The Mossi Kingdoms , were a group of kingdoms in modern-day Burkina Faso that dominated the region of the upper Volta river for hundreds of years. The largest Mossi kingdom was that of Ouagadougou. The king of Ouagadougou, known as the Mogho Naaba, or King of All the World, served as the Emperor of all the Mossi. The first kingdom was founded when warriors from the ancient Great Naa Gbewaa kingdom in present-day Ghana region and Mandé warriors moved into the area and intermarried with local people. The different kingdom's consolidation of political and military power began in the 13th century, leading to conflicts between the Mossi kingdoms and other nearby powerful states. In 1896, the French took over the kingdoms and created the French Upper Volta colony, which for many decades largely governed using the Mossi administrative structure.
106-492: Some Mossi Kingdoms still exist today as constituent monarchies within Burkina Faso. Most notably, Naba Baongo II currently reigns as Mogho Naba of Wogodogo (Ouagadougou). The kingdoms of Boussouma , Fada N'gourma , Tenkodogo , and Yatenga currently co-exist in a similar fashion, each with their own monarchs. While they no longer hold sovereignty, they still retain some cultural and political influence. Accounts of
212-418: A Bible (the same Bible has been used for every monarch since Te Wherowhero). The eighth and current Māori monarch is Queen Ngā Wai Hono i te Pō . She was crowned on 5 September 2024, following the death on 30 August of her father, King Tūheitia . The non-sovereign monarchs of Nigeria , known locally as the traditional rulers , serve the twin contemporary functions of fostering traditional preservation in
318-484: A bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré , a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day . The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought from 1968 to 1974, in which famine killed thousands of people. The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until
424-503: A constitutional monarch or governor general); in semi-presidential systems the head of state (a president) is popularly elected and takes a role in governing alongside the head of government, though his cabinet is still accountable to the legislature and can be forced to resign. The U.A.E does possess a weak legislature, called the National Federal Council, which is partially elected and partially appointed, but neither
530-517: A coup against the Bugandan king in the Battle of Mengo Hill . During Obote's subsequent rule the monarchies were abolished, and remained so during the rule of Idi Amin as well. Restoration of the traditional monarchies came in 1993. The restored monarchies are cultural in nature, and their kings do not have policy-making power. The Kingdom of Rwenzururu, which did not exist before the 1966 abolition,
636-580: A dispute with her father, Naa Gbewaa , the founder of the Kingdom of the now Tri-kingdoms of Mamprugu, Dagban, and Namumba. The Dagbamba ethnic group comprises Mamprusi, dagomba, Nanumba, and Mossi People. These four sub-groups sprung out of the three sons and daughter of the Great King, Naa Gbewaa. Naa Gbewaa found his kingdom from Pusiga, near Bawku, stretching across almost all of Northern Ghana, Burkina Faso, and parts of northern Togo. The Mossi branch
742-459: A federation, the president of which is chosen from among the emirs), or in a more informal one, in which theoretically independent territories are in feudal suzerainty to stronger neighbors or foreign powers (the position of the princely states of India during British rule ), and thus can be said to lack sovereignty in the sense that they cannot, for practical purposes, conduct their affairs of state unhampered. The most formalized arrangement
848-591: A master. In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012 , ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters. In January 2012 a Tuareg rebellion began in northern Mali, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA). In March, military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d'état , citing Touré's failures in quelling
954-642: A military base in Kati , outside Bamako. On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goïta was sworn into office as the new interim president. In 2022 and 2023, the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara saw major gains in the Mali War , occupying large swathes of territory in southeastern Mali. Ansongo and Tidermène were also captured by the group. By mid-2023, the militant group had doubled
1060-567: A part of French Sudan . In November 1915, a large anti-French uprising broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and Burkina Faso. The last resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops. On 24 November 1958, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) became an autonomous republic within
1166-608: A public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu. In August 2013, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was elected as the new president of Mali in the second round of the election . In the central Mali province of Mopti , conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like the Dogon and the Bambara , and the pastoral Fula (or Fulani) people . Historically, the two sides have fought over access to land and water, factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as
