of the Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania , he attempted to avoid open conflicts with his powerful father-in-law, even when the latter annexed Smolensk. The peaceful years of his long reign were marked by

4400-541: The House of Moscow, represented by Vladimir of Serpukhov and his descendants, was firmly anchored to the Moscow principality. The situation changed with the ascension of Vasily I's successor, Vasily II (r. 1425–1462). Before long his uncle, Yuri of Zvenigorod , started to advance his claims to the throne and Monomakh's Cap . A bitter family conflict, the Muscovite War of Succession (1425–1453), erupted and rocked

4510-400: The Moscow grand principality adopted the ideology of an Orthodox tsardom after the fall of Constantinople , which was incompatible with the recognition of suzerainty of the khan, and as a result, the grand prince began to declare the independence of Moscow in diplomatic relations with other countries. This process was complete during the reign of Ivan III. A distinct school of icon painting

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4620-415: The Moscow princes took on the character of the authority of a lord of the manor over its land and people... The prince was not only the ruler of the country; he was also its owner". During the appanage period, princes and their retinues played a major administrative and social role in their principalities; however, with the rise of the grand principality of Moscow, the role of those princes were subordinated to

4730-456: The Moscow principality. Pereyaslavl was also temporarily annexed to Moscow, and after Daniel's death, his sons seized Mozhaysk in 1304. At this point, the territory of the principality had increased almost three-fold and included the entire Moskva River along with its tributaries , allowing Moscow to become self-sufficient. Its southern border included a large stretch of the Oka , from Serpukhov to

4840-526: The Novgorodian authorities attempted to turn to Lithuania again, Ivan's army marched against the city in 1478 and the city surrendered. Ivan imposed his direct rule on the city and abolished its system of government. Tver offered even less resistance, and when Ivan launched a new campaign against Tver in 1485, its prince fled to Lithuania. Ivan incorporated other appanages into the grand principality, while other princes acknowledged him as their overlord. As

4950-522: The Novgorodians launched a revolt against Mikhail's governors and sent an appeal to Yury, who was confirmed as prince in 1315. However, Mikhail was able to convince the khan to summon Yury and remove him from the political scene. Mikhail was able to establish his authority in Novgorod once again, but in 1317, Yury returned with a patent for the grand princely title, a Tatar army, and a Tatar wife, who

5060-511: The Old Russian fully vocalized accusative form Московь , Moskov' . Moscow is first mentioned under the year 1147 in the locative case ( na Moskvě ). The modern Russian form, Moskva , first appears in the 14th century. The oldest endonyms used in documents were Rus ( Russian : Русь ) and the "Russian land" ( Russian : Русская земля , romanized :  Russkaya zemlya ). The 14th-century Zadonshchina , which belongs to

5170-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),

5280-487: The age of 42 on the 5 March 1303 Daniil died. He never became grand prince of Vladimir, which meant that according to traditional Rus' succession practices, his son and successor Yury of Moscow had no legitimate claim to the throne of Vladimir. This is why Khan Tokhta granted Mikhail of Tver the Vladimirian grand princely title when Andrey of Gorodets died the next year (27 July 1304). Before his death he became

5390-402: The ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of

5500-468: The bishop of Sarai deliberated on the issue. Ivan Dmitrevich won the argument with the support of Mikhail of Tver and Daniil of Moscow, against Andrey, supported by Theodore (Feodor) of Yaroslavl and Konstantin of Ryazan. Later in 1296, and again in 1298, Andrey unsuccessfully tried to seize Pereslavl-Zalessky by force anyway, but was repelled both times with the support of the Tverians and Muscovites. It

5610-535: The boyars of Nizhny Novgorod and Gorodets to switch allegiance, but Jani Beg returned the boyars to Konstantin and confirmed him as prince. In 1352–1353, the Black Death reached Russia , which killed Simeon along with his sons. The ruling family of Moscow remained small as a result of the Black Death, and a new vertical pattern of princely succession from father to son was defined. Ivan's successors continued

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5720-543: The city. At the beginning of Ivan's reign, the new Russian Orthodox metropolitan, Peter , moved his residence to Moscow in 1325. During Peter's tenure in Moscow, Ivan laid the foundation for the Dormition Cathedral , which was built using stone. Peter had intended to make Moscow his burial place, and therefore the religious center of the country, and he died in 1326. Peter was succeeded by Theognostus , who, like his predecessor, pursued policies that supported

