Ma Chao ( pronunciation ) (176–222), courtesy name Mengqi , was a Chinese military general and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period of China. A descendant of the general Ma Yuan , Ma Chao was the eldest son of Ma Teng , a prominent warlord in Liang Province (covering parts of northwestern China). In 211, he formed a coalition with Han Sui and other northwestern warlords and revolted against the Han central government, which was led by the warlord Cao Cao . The coalition broke up after losing the Battle of Tong Pass against Cao Cao's forces. Ma Chao initially retreated, but later returned to attack and seize control of Liang Province by killing the provincial inspector Wei Kang and forcing Wei Kang's subordinates to submit to him. About a year after Ma Chao started his uprising, Emperor Xian issued an imperial decree ordering the execution of Ma Chao's family members, who were in Ye city at the time. In the meantime, Wei Kang's subordinates, led by Zhao Ang , Yang Fu and others, rebelled against Ma Chao and forced him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao retreated to Hanzhong Commandery , where he borrowed troops from the warlord Zhang Lu , and returned to attack Liang Province but was ultimately defeated and driven back. Ma Chao took shelter under Zhang Lu for a while until around 214, when he heard that the warlord Liu Bei was fighting for control over Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing ) with Yi Province's governor, Liu Zhang . He defected to Liu Bei's side and assisted Liu Bei in capturing Yi Province from Liu Zhang. Ma Chao had served as a general under Liu Bei since then and participated in the Hanzhong Campaign in 219. He died in 222.
122-778: In the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , Ma Chao is romanticised as a heroic warrior and one of the Five Tiger Generals under Liu Bei. In the novel, the descriptions of his character and personality, as well as the order of some events involving him, have been significantly modified for dramatic effect. For example, in the novel he started the Battle of Tong Pass to take revenge against Cao Cao for murdering his family, but historically he waged war against Cao Cao first, and then his family members were implicated and executed about one year later. In
244-692: A Marquis of a Chief Village (都亭侯), and placed in charge of his father's troops in Liang Province. Ma Chao's younger brothers Ma Xiu (馬休) and Ma Tie (馬鐵) were appointed as a Commandant of Equipage (奉車都尉) and a Commandant of Iron Cavalry (鐵騎都尉) respectively, and were ordered to bring all their family members with them to Ye (in present-day Handan , Hebei ). Only Ma Chao remained behind in Liang Province. In 211, Cao Cao sent Zhong Yao and Xiahou Yuan to lead an army to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery . They were due to pass through
366-530: A brain tumour in Luoyang. His son and successor, Cao Pi , forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne to him and established the state of Cao Wei to replace the Han dynasty. About a year later, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and founded the state of Shu Han as a continuation of the Han dynasty. While Liu Bei was planning to avenge Guan Yu, Zhang Fei was assassinated in his sleep by his subordinates. As Liu Bei led
488-588: A calamitous defeat on Liu Bei at the Battle of Yiling . Lu Xun initially pursued Liu Bei during his retreat, but gave up after getting trapped inside and barely escaping from Zhuge Liang's Stone Sentinel Maze . Liu Bei died in Baidicheng from illness a few months later. On his deathbed, Liu Bei granted Zhuge Liang permission to take the throne if his son and successor, Liu Shan , proved to be an inept ruler. Zhuge Liang firmly refused and swore to remain faithful to
610-728: A capable and charismatic ruler. With assistance from Zhou Yu , Zhang Zhao and others, Sun Quan found hidden talents such as Lu Su to serve him, built up his military forces, and maintained stability in Jiangdong. Liu Bei and his oath brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei swore allegiance to the Han Empire in the Oath of the Peach Garden and pledged to do their best for the people. However, their ambitions were not realised as they did not receive due recognition for helping to suppress
732-473: A coalition and launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo . After Dong Zhuo lost the battles of Sishui Pass and Hulao Pass , he forced the citizens of Luoyang to relocate to Chang'an with him and burnt down Luoyang. The coalition ultimately broke up due to indecisive leadership and conflicting interests among its members. Meanwhile, in Chang'an, Dong Zhuo was betrayed and murdered by his foster son Lü Bu in
854-713: A commandery administrator under Liu Zhang, opposed the idea and said that Ma Chao was courageous but inhumane and untrustworthy. Cao Cao led an army to Tong Pass to attack Ma Chao and the coalition, resulting in the Battle of Tong Pass. After both sides clashed in a few engagements, Cao Cao had talks with Ma Chao and Han Sui. Ma Chao relied on his great strength and secretly harboured the intention of dashing forth and capturing Cao Cao when they met. However, he did not dare to make his move when Xu Chu , one of Cao Cao's close aides, glared at him. Cao Cao later followed Jia Xu 's strategy to sow discord between Ma Chao and Han Sui and make them become suspicious of each other. Taking advantage of
976-447: A diplomatic mission to Jiangdong to meet Sun Quan and discuss forming a Sun–Liu alliance to counter Cao Cao. Although Sun Quan was initially hesitant due to many of his followers advising him to surrender to Cao Cao, he ultimately made up his mind to ally with Liu Bei, placing Zhou Yu in command of his forces to prepare for the upcoming war. Zhuge Liang temporarily remained in Jiangdong to assist Zhou Yu, who sensed that Zhuge Liang posed
1098-524: A dispute over the maiden Diaochan as part of a plot orchestrated by the minister Wang Yun . In the meantime, the Han Empire was already disintegrating into civil war as warlords fought for territories and power. Sun Jian found the Imperial Seal in the ruins of Luoyang and secretly kept it for himself. When Yuan Shao confronted him, he refused to hand over the Imperial Seal and left, but
1220-497: A future threat to his lord. Zhou Yu attempted to outwit and kill Zhuge Liang, but failed and had no choice but to cooperate with the latter. The Sun–Liu forces scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs . Sun Quan and Liu Bei started vying for control of southern Jing Province after their victory, but Liu Bei won and took over the territories from Cao Cao's general Cao Ren . Sun Quan, unhappy over having gained nothing, sent messengers to ask Liu Bei to "return"
1342-700: A general who lived in the early Eastern Han dynasty. Ma Teng's father, Ma Ping (馬平), whose courtesy name was Zishuo (子碩), served as a military officer in Tianshui Commandery (天水郡) during the reign of Emperor Huan . After losing his post, Ma Ping went to live among the Qiang tribes in the region, married a Qiang woman and had a son, Ma Teng. Ma Teng, along with Han Sui and others, were warlords who held considerable influence in Liang Province (covering parts of present-day Shaanxi and Gansu ) towards