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#17327661550101272-696: A reduction in territory after defeat in the Anglo-Zulu War , lost its independence in 1887, when it was incorporated into the Natal Colony , and later the Union of South Africa . The Zulu kings remained pretenders to their officially abolished thrones during the 20th century, but were granted official authority by the Traditional Leadership Clause of the republican Constitution of South Africa . The constitution recognizes
1378-592: A renowned place of learning with its university , one of the oldest in the world and still active. The expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the empire in 1468, followed by a Saadian army which defeated the Songhai in 1591 . In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa , France seized control of Mali, making it a part of French Sudan ; as the Sudanese Republic, a brief federation with Senegal
1484-536: A second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. Amadou Toumani Touré , a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected in 2002. During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa. Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to
1590-468: A second-round run-off held on 11 August, and legislative elections were held on 24 November and 15 December 2013. In the early 2020s, Mali experienced two military takeovers by Assimi Goïta . The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire . It means "the place where the king lives" and carries a connotation of strength. Fourteenth-century Maghrebi traveller Ibn Battuta reported that
1696-528: A state, including magistrates, a state newspaper known as Te Hokioi, and government ministers (there was even a minister of Pākehā affairs [ Pākehā being the Māori term for Europeans]). A parliament, the Kauhanganui, was set up at Maungakawa, near Cambridge , in 1889 or 1890. Today, though the monarch lacks political power, the position is invested with a great deal of mana (cultural prestige). The monarchy
1802-491: Is a constitutional monarch styled Yang di-Pertuan Agong (In English, "He who is made lord"). The Yang di-Pertuan is elected to a five-year term by the Conference of Rulers , made up of the nine state monarchs and the governors of the remaining states. A system of informal rotation exists between the nine state monarchs. The Māori of New Zealand lived in the autonomous territories of numerous tribes, called iwi , before
1908-565: Is an overseas collectivity of the French Republic in Polynesia consisting of three main islands ( Wallis , Futuna , and the mostly uninhabited Alofi ) and a number of tiny islets. The collectivity is made up of three traditional kingdoms: Uvea , on the island of Wallis, Sigave , on the western part of the island of Futuna, and Alo , on the island of Alofi and on the eastern part of the island of Futuna. The current co-claimants to
2014-405: Is elective in theory, in that there is no official dynasty or order of succession , but hereditary in practice, as every monarch chosen by the tribal chiefs has been a direct descendant of Potatau Te Wherowhero (though not always the firstborn child of the previous ruler). Their Māori monarch does not have a physical crown: the "coronation" is performed by tapping the ascendant on the forehead with
2120-610: Is governed as a parliamentary republic in which the citizens elect a Territorial Assembly, the president of which becomes the head of government. His cabinet, the Council of the Territory, is made up of the three kings and three appointed ministers. In addition to this limited parliamentary role the kings play, the individual kingdoms' customary legal systems have some jurisdiction in areas of civil law . A number of independent Muslim sultanates and tribal territories existed in
2226-505: Is in Malaysia. Instead, the formal governmental structure has features of both semi-presidential and parliamentary systems, with some modifications. In purely parliamentary systems the legislature elects the head of government (the prime minister) and can force their resignation, and that of the cabinet, through a no-confidence vote , while the head of state is generally appointed or hereditary position without practical power (such as
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#17327661550102332-494: Is known as a federal monarchy , in which the relationship between smaller constituent monarchies and the central government (which may or may not have a territory of its own) parallels that of states to a federal government in republics, such as the United States of America. Like sovereign monarchies, there exist both hereditary and elective non-sovereigns. Systems of both formal and informal suzerainty were common before
2438-886: Is of Yennenga , the Sister of the three brothers. The eldest of the sons is the Nayiri, King of Mamprugu He resides in Nalerigu. His younger brother is the Yaa Naa, King of Dagon He resides in Yendi. The third and youngest brother is the King of Nanumba, who resides in Bimbilla. Yennenga’s grandsons are the Kings of Tenkodogo , Fada N'gourma , Zondoma Province , Boussouma and stretching across large expanse of Burkina Faso. This event of
2544-594: Is often considered the founder of the Ouagadougou dynasty, which ruled from the capital of Ouagadougou . Following the reign of Oubri, centralization and small-scale expansion of the kingdoms were the primary tasks of rulers. The Ouagadougou dynasty retained control in Ouagadougou , but the other kingdoms established by the sons of Ouedraogo retained independence in Tenkodogo, Fada N'gourma, and Zondoma. Under