5830-650: The continuing expansion to the east (annexation of Nizhny Novgorod and Suzdal , 1392) and to the north (annexation of Vologda , Veliky Ustyug , and Perm of Vychegda , 1398). Nizhny Novgorod was given by the Khan of the Golden Horde as a reward for Muscovite's help against a rival. The reforms of St. Sergius triggered a cultural revival, exemplified by the icons and frescoes of the monk Andrei Rublev . Hundreds of monasteries were founded by disciples of St. Sergius in distant and inhospitable locations, including Beloozero and Solovki . Apart from their cultural functions, these monasteries were major landowners who could control

5940-418: The country during the whole reign. After Yuri died in 1432, the claims were taken up by his sons, Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka , who pursued their claims well into the 1450s. Although he was ousted from Moscow on several occasions, taken prisoner by Olug Moxammat of Kazan , and blinded in 1446, Vasily II eventually managed to triumph over his enemies and pass the throne to his son in 1462. At his urging,

6050-526: The declaration of de facto autocephaly by the Russian Church. Ivan III ( r.  1462–1505 ) absorbed nearly all of the Russian states and laid the foundations for a centralized state, leading to the end of the appanage era and the beginning of a period in Russian history known as Muscovite Russia . He also stopped paying tribute and his defeat of the Tatars in 1480 traditionally marks

6160-602: The defeat of the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo , heroic accounts of the battle were written with considerable artistry, including The Tale of the Battle with Mamai and Zadonshchina . The latter crafted a proto-national myth about the need for unification against foreign enemies: "Let us lay down our lives for the Russian land and the Christian faith". Muscovite Russia was culturally influenced by Slavic and Byzantine cultural elements. In Muscovite Russia, supernaturalism

6270-448: The defections of some princes, border skirmishes, and the long inconclusive Russo-Lithuanian Wars that ended only in 1503, Ivan III was able to push westward, and the Moscow state tripled in size under his rule. Vasily III ( r.  1505–1533 ) continued his father's policy of annexing the other appanages. He annexed Pskov and Ryazan in 1510 and 1521, respectively, completing the process of "gathering" (Great) Russian lands. During

6380-404: The early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of

6490-409: The east of Kolomna, which gave it some protection from Tatar incursions. To the east, there was a dense forest zone which functioned as a natural barrier. Moscow also had access to the northern areas of Ryazan and direct access to Vladimir . It was also provided with a river network that facilitated trade. Yury ( r.  1303–1325 ) began his reign with a struggle against Tver for succession to

6600-498: The economy of an adjacent region. They served as outposts of Moscow's influence in the neighbouring principalities and republics. Another factor responsible for the expansion of the Grand Principality of Moscow was its favourable dynastic situation, in which each sovereign was succeeded by his son, while rival principalities were plagued by dynastic strife and splintered into ever-smaller polities. The only lateral branch of

6710-565: The end of Tatar suzerainty. Vasily III ( r.  1505–1533 ) completed his father's policy of annexing the remaining appanages, and his son Ivan IV ( r.  1533–1584 ) was crowned as tsar in 1547, thereby officially proclaiming the Tsardom of Russia . The English names Moscow and Muscovy , for the city, the principality, and the river, are derived from post-classical Latin Moscovia , Muscovia , and ultimately from

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6820-618: The epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute

6930-478: The favor of the khan until 1317 and 1322–1327. For the following thirty years, when relations between the two parties improved, Moscow was able to achieve sufficient economic and political potential. Further attempts to deprive its rulers of the status of grand prince were unsuccessful after the Horde sank into internecine war and proved to be fruitless during the reign of a relatively powerful khan such as Mamai , whereas Tokhtamysh had no other choice but to recognize

7040-893: The first Moscow monasteries, namely the Epiphany Monastery and the Danilov Monastery (Saint Daniel Monastery): situated on the right bank of the Moskva River , at a distance of 5 miles from the Moscow Kremlin , as the first monastery wooden church no later than 1282. He also built the first stone church in the Moscow Kremlin in the 1280s, dedicated to the Demetrius of Thessaloniki . Daniil took part in his brothers'— Dmitri of Pereslavl ( Pereslavl-Zalessky ) and Andrey of Gorodets —struggle for