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#17327904063171464-491: A group of influential court eunuchs, feared that He Jin was growing too powerful, so they lured him into the palace and assassinated him. In revenge, He Jin's followers broke into the palace and indiscriminately slaughtered any person who looked like a eunuch. In the ensuing chaos, Emperor Shao and his younger half-brother, the Prince of Chenliu , disappeared from the palace. The missing emperor and prince were found by soldiers of
1586-499: A hundred members all sharing the same fate in one day. Now, are there only the two of us to give greetings to each other?" Ma Chao constantly asked Zhang Lu to give him some troops to attack Liang Province . Zhang Lu agreed, but Ma Chao failed to make any gains from the campaign. Yang Bai (楊白), an officer under Zhang Lu, was jealous of Ma Chao's ability and wanted to harm him. When Ma Chao heard about it, he escaped from Wudu (武都; around present-day Longnan , Gansu ) and went to live with
1708-455: A large army to avenge Guan Yu and retake Jing Province, Sun Quan attempted to appease him by offering to return him the territories in southern Jing Province. Liu Bei's subjects urged him to accept Sun Quan's offer but Liu Bei insisted on avenging his oath brother. After initial victories against Sun Quan's forces, a series of strategic mistakes resulted in Sun Quan's general Lu Xun inflicting
1830-556: A preface dated 1494. The text may well have circulated before either date in handwritten manuscripts. Regardless of when it was written or whether Luo was the writer, the author made use of several available historical records, primarily the Records of the Three Kingdoms compiled by Chen Shou in the 3rd century. The Records of the Three Kingdoms covered events ranging from the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 to
1952-496: A rebellion by former Yellow Turbans, and consolidating power in the central government, Cao Cao turned his attention north to Yuan Shao, who had recently eliminated Gongsun Zan and now controlled most of northern China. Yuan Shao amassed a large army and camped along the northern bank of the Yellow River. In the summer of 200, after months of preparations, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the Battle of Guandu . Although Cao Cao
2074-450: A second wife, Lady Dong (董氏), who bore him a son, Ma Qiu (馬秋). When Ma Chao escaped from Zhang Lu and defected to Liu Bei, he left them behind in Hanzhong Commandery . Zhang Lu was later defeated by Cao Cao , to whom he surrendered. Cao Cao gave Lady Dong to Yan Pu (閻圃), a former adviser to Zhang Lu, and gave Ma Qiu to Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu personally killed Ma Qiu. It is not known who the mother(s) of Ma Chao's two other children (Ma Cheng and
2196-506: A series of campaigns to unify northern China after his victory over Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu two years earlier, he ordered Zhong Yao to attack Yuan's allies Gao Gan and Guo Yuan in Pingyang (平陽; in present-day Linfen , Shanxi ). Ma Teng sent Ma Chao to assist Zhong Yao. Ma Chao served as an Assistant Officer Who Supervises the Army (督軍從事) under Zhong Yao. During the battle, he
2318-465: A small city, and Guan Yu temporarily served under Cao Cao and helped him slay two of Yuan Shao's generals in battle. The three oath brothers were eventually reunited and managed to establish a new base in Runan , but they were defeated by Cao Cao's forces again so they retreated south to Jing Province , where they took shelter under the governor Liu Biao . After pacifying the nearby provinces, suppressing
2440-694: A southern campaign against the Nanman, defeated them seven times, and won the allegiance of the Nanman king Meng Huo . After pacifying the south, Zhuge Liang led the Shu army on five military expeditions to attack Wei as part of his mission to restore the Han dynasty. Each time, as Zhuge Liang was on the verge of success, he was recalled due to various unfortunate circumstances, such as Liu Shan listening to rumours spread by eunuchs. Moreover, his days were numbered because he had been suffering from chronic illness and his condition worsened under stress. He died of illness at
2562-438: A southern campaign to eliminate Liu Bei and Sun Quan. By then, Liu Biao had died and his younger son Liu Cong decided to surrender control of Jing Province to Cao Cao. In 208, although Liu Bei managed to repel two attacks by Cao Cao at Xinye, he was eventually forced to flee due to the overwhelming strength of the enemy forces. Cao Cao and his cavalry caught up with Liu Bei and his forces at Changban and defeated them. During
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#17327904063172684-633: A strong general in Koei 's Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy game series. Ma Chao appears as a playable character in Koei 's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series. In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering , there is a card named "Ma Chao, Western Warrior" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set. He appeared as a playable character in Total War: Three Kingdoms , being featured as
2806-479: A total of 800,000 words and nearly a thousand dramatic characters (mostly historical) in 120 chapters. The novel is among the most beloved works of literature in East Asia , and its literary influence in the region has been compared to that of the works of Shakespeare on English literature . It is arguably the most widely read historical novel in late imperial and modern China. Herbert Giles stated that among
2928-581: A treacherous villain who murders his superior. Heaven and Earth will not forgive you. You should die immediately. How dare you look at me straight in the eye!" Ma Chao was furious and he killed her. Yang Xi , who wrote the Ji Han Fuchen Zan (季漢輔臣贊; pub. 241), a collection of praises of notable persons who served in the Shu Han state, appraised him as follows: "General of Agile Cavalry (驃騎將軍; Ma Chao) rose up, formed alliances, started an uprising in
3050-661: A warrior, and was one of the Five Tiger Generals under Liu Bei . Ma Chao is introduced in Chapter 10, where he participates in a campaign led by his father and Han Sui against Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an in 192, during which he slays the enemy officers Wang Fang (王方) and Li Meng (李蒙). He does not reappear until Chapter 57, in which he suggests to his father that he could lead the army against Cao Cao at Xuchang in 211 to follow Emperor Xian 's orders to slay Cao Cao, but his father tells him to remain in Liang Province and command