2650-479: The 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers . The group denied the attack, but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband. The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Adama Dieng , warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict. By 2020, more than 600,000 people had been displaced by the conflict in Mali. The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in
2756-587: The Battle of Tinzaouaten . On 5 August 2024 the Republic of Mali announced that it was severing diplomatic relations with Ukraine . On 17 September 2024, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked several locations across Bamako , killing at least 77 people and injuring 255 others. Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria . It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N , and longitudes 13°W and 5°E . Mali borders Algeria to
2862-526: The Dutch East Indies . The British controlled the eastern half of modern Malaysia (in a variety of federations and colonies, see History of Malaysia ) through a system of protectorates , in which native states had some domestic authority, checked by the British government. The eastern half of Malaysia was part of the independent Sultanate of Brunei until 1841, when it was granted independence as
2968-524: The French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government of president Dioncounda Traoré . On 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals. On 2 February, French president François Hollande joined Dioncounda Traoré in
3074-582: The French Community . In January 1959, Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation . The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960. Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, and that date is now the country's Independence Day . Modibo Keïta
3180-612: The Ghana Empire (for which Ghana is named), the Mali Empire (for which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire . At its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire was the wealthiest country in Africa with its 14th-century emperor Mansa Musa believed to be one of the wealthiest individuals in history. Besides being a hub of trade and mining, medieval Mali was a centre of Islam , culture and knowledge, with Timbuktu becoming
3286-608: The Kingdom of Sarawak under the White Rajas . The kingdom would remain fully independent until 1888, when it accepted British protectorate status, which it retained until the last raja, Charles Vyner Brooke , ceded his rights to the United Kingdom. The two halves were united for the first time with the formation of Malaysia in 1963. Modern Malaysia is a federal monarchy , consisting of 13 states (of which nine, known as
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3392-514: The Malay states , are monarchical) and three federal territories. Of the Malay states, seven are sultanates ( Johor , Kedah , Kelantan , Pahang , Perak , Selangor and Terengganu ), one is a kingdom ( Perlis ), one an elective monarchy ( Negeri Sembilan ), while the remaining four states and the federal territories have non-monarchical systems of government. The head of state of the entire federation
3498-628: The Massina Empire and the Sokoto Caliphate , the Mossi kingdoms largely retained their traditional religious and ritual practices. Domestically, the Mossi kingdoms distinguished between the nakombse and the tengbiise . The nakombse claimed lineage connections to the founders of the Mossi kingdoms and the power of naam, which gave them the divine right to rule. The tengbiise , in contrast, were people who had been assimilated into
3604-513: The Ooni of Ife , retain their spiritual authority as religious leaders of significant parts of the country in question's population. The Zulu Kingdom was the independent nation state of the Zulu people , founded by Shaka kaSenzangakhona in 1816. The kingdom was a major regional power for most of the 19th century, but eventually was drawn into conflict with the expanding British Empire , and after
3710-466: The Qur'an to royalty in exchange for recognizing the genealogical power of the king. The first European explorer to enter the region was German Gottlob Krause in 1888. This was followed by a British expedition in 1894 led by George Ekem Ferguson , who convinced the Mossi leaders to sign a treaty of protection. Despite this, the French entered the area in 1896 and ignored the treaty of protection, conquering
3816-502: The Rally for Mali and Soumaïla Cissé of the Union for the Republic and Democracy , and Keïta was re-elected with 67% of the vote. In September 2018, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou "in the context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali". However, the group has been blamed for
3922-579: The Scramble for Africa , the powerful Bantu kingdom of Buganda was placed under the administration of the Imperial British East Africa Company . In 1894, however, the company relinquished its rights to the territory to the British government, which expanded its control to the neighboring kingdoms of Toro , Ankole , Busoga , Bunyoro and tribal territories in establishing the Uganda Protectorate , which