7150-452: The following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in

7260-491: The grand prince and he paid the tribute owed to the Tatars. Yury was summoned to Novgorod and did not pay the tribute to the khan, leading to Dmitry to go to Sarai and receive the patent for the grand princely title in 1322. Yury was then summoned by Özbeg, and on his way to Sarai, Dmitry's brother Aleksandr robbed him in the Rzhev area and forced him to flee to Pskov . Ivan I ( r.  1325–1340 ) became prince after Yury

7370-451: The grand prince and the emerging state apparatus. Traditional institutions like the veche were abolished, and appanage princes were incorporated into the boyar class. As a result, they became increasingly part of the service class . Some historians have argued that a ruling class, which included the grand prince and leading boyars, governed the country by consultation and consensus-building. Nancy Shields Kollmann in particular called it

7480-658: The grand prince to enjoy the traditional rights of the throne and to maintain his nominal authority over other princes, but he interfered in Moscow's relations with Suzdal, supported anti-Muscovite elements in Ryazan, and contributed to Tver's fragmentation. When Jani Beg first occupied the throne, Simeon's cousin Konstantin took advantage of the power struggle in Sarai and took control of Nizhny Novgorod and Gorodets . Simeon attempted to dislodge his cousin, and in 1343, he convinced

7590-426: The grand princely title, Özbeg had approved his father's will in 1339, indicating that he supported Simeon's succession to the grand princely throne. Simeon received the patent a few months later. As a result, the princes of Moscow continued to hold the title almost uninterruptedly. At the start of Simeon's reign, the principality of Bryansk returned to Moscow's sphere of influence after the pro-Moscow Dmitry Romanovich

7700-404: The grand principality. According to traditional succession practices, the throne was to be passed to Andrey 's eldest cousin, Mikhail of Tver . As Daniel had died before he could become grand prince, his descendants were barred from the title. Yury decided to contest Mikhail's claim to the title, but ultimately the decision went to Toqta , the khan of the Golden Horde , who held suzerainty over

7810-418: The growing power of the Golden Horde. The power of the Horde over Moscow was greatly limited during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy , who gained recognition of the grand principality of Vladimir as a hereditary possession of the princes of Moscow; while the Horde continued to collect tribute, it could no longer have a serious impact on the internal structure of Russia. During the reigns of Vasily II and Ivan III ,

7920-439: The infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn

8030-457: The late 13th century. The first prince of Moscow was Daniel ( r.  1263–1303 ), the youngest son of Aleksandr Nevsky , and he was given Moscow as an otchina , where he established a local branch of Rurikid princes. Daniel is mentioned under the year 1282 as taking part in a feudal war between his two older brothers. The 16th-century Book of Royal Degrees says that Daniel was given Moscow on his father's death in 1263. The size of

8140-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write

8250-543: The legacy of Kievan Rus' , which led to conflicts with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The Russian state was later also known in Western Europe as Muscovy under Polish–Lithuanian influence, and the use of both names persisted until the early 18th century. Moscow is first mentioned in chronicles under the year 1147, as part of the principality of Rostov-Suzdal . The importance of Moscow greatly increased during

8360-640: The membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek

8470-441: The modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and

8580-399: The noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks

8690-536: The objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It

8800-706: The older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as

8910-676: The original territory of the Moscow principality is not known, but it likely encompassed the basin of the upper Moskva River , stretching approximately between the eastern influx of the Gzhelka and the western influx of the Ruza . The northeast of the territory consisted of the basin of the upper Klyazma . By the turn of the century, Moscow was one of the leading principalities within Vladimir-Suzdal . Daniel defeated Ryazan in 1301, after which Kolomna and Serpukhov were incorporated into

9020-716: The other. Prince Andrey of Gorodets and Kostroma, prince Theodore the Black (Fedor/Fyodor) of Yaroslavl , and the Rostov princes made the journey to Sarai in order to pay homage to Tokhta, and receive confirmation of their yarliks (patents). Prince Dmitry of Pereslavl (who in the early 1280s had ousted Andrey from Vladimir and Nizhny Novgorod with the support of the army of Nogai, becoming his vassal ) and his supporters prince Mikhail of Tver and prince Daniil of Moscow refused to travel to Sarai and recognise Tokhta. In response, Tokhta and his Rus' allies Andrey and Theodore conducted

9130-409: The principalities and later confirmed Mikhail as the grand prince in 1305. In 1306, Yury established his authority over Ryazan with support from the khan as part of the Tatars' strategy to adjust the balance of power in the conflict between Moscow and Tver. Mikhail of Tver attempted to consolidate his power and was confirmed as the prince of Novgorod in 1307, but Yury retained control of Pereyaslavl and