3172-426: Is "the nature of human ambition", to which Moody adds the relationship between politics and morality, specifically the conflict between the idealism of Confucian political thought and the harsh realism of Legalism , as a related theme. Other dominant themes of the novel include: the rise and fall of the ideal liege (Liu Bei); finding the ideal minister (Zhuge Liang); the conflict between the ideal liege (Liu Bei) and
3294-522: Is eventually defeated by Cao Cao's forces, but manages to escape and find shelter among the Qiang tribes. Ma Chao later joins forces with Zhang Lu to attack Cao Cao, but fails to make any significant gains. Zhang Lu, who distrusts Ma Chao, sends Yang Bo to spy on Ma, but Yang Bo is later killed. Ma Chao then helps Liu Zhang , the governor of Yi Province, deal with an invasion on Yi Province by Liu Bei . He duels with Liu Bei's sworn brother, Zhang Fei , at
3416-465: Is featured as a prominent character in some chapters in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms . However, in the novel, the descriptions of his character and personality, as well as the order of some events involving him, had been modified to very large extents for dramatic effect. In the novel, he was nicknamed "Ma Chao the Splendid" for his elaborate armour and grand skill as
3538-572: Is now Linzhang County, Handan , Hebei province and neighbouring Anyang , Henan province. Ye was first built in the Spring and Autumn period by Duke Huan of Qi , and by the time of the Warring States period the city belonged to the state of Wei . During the Han dynasty , Ye was the seat of Wei Commandery and an important regional center. Following the collapse of Han rule , Ye served as
3660-511: Is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable to Qing Bu and Peng Yue . He can compete with Yide , but is not as good as the peerless beard." Yang Fu , one of the officials who opposed Ma Chao in Liang Province , once visited his colleague and relative Jiang Xu and Jiang Xu's mother. He lamented about Ma Chao's murder of Wei Kang and forceful occupation of Liang Province: "[...] Ma Chao betrayed his father , rebelled against
3782-414: Is well known among them. I have an important task for you. I hope you will use your influence to govern the northern border well and bring prosperity to the people there. You must show them the benefits of our government, and be impartial in rewarding the good and punishing the evil. You have the blessings of the Han emperors, and you must not let the people down." When Peng Yang , an official under Liu Bei,
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3904-820: The Battle of Wuzhang Plains while leading a stalemate battle against the Wei general Sima Yi . The long years of battle between Shu and Wei saw many changes in the ruling Cao family in Wei. The influence of the Caos weakened after Cao Rui 's death and state power eventually fell into the hands of the regent Sima Yi and subsequently to his sons, Sima Shi and Sima Zhao . In Shu, Jiang Wei inherited Zhuge Liang's legacy and continued to lead another nine campaigns against Wei for three decades, but ultimately failed to achieve any significant success. The Shu emperor Liu Shan also turned out to be an incompetent ruler who trusted corrupt officials. Shu gradually declined under Liu Shan's rule and
4026-532: The Di people around the area. Around 214, the warlord Liu Bei was fighting for control over Yi Province with the provincial governor Liu Zhang . Ma Chao distrusted Zhang Lu and felt that he was not capable of great achievements, so he planned to defect to Liu Bei. When he heard that Liu Bei was besieging Liu Zhang in Chengdu (Yi Province's capital), he wrote a secret letter to Liu Bei, expressing his desire to serve
4148-461: The Duke of Shanyang ), by Yue Zi (樂資), recorded an incident as follows: Ma Chao saw that Liu Bei treated him very generously after he defected to his side, so he often addressed Liu Bei by his courtesy name ("Xuande") when he spoke to him. Guan Yu was furious when he heard about it (because he saw Ma Chao as being disrespectful) so he asked Liu Bei to execute Ma Chao. However, Liu Bei said, "He
4270-465: The Emperor , and massacred the officers in our province. [...] Ma Chao is strong but iniquitous. He is morally weak and susceptible to temptation and trickery." Yang Fu, Jiang Xu and several others later plotted against Ma Chao and drove him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao fought his way into Licheng (歷城) and captured Jiang Xu's mother. She scolded him, "You're an unfilial son who betrays his own father and
4392-590: The Guanzhong region along the way. Ma Chao suspected that Cao Cao was planning to attack him, so he contacted Han Sui to form an alliance. He told Han Sui, "Previously, Zhong Yao ordered me to harm you. Now, I know that the people from Guandong (east of Tong Pass) cannot be trusted. Now, I abandon my father, and I'm willing to acknowledge you as my father. You should also abandon your son, and treat me like your son." Han Sui's subordinate, Yan Xing , urged his superior not to cooperate with Ma Chao but Han still agreed to
4514-584: The Hanzhong Campaign and capturing Hanzhong Commandery. At the same time, Emperor Xian awarded Cao Cao the title of a vassal king – King of Wei – while Sun Quan was known as the Duke of Wu. In eastern China, Sun Quan and Cao Cao's forces fought in various battles along the Yangtze River , including the battles of Hefei and Ruxu , but neither side managed to gain a significant advantage over
4636-585: The Nanman and is in charge of guarding Hanzhong from possible attacks by the state of Cao Wei . He died of illness after Zhuge Liang returned from the campaign. Zhuge Liang tells Zhao Yun that Ma Chao's death felt like the loss of an arm to him. Ma is sometimes venerated as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples in Hebei and Henan , usually in partnership with Ma Dai or Zhao Yun . Ma Chao appears as
4758-413: The Qiang troops there. After his father is killed by Cao Cao, Ma Chao, Han Sui and another eight officers fight against Cao Cao at the Battle of Tong Pass , during which Ma Chao fights with Cao Cao's generals Xu Chu , Yu Jin , Cao Hong and Zhang He , and slays Li Tong . Later, Cao Cao's strategist, Jia Xu , suggests to Cao Cao to send a letter containing errors and markings (making it seem as though
4880-453: The Romance that could be dated with certainty in any language. Ye (ancient China) 36°16′29″N 114°24′01″E / 36.2748°N 114.4002°E / 36.2748; 114.4002 Ye or Yecheng ( simplified Chinese : 邺城 ; traditional Chinese : 鄴城 ; pinyin : Yèchéng ; Wade–Giles : Yeh -ch'eng ) was an ancient Chinese city located in what
5002-509: The Romance of the Three Kingdoms has been retold in numerous forms including television series, manga and video games. The Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci was an avid reader of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin , learning all he knew about Chinese military and political strategies from them. Thus, when his descendants founded the Qing dynasty and became the rulers of China,