4028-537: The Soninke people , along the middle Niger River in central Mali, including Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC, and Djenne-Djenno , which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD. By the sixth century AD, the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun, facilitating the rise of West Africa's great empires. There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature. Among these are references to "Pene" and "Malal" in
4134-684: The Wagner Group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had started withdrawing French troops from Mali in February 2022, commencing the end of Operation Barkhane . On 2 May, the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France, constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian–French relations. This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as "illegitimate". A UN panel reported that in
4240-537: The establishment of sea routes by the European powers , the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance. At that time, the Mali Empire's abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold . One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe , "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to
4346-482: The secession of a new state, Azawad . The conflict was complicated by a military coup in March 2012 and later fighting between Tuareg and other rebel factions. In response to territorial gains, the French military launched Operation Serval in January 2013. A month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north, although the conflict continued. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with
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4452-456: The 18th century, the economic and military power of the Mossi kingdoms had increased significantly. Foreign trade relations expanded throughout Africa, with important connections made with the Fula kingdoms and the Mali Empire . During this time, the Mossi were attacked by a variety of African forces. Although there were a number of jihad states in the region trying to forcibly spread Islam, namely
4558-401: The 20th century, when monarchical systems were used by most states. During the last century, however, many monarchies have become republics, and those who remain are generally the formal sovereigns of their nations. Sub-national monarchies also exist in a few states which are, in and of themselves, not monarchical, (generally for the purpose of fostering national traditions). The degree to which
4664-540: The East Indies (the modern-day states of Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, and Brunei) before the coming of colonial powers in the 16th century, the most prominent one in what is now Malaysia being Melaka . The first to establish colonies were the Portuguese , but they were eventually displaced by the more powerful Dutch and British. The 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty defined the borders between British possessions and
4770-544: The French and Yatenga to try and capture Wobgo. When the French and British agreed on the boundary between their colonies, Wobgo lost his main support system and he retired with a British pension to Zongoiri in the Gold Coast , where he died in 1904. As a result of the significant centralization of the kingdoms, the French largely kept the administrative organization in place. They made the Mogho Naava in Ouagadougou
4876-541: The Fula move into new areas. The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed "self-defense groups" to fight the Fula. They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al-Qaeda . While some Fula have joined Islamist groups, Human Rights Watch reports that the links have been "exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends". Added a top Mali military commander: I’ve discussed
4982-496: The March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over
5088-626: The March and April parliamentary elections, including outrage against the kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé . Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June. In July, President Keïta dissolved the constitutional court. Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goïta and Colonel-Major Ismaël Wagué in Kati , Koulikoro Region , began a mutiny on 18 August 2020. President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé were arrested, and shortly after midnight Keïta announced his resignation, saying he did not want to see any bloodshed. Wagué announced
5194-566: The Mossi Kingdom and make it part of the Upper Volta colony. The French had already conquered or taken over all of the surrounding kingdoms, which had isolated the Mossi kingdoms. The last king of Ouagadougou, named Wobgo or Wobogoo, was warned a day before the French forces were going to attack. He sent a force to meet them in battle as he fled the city. Wobgo's brother, Kouka, then became the king of Ouagadougou and allied himself with
5300-559: The Persian Gulf were under informal suzerainty to the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century. Later, this dominance gradually shifted to the United Kingdom. In 1853 the rulers signed a Perpetual Maritime Truce , and from that point onward delegated disputes between themselves to the British for arbitration (it is from this arrangement that the territory's former title, the "Trucial" States was derived). In 1892 this arrangement