9240-491: The principalities of Vladimir and Novgorod between Aleksandr of Suzdal and Ivan, and upon Aleksandr's death in 1331, Ivan became the sole grand prince. Aleksandr of Tver eventually returned to Tver and was given a full pardon and reinstated as prince by the khan. However, Aleksandr was soon recalled to Sarai in 1339, where he was executed. The death of Aleksandr marked the end of the struggle between Moscow and Tver, and Ivan's nephew-in-law, Konstantin , continued to rule Tver as

9350-440: The right to govern Vladimir-Suzdal and Nizhny Novgorod , respectively. The Mongol warlords Nogai Khan and Tokhta grew in power in the late 1280s, and in 1291 they jointly conquered Sarai , capital of the Golden Horde . However, in 1293 Nogai and Tokhta got into war with each other, and were appealing to the Rus' princes (who were themselves in conflict over the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir ) to join their side against

9460-491: The rise of Moscow. During the first four years of his tenure, the Dormition Cathedral was completed and an additional four stone churches were constructed. Theognostus also proceeded with the canonization of Peter in 1339, which helped to increase Moscow's prestige. Simeon ( r.  1340–1353 ) succeeded his father as prince upon the latter's death. Although Simeon had to contend with three rival princes for

9570-496: The ruler of the Ryazan Principality "by some ruse", as the chronicle says, and destroyed a multitude of Tatars . To secure his release, the prisoner ceded to Daniil his fortress of Kolomna . It was an important acquisition, as now Daniil controlled all the length of the Moskva River . In 1302 his childless nephew and ally, Ivan of Pereslavl, bequeathed to Daniil all his lands, including Pereslavl-Zalessky . At

9680-459: The second half of the 12th century, and it was converted into a fortified gorod (stronghold) in the 1150s. On the death of Vsevolod III in 1212, Moscow appears to have been passed to his son Yury , who succeeded his father as the grand prince of Vladimir . During the Mongol invasions of 1237–1238, Moscow was sacked following the destruction of Ryazan . The city is not mentioned again until

9790-461: The start of Ivan's reign was content with allowing the Muscovite prince to enjoy undisputed supremacy. As a result, Ivan was able to use the funds he acquired to develop Moscow. He also had access to Novgorod's wealth, which helped him to pay the tribute; however, relations with Novgorod worsened following the election of a new archbishop in 1330, which paved the way for a pro-Lithuanian faction in

9900-416: The start of Ivan's reign, Moscow was already the political and religious center of Russia, but Ivan vastly expanded the domain of the grand prince with the " gathering of the Russian lands ". After Novgorod's boyar class turned to Lithuania for support, Ivan's army defeated the Novgorodian army in 1471, after which Ivan took an oath of allegiance from Novgorod, but left its system of government in place. After

10010-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of

10120-517: The supremacy of Moscow over the Russian principalities. The traditional divide and conquer strategy of the Mongols failed, and the following period is characterized by a lack of support from the Horde. Although Moscow recognized the khan as its suzerain in the early years of the "Tatar yoke", despite certain acts of resistance and disobedience, it refused to acknowledge the khan's suzerainty in 1374–1380, 1396–1411, 1414–1416 and 1417–1419, even despite

10230-493: The title of sovereign ( gosudar ) of all Russia. After rejecting Mongol suzerainty, he also styled himself as autocrat ( samoderzhets ). In his foreign correspondence, he adopted the title of tsar and rejected the offer of kingship by the Holy Roman Emperor ; however, it would not be until 1547 that the title of tsar became official with the coronation of his grandson, Ivan IV . Ivan III also laid claim to

10340-502: The year. Mikhail was executed and Yury was made the grand prince. Little is known about Yury's reign as grand prince, but relations between Moscow and Tver soon improved and a treaty was concluded in 1319 between Yury and Dmitry of Tver . However, in 1321, a representative of the khan instructed Yury to march on Tver. The two forces met on the Volga and a battle was narrowly avoided. In the treaty, Dmitry agreed to refrain from making himself