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5124-648: The Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi , is now held in the Shanghai Library in China, Tenri Central Library in Japan, and several other major libraries. Various 10-volume, 12-volume and 20-volume recensions of Luo's text, made between 1522 and 1690, are also held at libraries around the world. However, the standard text familiar to general readers is a recension by Mao Lun and his son Mao Zonggang . In
5246-703: The Sui dynasty , and the city was razed to the ground. Some scholars, such as Ku Chi-kuang reported that the Hebei region continued to harbour separatist sympathies into the Tang dynasty . It was the region from which An Lushan launched his rebellion during the reign of the Tang Emperor Xuanzong . The city was razed after the rebellion's failure. Extensive excavations of the city have been made in recent years, allowing Chinese historians to make detailed plans of
5368-634: The Three Qins , and conquered the river and Tong Pass. He rebelled against the imperial court, regardless of whether his followers agreed or disagreed with him. In doing so, he provided an opportunity for the enemy to sow discord between him and his men, resulting in the destruction of his family and forces. He defied morals and ethics, and ended up having to rely on dragons and phoenixes." The Jin dynasty historian Sun Sheng compared Ma Chao's betrayal of his father Ma Teng to other historical examples of extreme cruelty and inhumaneness, including: Ma Chao
5490-421: The Yellow Turban Rebellion and participating in the campaign against Dong Zhuo . After Liu Bei succeeded Tao Qian as the governor of Xu Province , he offered shelter to Lü Bu , who had just been defeated by Cao Cao. However, Lü Bu betrayed his host, seized control of the province and attacked Liu Bei. After combining forces with Cao Cao to defeat Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi , Liu Bei followed Cao Cao back to
5612-941: The commanderies and counties in Guanzhong , while the people responded to his call and joined him in the revolt. Ma Chao killed Wei Kang , the Inspector (刺史) of Liang Province , and seized control of Liang Province's capital Jicheng (兾城; in present-day Gangu County , Gansu) and forced Wei Kang's subordinates to submit to him. He then appointed himself General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍) and Governor (牧) of Bing Province , and took charge of military affairs in Liang Province. While Ma Chao besieged Wei Kang , Xiahou Yuan wanted to lead reinforcements to help him but arrived too late as Ji had already fallen to Ma Chao with Xiahou Yuan still more than 200 li away from Ji. Ma Chao led an army out to face Xiahou Yuan who would prove unable to defeat Ma Chao and decided to withdraw his troops when he heard that
5734-572: The end of the Eastern Han dynasty and were reluctant to submit to Han rule. In 192, Ma Teng accepted the appointment of General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍) from the Han imperial court and garrisoned his army at Mei County (郿縣). However, he rebelled against the Han dynasty later and attacked the city of Chang'an but failed to conquer it so he retreated back to Liang Province. During the early Jian'an (建安; 196–220 period), Ma Teng and Han Sui battled against each other. Around age twenty, Ma Chao
5856-434: The "breakdown of order" at the end of the Han dynasty to "the improper exercise of imperial authority, the destabilisation influence of special-interest groups (eunuchs, imperial clansmen), the problem of factional and individual idealism carried to the point of civil strife-all of which eventually surface in the body of the narrative." He goes on to say, the "overlapping claims to legitimacy and multiple spheres of power," give
5978-630: The 1660s, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing dynasty , Mao Lun and Mao Zonggang significantly edited the text, fitting it into 120 chapters, and abbreviating the title to Sanguozhi Yanyi . The text was reduced from 900,000 to 750,000 characters; significant editing was done for narrative flow; use of third-party poems was reduced and shifted from conventional verse to finer pieces; and most passages praising Cao Cao 's advisers and generals were removed. Scholars have long debated whether
6100-538: The Battle of Jiameng Pass. Later, he is convinced by Li Hui to defect to Liu Bei, who accepts him and makes him a general. He fights for Liu Bei in the Hanzhong Campaign and is later posted to Xiping, where he defends Liu Bei's strongholds from the Xianbei chieftain Kebineng . Although Ma Chao historically died in 222, in the novel, he is mentioned to be still alive during Zhuge Liang 's southern campaign against
6222-541: The Chinese themselves, this is regarded as the greatest of all their novels. Stories about the heroes of the Three Kingdoms were the basis of entertainment dating back to the Sui and Tang dynasty (6th–10th centuries). By the Song dynasty (10th–13th centuries), there were several records of professional oral storytellers who specialized in the Three Kingdoms hero cycles. The earliest written work to combine these stories
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#17327904063176344-537: The Colonel-Director of Retainers (司隷校尉), in charge of guarding the Guanzhong region. Zhong Yao wrote to Ma Teng and Han Sui , explaining to them the benefits of submitting to the Han court and the negative consequences of not doing so. When Cao Cao became the Imperial Chancellor (丞相), he wanted to recruit Ma Chao to serve in the Han government, but Ma refused. In 202, when Cao Cao was on
6466-698: The Di tribes in Qian County ( 汧縣 ) had started a rebellion. Wei Kang's former subordinates – Yang Fu , Jiang Xu , Liang Kuan (梁寬), Zhao Qu (趙衢) and others – were unhappy with Ma Chao so they plotted to get rid of him. Yang Fu and Jiang Xu rebelled against Ma Chao in Lucheng (鹵城; in present-day southeastern Gansu), while the others in Jicheng pretended to urge Ma to suppress the revolt. Ma Chao followed their advice and led an army to attack Lucheng but could not conquer
6588-688: The Jin dynasty . The fall of Wu marked the end of the near century-long era of civil strife historically known as the Three Kingdoms period. The novel draws from Chen Shou 's Records of the Three Kingdoms as the main historical source. Other major influences include Liu Yiqing's A New Account of the Tales of the World ( Shishuo Xinyu ), published in 430, and the Sanguozhi Pinghua , a chronological collection of eighty fictional sketches starting with
6710-461: The Maos' viewpoint was anti-Qing (identifying Southern Ming remnants with Shu-Han ) or pro-Qing. The famous opening lines of the novel, " The empire , long divided, must unite; long united, must divide. Thus it has ever been" ( 話說天下大勢．分久必合，合久必分 ), long understood to be Luo's introduction and cyclical philosophy, were actually added by the Maos in their substantially revised edition of 1679. None of