5406-455: The Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife. Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to represent an instance of the independent invention of pottery in the region. Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used by around 500 BC. In the first millennium BC, early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to
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#17327661550105512-466: The Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–1756, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu ." Mali fell under the control of France during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century. By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as
5618-580: The Zulu king as the province's official ceremonial monarch and head of state, establishing the province as a constitutional monarchy within South Africa. The current Zulu king is Misuzulu Zulu , who reigns as king of the Zulu nation , rather than of Zululand, which is today part of the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal . Zulu ascended the throne in 2021. The numerous small sheikdoms on
5724-419: The age of fifteen and was given four horses and 50 cows. A number of horseman joined his forces, and with them, Ouédraogo conquered the local people, married a woman named Pouiriketa who gave him three sons, and built the city of Tenkodogo . The oldest son was Diaba Lompo , who founded the city of Fada N'gourma . The second son, Rawa , became the ruler of Zondoma Province . His third son, Zoungrana , became
5830-453: The amount of territory it controlled since the overthrow of the previous government and establishment of the junta. On 10 January 2022, Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years. On 4 February, France's ambassador was expelled. According to Human Rights Watch , Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from
5936-583: The arrival of British colonialists in the mid 19th century. The Treaty of Waitangi , signed in 1840 by about a third of the Māori chiefs, made the Māori British subjects in return for (theoretical) autonomy and preservation of property rights. British encroachment on tribal lands continued, however, leading to the creation of the King Movement ( Māori : Kīngitanga ) in an attempt to foster strength through intertribal unity. Numerous tribal chiefs refused
6042-440: The capital of the empire was called Mali. One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into a hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it was possible to find villages in the area of this river called "old Mali". A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali, there is a village called Malikoma, which means "New Mali", and that Mali could have formerly been
6148-411: The conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018. Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias, with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti . It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children. During the first week of October 2019, two jihadist attacks in
6254-435: The course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies. 26 March 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received
6360-452: The death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people who were killed. The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991 . By 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining
6466-461: The drought. Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants. Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent. From 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les évenements ("the events") or
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#17327661550106572-443: The east by Niger , to the northwest by Mauritania , to the south by Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast , and to the west by Guinea and Senegal . The population of Mali is 24,478,595, 47.19% of which are estimated to be under the age of 15 in 2024. Its capital and largest city is Bamako . The country has 13 official languages, of which Bambara is the most commonly spoken. The sovereign state 's northern borders reach deep into
6678-465: The fifth ruler, Komdimie (circa 1170), two revolutions were started by members of the Ouagadougou dynasty that established the Kingdom of Yatenga to the north and the Kingdom of Rizim. War between Komdimie and Yatenga lasted for many years, with Yatenga eventually taking over the independent Mossi state of Zondoma. At the same time, Komdimie created a new level of authority for his sons as Dimas of separate provinces. They had some autonomy but recognized
6784-569: The first three months of 2022, 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded, warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro-independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years. The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year. Sergey Lavrov , the Russian foreign minister, visited Bamako on 7 February 2023 and said that Moscow would continue to help Mali improve its military capabilities. In June 2023, Mali removed French,
6890-425: The formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) and promised elections in the future. A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) condemned the coup and demanded that Keïta be reinstated as president. On 12 September 2020, the CNSP agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. Shortly after, Bah N'daw