10450-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or

10560-532: Was a fundamental part of daily life. Daniel of Moscow Daniil Aleksandrovich ( Russian : Даниил Александрович; 1261 – 5 March 1303), also known as Daniil of Moscow , was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky and forefather of all Princes of Moscow . His descendants are known as the Daniilovichi . Daniil was born in late 1261, at Vladimir on the Klyazma , capital of Vladimir-Suzdal . He

10670-575: Was able to gain control of Nizhny Novgorod . Mikhail marched against Moscow in 1308, but the Muscovites were able to stand their ground. Mikhail also failed to win the support of the Church, and when he launched an expedition to Nizhny Novgorod, his army was stopped by Metropolitan Peter in Vladimir. After Toqta died in 1312, Mikhail visited Sarai to renew his patent and pay respects to the new khan, Özbeg , staying there for two years. In his absence,

10780-421: Was allied with the new khan Tokhta. The main conflict in the following years would be over the question whether Andrey had the right to reign over Pereslavl-Zalessky as Grand Prince of Vladimir, or whether it was an appanage which was inherited from father (Dmitry) to son (Ivan Dmitrevich). In the assembly of 1296 (or congress of 1297 ), the Rus' princes as well as Tokhta's representative Nevrui (or Ivrui ) and

10890-568: Was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of

11000-557: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe

11110-546: Was elevated to a grand principality . He also inflicted a milestone defeat on the Tatars in 1380, which greatly increased Moscow's prestige. As the Golden Horde declined, its hegemony was increasingly challenged. Vasily I ( r.  1389–1425 ) focused on enlarging his principality, but was forced to resume paying tribute following a Tatar invasion. Vasily II ( r.  1425–1462 ) consolidated his control of Moscow after an internal struggle. His reign also saw

11220-475: Was formed in Moscow in the second half of the 14th century, and would be led by Andrei Rublev , one of the most celebrated Russian icon painters. Among his most notable works is The Trinity , which dates to the early 15th century. The first original Russian school, the Suzdal school, was merged with the Moscow school in the early 15th century. Igor Grabar said it could be distinguished by "a general tone, which

11330-401: Was murdered by Dmitry of Tver , while the title of grand prince went to Aleksandr of Tver . After the residents of Tver launched a revolt against Tatar rule in 1327, Özbeg Khan dispatched a punitive force led by Ivan and Aleksandr of Suzdal , causing Aleksandr of Tver to flee to Lithuania. Afterwards, Ivan presented himself before Özbeg and was given the title of grand prince. Özbeg divided

11440-408: Was once again installed as prince. As a demonstration of his political sympathies, Dmitry had his daughter married to Simeon's younger brother Ivan . In 1352, Simeon marched into the neighboring principality of Smolensk , located to the west of Moscow, and was able to extend his authority there with the removal of the pro-Lithuanian prince, who was likely replaced with either Dmitry's son or nephew. As

11550-561: Was the fourth and youngest son of Alexander Nevsky and his second wife, Princess Vassa. He was named after Daniel the Stylite . His father Alexander died on 14 November 1263, when Daniil was only two years old. Of his father's patrimonies, he received the least valuable, Moscow , and reigned under the regency by his paternal uncle, prince Yaroslav of Tver . Yaroslav died in 1271, but Daniil does not appear to have become an independent ruler until 1282. Daniil has been credited with founding

11660-453: Was the large city of Smolensk . In the 1350s, the country and the royal family were hit by the Black Death . Dmitry Ivanovich was aged nine when his parents died and the title of Grand Duke slipped into the hands of his distant relative, Dmitry of Suzdal . Surrounded by Lithuanians and Muslim nomads, the ruler of Moscow cultivated an alliance with the Rus' Orthodox Church , which experienced

11770-596: Was the last time Moscow and Tver found themselves on the same side in a conflict. The 14th century would be dominated by a fierce struggle for control of Vladimir-Suzdalia between the Muscovite Daniilovichi and the Tverian Yaroslavichi. Konstantin, the prince of Ryazan , tried to capture the Moscow lands with the help of a Mongol force. Prince Daniil defeated it near Pereslavl . In 1301, he went to Ryazan with an army and imprisoned

11880-514: Was the sister of the khan. Kavgady, the chief representative of the khan, sent his ambassadors to Tver to scare Mikhail into submission, but Mikhail's army proceeded to defeat Yury's army in December 1317. In early 1318, the two parties met on the Volga for another battle, but they reached an agreement. Kavgady and Yury laid their accusations against Mikhail and a formal trial took place at the end of

11990-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect

12100-673: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage

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