6832-427: The Three Kingdoms period, creating "believable" situations and characters, even if they are not historically accurate. Romance of the Three Kingdoms , like the dramas and folk stories of its day, features Liu Bei and his associates as the protagonists; hence the depiction of the people in Shu Han was glorified. The antagonists, Cao Cao, Sun Quan and their followers, on the other hand, were often denigrated. This suited
6954-510: The West (平西將軍) and put him in charge of Linju (臨沮; northeast of present-day Yuan'an County , Hubei ). Liu Bei defeated Cao Cao in the Hanzhong Campaign in 219 and declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (漢中王), after which he appointed Ma Chao as General of the Left (左將軍). In 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and established the state of Shu Han . He appointed Ma Chao as General of Agile Cavalry (驃騎將軍) and Governor (牧) of Liang Province. Ma Chao
7076-454: The alliance. Ma Chao also contacted Yang Qiu , Li Kan (李堪), Cheng Yi (成宜), Hou Xuan (侯選), Cheng Yin (程銀), Zhang Heng (張橫), Liang Xing (梁興), Ma Wan (馬玩) and others, and they formed a 100,000 strong coalition army to attack Tong Pass (present-day Tongguan County , Shaanxi ). Liu Zhang , the governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing ), wanted to marry his daughter to Ma Chao to build ties with Ma, but Wang Shang (王商),
7198-514: The battle, Liu Bei's generals Zhao Yun and Zhang Fei displayed heroics: the former fought his way through enemy lines to rescue Liu Bei's infant son Liu Shan and deliver him safely back to his father; the latter single-handedly held off enemy forces at a bridge by intimidating and staring them down. Liu Bei and his forces managed to rendezvous with Guan Yu , who had left earlier to seek help from Liu Biao's elder son Liu Qi , and they retreated to Xiakou . In 208, Liu Bei dispatched Zhuge Liang on
7320-524: The book was one of the first Chinese books to be translated into their Manchu language along with military manuals. Indeed, it is one of only two Chinese novels that had a Manchu translation put into print during the Qing dynasty (the other being Jin Ping Mei ). A Manchu translation of the Romance , known in Manchu as Ilan gurun-i bithe ( ᡳᠯᠠᠨ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ᡳ ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ ), was first attempted in 1631 by
7442-532: The city of Ye...where he declared himself the first Eastern Wei emperor." "During most of the sixth century Ho-pei (Hebei) was the heart of an independent state with its capital at Yeh [Ye]...." It remained the capital of the Eastern Wei dynasty and the Northern Qi dynasty until 580. At that time Ye was being used by a resistance force led by Yuchi Jiong , which was defeated by Yang Jian , founder of
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#17327904063177564-468: The city. When he returned to Jicheng, he saw that Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu had closed the city gates and barred him from entering. Zhao Qu and the others also killed Ma Chao's wife and child(ren) in Jicheng. In the summer of 212, about a year after Ma Chao rebelled against the Cao Cao controlled Han court, Cao Cao forced Emperor Xian to issue a decree ordering the execution of Ma Chao's father Ma Teng and
7686-481: The common people for his personal gain. During this time, there were two attempts on his life: the first was by a military officer Wu Fu ( 伍孚 ), who failed and died a gruesome death; the second was by Cao Cao , who was also unsuccessful but managed to escape. Cao Cao fled from Luoyang, returned to his home commandery , and sent out a fake imperial edict to various warlords, calling them to rise up against Dong Zhuo. Under Yuan Shao 's leadership, eighteen warlords formed
7808-403: The consummate villain (Cao Cao); and the cruelties and injustice of feudal or dynastic government. The opening lines of the novel, "The empire, long divided, must unite; long united, must divide. Thus it has ever been", added by Mao Lun and Mao Zonggang in their recension, epitomise the tragic theme of the novel. One recent critic notes that the novel takes political and moral stands and lets
7930-630: The daughter) were, but she (or they) was probably neither Lady Yang nor Lady Dong. Ma Chao's younger cousin, Ma Dai , served as a general in Shu Han . His highest appointment was General Who Pacifies the North (平北將軍) and he was also enfeoffed as the Marquis of Chencang (陳倉侯). Ma Ying-jeou , the President of Taiwan from 2008 to 2016, is an alleged descendant of Ma Chao. Researchers purportedly visited
8052-589: The earlier editions contained this phrase. In addition, Mao also added Yang Shen 's The Immortals by the River as the famous introductory poem (which began with "The gushing waters of the Yangzi River pour and disappear into the East", 滾滾長江東逝水 ) to the novel. The earlier editions, moreover, spend less time on the process of division, which they found painful, and far more time on the process of reunification and
8174-408: The emergence of written vernacular during the Ming period, as part of the so-called "Four Masterworks" ( si da qishu ). Romance of the Three Kingdoms recorded stories of a Buddhist monk called Pujing (普净), who was a friend of Guan Yu . Pujing made his first appearance during Guan's arduous journey of crossing five passes and slaying six generals, in which he warned Guan of an assassination plot. As
8296-399: The eminent scholar Dahai ( 達海 ; 1595–1632), but he died the following year before it could be finished. A complete translation based on the 1522 edition of the novel was done in 1647 and published in 1650 by a team of high-ranking officials including Kicungge ( 祁充格 ; d. 1651) and Fan Wencheng (1597–1666), commissioned by the prince-regent Dorgon . This is the first translation of
8418-749: The end of 207, after a victorious campaign beyond the frontier against the Wuhuan , Cao Cao achieved complete dominance of northern China. The territories in central and northern China which came under Cao Cao's control became the foundation of the state of Cao Wei , which would later be established by Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi . In the meantime, Liu Biao had put Liu Bei in charge of Xinye . During this time, Liu Bei visited Zhuge Liang thrice and recruited him. Acting on Zhuge Liang's advice, Liu Bei built up his forces in preparation for war against Cao Cao. Following his unification of central and northern China under his control, Cao Cao, having been appointed Imperial Chancellor by Emperor Xian, led his forces on
8540-501: The extent of calling him by his courtesy name. After all, he was on the run before Liu Bei accepted him and granted him official titles. Besides, when Liu Bei entered Yi Province , he left Guan Yu behind to defend Jing Province , so Guan Yu had never stepped into Yi Province before. When Guan Yu heard that Ma Chao had joined Liu Bei's forces, he wrote a letter (from Jing Province) to Zhuge Liang to ask him, "Who can compete with Ma Chao?" This account says something completely different. How