6996-420: The four main kingdoms. Each of these retained significant domestic autonomy and independence but shared kinship, military, and ritualistic bonds with one another. Each kingdom had similar domestic structures with kings, ministers, and other officials, and a high degree of administrative centralization. There were prominent rivalries between the different kingdoms, namely between Yatenga and Ouagadougou. Ouagadougou
7102-403: The genealogy of the royal lineage (in order to increase their naam ) and another of sacrifices to tenga . Although they had initially resisted the imposition of Islam and had retained independence from the main Islamic states of West Africa, there began to be a sizable number of Muslims living in the kingdom. In Ouagadougou, the Mogho Naaba assigned an Imam who was allowed to deliver readings of
7208-424: The growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides. Yes, sure, there are jihadists in this zone, but the real problem is banditry, animal theft, score settling – people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as a cover. The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias. The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under
7314-446: The guise of being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict . The government denies this. One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou , created in 2016. In the 2018 Malian presidential election held on 29 July 2018, no candidate received more than 50% of the vote in the first round. A runoff was held on 12 August 2018 between the top two candidates, incumbent president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta of
7420-418: The handover of power in September 2020. The tensions came to a head on 24 May 2021 after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup – Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone – were replaced by N'daw's administration. Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders – President N'daw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré , were being detained in
7526-430: The important trading post of Macina . When Askia Mohammad I became the leader of the Songhai Empire and desired to spread Islam , he waged a holy war against the Mossi kingdoms in 1497. Although the Mossi forces were defeated in this effort, they resisted the attempts to impose Islam. With the conquest of the Songhai by the Moroccans of the Saadi dynasty in 1591, the Mossi states reestablished their independence. By
7632-619: The kingdoms and would never have access to naam . However, because of their connections to the area, they did have tenga, which allowed them to make decisions about land issues. The rulers' naam and the support of tenga were connected, creating a two-way balance of power in society. Being located near many of the main Islamic states of West Africa, the Mossi kingdoms developed a mixed religious system, recognizing some authority for Islam while retaining their indigenous Mossi Religion . The king participated in two great festivals, one focused on
7738-476: The language of its former colonizer, as an official language with the approval of a new constitution by 97% of voters in a referendum conducted by the junta. On 7 September 2023, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked a vessel on the Niger River , killing at least 154 civilians. In July 2024, CSP-DPA rebels and JNIM militants killed dozens of Russian mercenaries and Malian government forces during
7844-524: The late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire. The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of the Moroccan invasion of 1591 under the command of Judar Pasha . The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads. Following
7950-482: The late 1980s. Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and
8056-472: The later royal elections of Polish kings ), as the rulers of the two largest and wealthiest emirates, Abu Dhabi and Dubai, have always held the posts of president and prime minister, respectively. This Council also elects the lower cabinet, the Council of Ministers, as well as the judges of Supreme Court. The seven constituent emirates of the U.A.E. are Abu Dhabi , Ajman , Dubai , Fujairah , Ras al-Khaimah , Sharjah , and Umm al-Quwain . In 1888, during
8162-509: The legislature nor the population at large has a hand in determining the country's political leadership. In the U.A.E., it is the Federal Supreme Council (a sort of "upper" cabinet made up of the seven emirs), which elects both the head of state (the president) and the head of government (the prime minister), both of whom have considerable governing power, to five-year terms. This is a purely formal election, however (similar to
8268-520: The mantle of King, but the leader of the Tainui iwi, Pōtatau Te Wherowhero , was persuaded, and was crowned as the Māori king in 1857. The federation of tribes supporting the king fought against the British during the territorial conflicts known as the New Zealand Wars (which resulted in the confiscation of four million acres (16,000 km²) of tribal land), not emerging from their refuge in
8374-716: The middle of the Sahara Desert . The country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, is in the Sudanian savanna and has the Niger and Senegal rivers running through it. The country's economy centres on agriculture and mining with its most prominent natural resources including gold (of which it is the third largest producer in Africa) and salt . Mali was part of three successive powerful and wealthy West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade :
8480-482: The monarchs have control over their polities varies greatly—in some they may have a great degree of domestic authority (as in the United Arab Emirates), while others have little or no policy-making power (the case with numerous ethnic monarchs today). In some, the monarch's position might be purely traditional or cultural in nature, without any formal constitutional authority at all. Wallis and Futuna
8586-583: The name of a city. Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples . It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/ and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises, leading "Manden" to shift to /mali/ . The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, when
8692-407: The origin of the Mossi kingdoms and parts of their history are imprecise, with contradictory oral traditions disagreeing on certain aspects of the story. The origin story is unique in that a woman plays a key role as the progenitor of the royal line. The origins of the Mossi state are claimed by one prominent oral tradition to come from when a [[Moré-Dagbamba princess, Yennenga , left home because of
8798-753: The polity itself, are subject to a temporal authority higher than their own. The constituent states of the German Empire or the princely states of the Indian Empire during British rule provide historical examples; while the Zulu king , whose power derives from the Constitution of South Africa, is a contemporary one. This situation can exist in a formal capacity, such as in the United Arab Emirates (in which seven historically independent emirates now serve as constituent states of
8904-521: The populace became increasingly dissatisfied. In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization in the late 1980s, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system. In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during
9010-425: The primary leader of the region and created five ministers under him that governed different regions (largely adhering to the Mossi kingdom borders). The Mossi kingdoms were organized around five different kingdoms: Ouagadougou , Tenkodogo , Fada N'gourma , Zondoma (later replaced by Yatenga ), and Boussouma . However, there were as many as 19 additional lesser Mossi kingdoms, which retained connection to one of
9116-510: The pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré. Opposition parties were legalized, a transitional government was formed and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum. In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for
9222-695: The rebellion, and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States . The MNLA quickly took control of the north, declaring its independence as Azawad . However, Islamist groups, including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) , who had helped the MNLA defeat the government, turned on the Tuareg and took control of the north with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali. On 11 January 2013,
9328-594: The regions inhabitants favored the creation of a Rwenzururu monarchy, the kingdom was recognized by the Ugandan cabinet on March 17, 2008. Mali Mali , officially the Republic of Mali , is a landlocked country in West Africa . It is the eighth-largest country in Africa , with an area of over 1,240,192 square kilometres (478,841 sq mi). The country is bordered to the north by Algeria , to
9434-545: The right of "traditional authorities" to operate by and amend systems of customary law , and directs the courts to apply these laws as applicable. It also empowers the national and provincial legislatures to formally establish houses for and councils of traditional leaders. The Zulu king is head of this council of tribal chiefs, known as the Ubukhosi. In 2005, the KwaZulu-Natal provincial government officially recognised
9540-723: The ruler of Tenkodogo after Ouédraogo died. Zoungrana married Pouitenga, a woman sent from the king of the Ninisi people, and the resulting intermarriages between the Dagbamba—mamprusi, dagomba, And namumba, the Mandé, the Ninisi, and local peoples became the Mossi people. Zoungrana and Pouitenga had a son, Oubri, who further expanded the kingdom by conquering the Kibissi and some Gurunsi peoples. Oubri, who ruled from around 1050 to 1090 CE,
9646-577: The rural region known as King Country until 1881. The position of the Māori monarch has never had formal authority or constitutional status in New Zealand ( which is itself a constitutional monarchy , as a Commonwealth realm ). Before its defeat in the Land Wars, however, the King Movement wielded temporal authority over large parts of the North Island and possessed some of the features of
9752-462: The sovereignty of the Ouagadougou dynasty. This system of taking over territory and appointing sons as Dimas would continue to be practiced by many of the future rulers. The increasing power of the Mossi kingdoms resulted in larger conflicts with regional powers. The Kingdom of Yatenga became a key power, attacking the Mali and Songhai Empire between 1328 and 1477, taking over Timbuktu and sacking