8662-451: The focus is mainly on the three power blocs that emerged from the remnants of the Han dynasty, and would eventually form the three states of Cao Wei , Shu Han , and Eastern Wu . The novel deals with the plots, personal and military battles, intrigues, and struggles of these states to achieve dominance for almost 100 years. Romance of the Three Kingdoms is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature ; it has
8784-427: The foreign tribes ( Xirong people) and his martial valor yet caused the extermination of his entire clan. What a great pity! However, he was able to break free from danger and finally reach peace, did all of his actions led him to a better fate?" Guan Yu once wrote to Zhuge Liang to ask who could compete with Ma Chao when he heard that Ma had recently joined Liu Bei 's force. Zhuge Liang replied, "Mengqi (Mao Chao)
8906-576: The heir of Ma Teng's faction. Romance of the Three Kingdoms Romance of the Three Kingdoms ( traditional Chinese : 三國演義 ; simplified Chinese : 三国演义 ; pinyin : Sānguó Yǎnyì ) is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong . It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history , starting in 184 AD and ending with
9028-514: The hostility between Ma Chao and Han Sui, Cao Cao launched an attack on the northwestern warlords and defeated them. Earlier on, when Cao Cao's forces were at Puban (蒲阪; east of present-day Dali County , Shaanxi) and were planning to cross the Wei River and head west, Ma Chao told Han Sui, "We should resist them at the north of the Wei River. Within 20 days, their supply stores on the east of
9150-495: The imperial capital, Xu, where Emperor Xian honoured him as his "Imperial Uncle" upon learning that he was also a descendant of the imperial clan. When Cao Cao showed signs that he wanted to usurp the throne, Emperor Xian wrote a secret decree in blood to his father-in-law, Dong Cheng , and ordered him to get rid of Cao Cao. Dong Cheng secretly contacted Liu Bei, Ma Teng and others, and they planned to assassinate Cao Cao. However, their plans were leaked, and Cao Cao had Dong Cheng and
9272-559: The latter. Liu Bei was pleased to receive Ma Chao's letter and he exclaimed, "Yi Province is mine." He then sent Li Hui to meet Ma Chao and provide supplies and additional troops to Ma, after which Ma led his forces to the north of Chengdu and joined the siege. When the people of Chengdu saw Ma Chao and his troops below the city walls, they were greatly demoralized and fearful. Within ten days of Ma Chao's arrival, Liu Zhang gave up resistance and surrendered to Liu Bei. After occupying Yi Province, Liu Bei appointed Ma Chao as General Who Pacifies
9394-421: The meantime, the common people suffered, and the Yellow Turban Rebellion (led by Zhang Jiao and his brothers) eventually broke out during the reign of Emperor Ling . The rebellion was barely suppressed by imperial forces commanded by the general He Jin . Shortly after Emperor Ling's death, He Jin installed the young Emperor Shao on the throne and took control of the central government. The Ten Attendants ,
9516-569: The military headquarters of the warlords Yuan Shao and Cao Cao . Under the latter's rule, Ye transformed into a political and economic center of China during the Three Kingdoms period , and during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern dynasties , it served as the capital for the Later Zhao , Ran Wei , Former Yan , Eastern Wei and Northern Qi dynasties. In 204, Cao Cao wrestled the city of Ye from Yuan Shao's son Yuan Shang . As
9638-460: The new imperial capital in Xu , and became the new head of the central government. He also defeated rival warlords such as Lü Bu , Yuan Shu and Zhang Xiu in a series of wars and gained control over much of central China. Meanwhile, Sun Jian was killed in an ambush by Liu Biao's forces. His eldest son, Sun Ce , delivered the Imperial Seal as a tribute to the warlord Yuan Shu , a rising pretender to
9760-408: The novel a "sense of epic greatness" with its "combination of grandeur and futility." Besides the famous Peach Garden Oath, many Chinese proverbs in use today are derived from the novel: It means that wives and children, like clothing, are replaceable if lost but the same does not hold true for one's brothers (or friends). The writing style adopted by Romance of the Three Kingdoms was part of
9882-505: The novel was written in the Ming dynasty , more than 1,000 years after the era, these stories showed that Buddhism had long been a significant ingredient of the mainstream culture and may not be historically accurate. Luo Guanzhong preserved these descriptions from earlier versions of the novel to support his portrait of Guan as a faithful man of virtue. Guan has since then been respectfully addressed as "Lord Guan" or Guan Gong . The story of
10004-451: The novel, he also engaged Xu Chu and Zhang Fei in one-on-one duels at the Battle of Tong Pass and Battle of Jiameng Pass respectively, but historically the duels never took place and the Battle of Jiameng Pass is actually a fictional battle. Ma Chao was from Maoling County (茂陵縣), Youfufeng Commandery (右扶風郡), which is located northeast of present-day Xingping , Shaanxi . He was the eldest son of Ma Teng , who descended from Ma Yuan ,
10126-553: The old residence of Ma's father, Ma Ho-ling , in Kaiyun Town , Hengshan County , Hunan , where they discovered a genealogy book stating that Ma descended from Ma Chao. Ma Chao was known for his exceptional strength and for the great admiration he possessed among the ethnic tribes of the North. Chen Shou , who wrote Ma Chao's biography in the Sanguozhi , commented on him as such: "Ma Chao relied solely on his relation with
10248-488: The other. Meanwhile, Sun Quan plotted to take Jing Province after growing tired of Liu Bei's repeated refusals to hand over the territories. He secretly made peace and allied with Cao Cao against Liu Bei. While Guan Yu, who guarded Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province, was away attacking Cao Ren at the Battle of Fancheng , Sun Quan sent his general Lü Meng to launch a stealth invasion on Jing Province . Guan Yu
10370-442: The others arrested and executed along with their families . Liu Bei had already left the imperial capital when the plot was exposed, and he moved on to seize control of Xu Province from Che Zhou , the new governor appointed by Cao Cao. In retaliation, Cao Cao attacked Xu Province and defeated Liu Bei, causing him to be separated from his oath brothers. While Liu Bei briefly joined Yuan Shao after his defeat, Zhang Fei took control of
10492-472: The peach garden oath and ending with Zhuge Liang's death. Some 50 or 60 Yuan and early Ming plays about the Three Kingdoms are known to have existed, and their material is almost entirely fictional, based on thin threads of actual history. The novel is thus a return to greater emphasis on history, compared to these dramas. The novel also shifted towards better acknowledgement of southern China's historical importance, while still portraying some prejudice against