9858-432: The story of Yennenga dates in different oral histories to be anytime between the 11th and the 15th centuries. According to the story, the princess Yennenga escaped dressed as a man. She then came to the house of a Mandé elephant hunter named Rialé. They had a son named Ouédraogo who was given that name from the horse that Yennenga used to escape. Ouédraogo visited his grandfather, The Nayiri, King of Mamprugu, at Gambaga at
9964-561: The title King of Uvea are Felice Tominiko Halagahu and Patalione Kanimoa , the current King of Alo is Filipo Katoa and the current King of Sigave is Eufenio Takala . They have been reigning since 2016. The territory was annexed by the French Republic in 1888, and was placed under the authority of another French colony , New Caledonia . The inhabitants of the islands voted in a 1959 referendum to become an overseas collectivity of France, effective in 1961. The collectivity
10070-856: The towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso . President Keïta declared that "no military coup will prevail in Mali", continuing by saying that he does not think it "is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us". On 1 November 2019, the IS-GS militants killed at least 50 soldiers in the 2019 Indelimane attack in the Ménaka Region of Mali. In February 2020, Human Rights Watch documented atrocities against civilians in Central Mali and said that at least 456 civilians were killed, while hundreds were injured from January 2019 until November. Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in
10176-407: The upper Niger River , and reached the height of power in the 14th century. Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning. The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire . The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule. In
10282-400: The wake of globalisation and representing their people in their dealings with the official government, which in turn serves to recognise their titles. They have very little in the way of technical authority, but are in possession of real influence in practice due to their control of popular opinion within the various tribes. In addition to this a number of them, such as the sultan of Sokoto and
10388-534: The work of al-Bakri in 1068, the story of the conversion of an early ruler, known to Ibn Khaldun (by 1397) as Barmandana, and a few geographical details in the work of al-Idrisi . Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c. 1312 – c. 1337. These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities. The earliest of these empires
10494-502: Was elected the first president. He quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources. In 1960, the population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million. On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in
10600-407: Was formalized into a protectorate in which the British assumed responsibility for the emirate's protection. This arrangement existed until 1971, when the U.A.E. was granted independence. The U.A.E.'s system of governance is unique, in that while the seven constituent emirates are all absolute monarchies, the structure of the federal government itself is not (theoretically, at least) monarchical, as it
10706-463: Was formed, achieving independence in 1960. After Senegal's withdrawal, the Republic of Mali was established. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. In January 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali , in which Tuareg rebels took control of a territory in the north, and in April declared
10812-505: Was maintained until independence was granted in 1961. Shortly after achieving independence, Uganda became a republic, and its first years were characterized by a power struggle between the Uganda People's Congress and the Bugandan nationalist and monarchist Kabaka Yekka Party . Edward Muteesa II , the king of Buganda, was appointed president and commander of the armed forces, but in 1967 Prime Minister Apollo Milton Obote staged
10918-454: Was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020. On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded, almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement. Tensions between the civilian transitional government and the military ran high after
11024-406: Was officially established in 2008. The areas which now make up the kingdom were formerly part of the Kingdom of Toro. The region is populated by Konjo and Amba peoples, whose territory was incorporated into the Kingdom of Toro by the British. A secession movement existed during Uganda's early years of independence, and after a 2005 report from the Ugandan government found that the great majority of
11130-434: Was often considered the primary Mossi kingdom, ruled by Mogho Naaba , but it was not the capital of the Mossi kingdoms as each retained autonomy. Non-sovereign monarchy Philosophers Works List of forms of government A non-sovereign monarchy , subnational monarchy or constituent monarchy is one in which the head of the monarchical polity (whether a geographic territory or an ethnic group), and
11236-604: Was the Ghana Empire , which was dominated by the Soninke , a Mande -speaking people. The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids . The Battle of Kirina in 1235, culminated in a victory for the Mandinka under the command of the exiled prince Sundiata Keita , which led to the downfall of the Sosso Empire . The Mali Empire later formed on
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