10614-421: The point of war. Following Zhuge Liang's Longzhong Plan , Liu Bei led his forces westward into Yi Province and seized control of the territories from the governor Liu Zhang . By then, Liu Bei ruled over a vast stretch of land from Yi Province to southern Jing Province; these territories served as the foundation of the state of Shu Han later. Liu Bei declared himself King of Hanzhong after defeating Cao Cao in
10736-517: The political climate in the Ming dynasty, unlike in the Jin dynasty when Cao Wei was considered the legitimate successor to the Han dynasty. Some non-historical scenes in the novel have become well-known and subsequently became a part of traditional Chinese culture. In the introduction to the 1959 reprint of the Brewitt-Taylor translation, Roy Andrew Miller argues that the novel's chief theme
10858-636: The preceding battle of Ye had destroyed the inner city, Cao Cao set about rebuilding the city in the mold of an imperial capital. He initiated a number of works in Ye, digging canals in and around the city to improve irrigation and drainage, building the Hall of Civil Splendour (文昌殿) which was to become the centerpiece of Ye's palace complex, and erecting the Bronze Bird Terrace in 210 that became much-celebrated in Chinese poetry . Cao Cao's impact on Ye
10980-416: The pursuit and headed east after receiving news about unrest in northern China. Yang Fu warned Cao Cao, "Ma Chao has the courage of Han Xin and Ying Bu , and both the Qiang and Rong peoples deeply respect him. If we retreat now and don't station defences here, we'll forfeit all the territories in this area." After Cao Cao left, as Yang Fu predicted, Ma Chao led the various tribes in the region to attack
11102-431: The reader know which of the characters are heroes and which villains, yet the heroes are forced to make a tragic choice between equal values, not merely between good and evil. The heroes know that the end of the empire is ordained by this cosmic cycle of division and unity, yet their choices are moral, based on loyalty, not political. Plaks states the novel deals with the "cyclical theories of dynastic decline," and relates
11224-417: The recipient has something to hide) to Han Sui to make Ma Chao falsely believe that Han Sui is maintaining secret contact with Cao Cao. Ma Chao gradually becomes more suspicious of Han Sui, who also has the intention of defecting to Cao Cao's side after learning that Ma Chao no longer trusts him. Han Sui manages to escape when Ma Chao tries to kill him, but his left hand is cut off by Ma during the fight. Ma Chao
11346-428: The reign of Shi Hu . After Shi Hu's death, his adopted grandson, Ran Min , forcibly seized the city, where he founded the short-lived Ran Wei state in 350. The Xianbei -led Former Yan dynasty soon conquered Ran Wei in 352, and Ye became their capital from 357 up till its fall in 370. In the 490s, Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei moved his capital from Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi) to Luoyang. This move
11468-533: The rest of his family who were with him at the time in Ye (in present-day Handan , Hebei ). Ma Chao fled to Hanzhong , where he borrowed troops from the warlord Zhang Lu , and returned to attack those who drove him out of Guanzhong. He besieged Jiang Xu, Zhao Ang and their allies at Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County , Gansu) for about 30 days until reinforcements led by Cao Cao's generals Xiahou Yuan and Zhang He showed up and lifted
11590-472: The reunification of the land in 280 by the Western Jin . The novel is based primarily on the Records of the Three Kingdoms , written by Chen Shou in the 3rd century. The story – part historical and part fictional – romanticises and dramatises the lives of feudal lords and their retainers, who tried to supplant the dwindling Han dynasty or restore it. While the novel follows hundreds of characters,
11712-477: The river will be depleted, after which they will definitely retreat." However, Han Sui rejected his idea and said, "We should send our forces to engage the enemy on the river. Isn't this more direct?" When Cao Cao heard of Ma Chao's plan, he remarked, "If the young horse doesn't die, I can't have a proper burial place." Ma Chao retreated further west after his defeat at Tong Pass. Cao Cao pursued him to Anding (安定; around present-day Pingliang , Gansu ) but gave up on
11834-530: The siege. Ma Chao returned to Hanzhong Commandery after his defeat at Mount Qi and sought shelter under Zhang Lu . Zhang Lu planned to marry his daughter to Ma Chao, but one of Zhang's aides advised him against it, saying, "If a person can't even love his family and relatives, can he still love others?" Zhang Lu then aborted his plan. On one New Year's Day, a relative of Ma Chao who had also escaped to Hanzhong came to visit him. Ma Chao beat his chest, coughed blood, and said to his relative, "A big family with over
11956-407: The south. The Qing dynasty historian Zhang Xuecheng famously wrote that the novel was "seven-parts fact and three-parts fiction." The fictional parts are culled from different sources, including unofficial histories, folk stories, the Sanguozhi Pinghua , and also the author's own imagination. Nonetheless, the description of the social conditions and the logic that the characters use is accurate to
12078-472: The state of Cao Wei. In Wu, there had been internal conflict among the nobles since Sun Quan's death. The regents Zhuge Ke and Sun Chen consecutively attempted to usurp the throne but were eventually ousted from power and eliminated in coups. Although stability was temporarily restored in Wu, the last Wu emperor, Sun Hao , turned out to be a tyrant. Wu, the last of the Three Kingdoms, was eventually conquered by
12200-552: The struggles of the heroes who sacrificed for it. The following is a summary of the central plot and some well-known highlights in the novel. In the late second century, towards the end of the Han dynasty in China, corruption was rampant on all levels throughout the government, with treacherous eunuchs and villainous officials deceiving the emperor and persecuting those who stood up to them. The Han Empire gradually deteriorated and became increasingly fragmented, with many regional officials being warlords with their own armies. In
12322-584: The territories to him, but Liu Bei dismissed the messenger each time with a different excuse. Sun Quan was unwilling to give up, so he followed Zhou Yu's plan to trick Liu Bei to come to Jiangdong to marry his sister Lady Sun and then hold Liu Bei hostage in exchange for Jing Province. However, Zhuge Liang foiled Zhou Yu's plot, and the newlywed couple returned to Jing Province safely. Zhou Yu later died in frustration after Zhuge Liang repeatedly thwarted his moves to take Jing Province. Relations between Liu Bei and Sun Quan deteriorated after Zhou Yu's death, but not to
12444-472: The throne, in exchange for troops and horses. Sun Ce then secured himself a power base in the rich riverlands of Jiangdong ( Wu ), on which the state of Eastern Wu was founded later. Tragically, Sun Ce also died at the pinnacle of his career from illness under stress of his terrifying encounter with the ghost of Yu Ji , a venerable magician whom he had falsely accused of heresy and executed in jealousy. Sun Quan , his younger brother and successor, proved to be
12566-440: The trust Liu Bei had placed in him. After Liu Bei's death, Cao Pi induced several forces, including Sun Quan, a turncoat Shu general Meng Da , the Nanman and Qiang tribes, to attack Shu, in coordination with a Wei army. However, Zhuge Liang managed to make the five armies retreat without any bloodshed. He also sent Deng Zhi to make peace with Sun Quan and restore the alliance between Shu and Wu. Zhuge Liang then personally led
12688-457: The unification of the Three Kingdoms under the Jin dynasty in 280. The novel also includes material from Tang dynasty poetic works, Yuan dynasty operas and his own personal interpretation of elements such as virtue and legitimacy. The author combined this historical knowledge with his own storytelling skills to create a rich tapestry of personalities. Luo Guanzhong's version in 24 volumes, known as
12810-468: The warlord Dong Zhuo , who escorted them back to the palace and used the opportunity to seize control of the imperial capital, Luoyang , under the pretext of protecting the emperor. Dong Zhuo later deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with the Prince of Chenliu ( Emperor Xian ), who was merely a figurehead under his control. Dong Zhuo monopolised state power, persecuted his political opponents, and oppressed
12932-512: Was a pinghua named Sanguozhi Pinghua published sometime between 1321 and 1323. Romance of the Three Kingdoms is traditionally attributed to Luo Guanzhong , a playwright who lived sometime between 1315 and 1400 (late Yuan to early Ming period) known for compiling historical plays in styles which were prevalent during the Yuan period. It was first printed in 1522 as Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi ( 三國志通俗演義 ; 三国志通俗演义 ) in an edition which bore
13054-677: Was about to leave Chengdu to assume his new appointment in Jiangyang , he visited Ma Chao and told him: "You are outside while I am inside. The Empire can be pacified." Ma Chao had recently joined Liu Bei 's forces and he was often fearful that he would get into trouble. After hearing what Peng Yang told him, he was shocked as he thought that Peng Yang was asking him to participate in a coup d'état against Liu Bei. However, he remained silent and did not respond. After Peng Yang left, Ma Chao secretly reported him and caused him to be arrested and executed. The Shanyang Gong Zaiji (山陽公載記; Records of
13176-475: Was almost killed by Guan Yu and Zhang Fei just because I called my lord by his courtesy name." From then on, he behaved more humbly in front of Liu Bei. Pei Songzhi , who annotated Ma Chao's biography in the Sanguozhi , disputed the Shanyang Gong Zaiji account as untruthful and nonsensical. He commented as follows: I believe Ma Chao would not have behaved so arrogantly in front of Liu Bei to
13298-457: Was attacked by Liu Biao (acting on Yuan Shao's instruction) on the way back to his base. At the same time, Yuan Shao waged war against Gongsun Zan to consolidate his power in northern China. Other warlords such as Cao Cao and Liu Bei , who initially had no titles or land, were also gradually forming their own armies and taking control of territories. During those times of upheaval, Cao Cao saved Emperor Xian from Dong Zhuo's followers, established
13420-489: Was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Tai District (斄鄉侯). Liu Bei's imperial edict to Ma Chao was as follows: "I am unworthy, but I have ascended the throne to preserve the Han dynasty. Cao Cao and Cao Pi will be remembered for their sins. I am disconsolate by their wrongdoings. The people loathe them and hope that the Han dynasty will be restored, with the Di , Qiang , Xunyu and other ethnic minorities willingly submitting to our rule. The northerners look up to you, and your valour
13542-425: Was eventually conquered by Wei forces . Jiang Wei attempted to restore Shu with the help of Zhong Hui , a disgruntled Wei general, but their plan failed and Zhong Hui was killed by Wei troops while Jiang Wei died by suicide. Shortly after the fall of Shu, Sima Zhao died and his son, Sima Yan , forced the last Wei emperor, Cao Huan , to abdicate the throne to him. Sima Yan then established the Jin dynasty to replace
13664-431: Was famous for his strength and fought on his father's side. During a battle, Yan Xing stabbed him with his spear. As the spear broke, he used it to strike Ma Chao's neck and nearly killed him. Conflict between Ma Teng and Han Sui ended in 200. When Zhong Yao and Wei Duan (韋端) convinced them to reconcile. In 197, the warlord Cao Cao – who had become the de facto head of the Han central government – placed Zhong Yao ,
13786-484: Was heavily outnumbered by Yuan Shao, he secured a decisive victory over his rival after launching a surprise raid on Yuan Shao's supply train and throwing the enemy into disarray. Yuan Shao retreated north after his defeat, fell ill and died about two years later. Cao Cao took advantage of Yuan Shao's death, which had resulted in internal conflict among his sons who were fighting over their father's territories, and advanced north to attack and seize all of Yuan Shao's lands. By
13908-540: Was hit by a stray arrow in the foot, but he wrapped his foot in a pouch and continued fighting. His subordinate Pang De slew Guo Yuan and they defeated the enemy. Ma Teng got into conflict with Han Sui later, so he requested to leave Liang Province and work in the capital. He was granted permission and appointed as the Minister of the Guards (衞尉) by the Han court. Ma Chao was appointed as a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍), made
14030-605: Was in dire straits when he came to join me. Why are you so angry about this? How can I ever explain myself if I executed someone just because he called me by my courtesy name?" Zhang Fei agreed, "Yes, you should show civility towards him." The following day, Liu Bei invited Ma Chao to attend a banquet. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei stood nearby and carried swords. After Ma Chao took his seat, he was surprised to see that Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were still standing. After that, he never called Liu Bei by his courtesy name again. The following day, he sighed, "Now I know why he (Liu Bei) suffered defeats. I
14152-581: Was inherited by his son, Ma Cheng (馬承). Ma Chao's daughter married Liu Bei 's son Liu Li (劉理), the Prince of Anping (安平王). Ma Chao had at least two spouses. The first was Lady Yang (楊氏), who was with him when he seized control of Liang Province after the Battle of Tong Pass . She probably bore Ma Chao at least one child, because the Sanguozhi mentioned that Zhao Qu (趙衢), Yin Feng (尹奉) and others killed Ma's family (wife and child(ren)) when they rebelled against him and drove him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao had
14274-464: Was it possible that Guan Yu and Zhang Fei actually stood side by side (in Yi Province)? When a normal person does something, he will do it if he knows he can. If he knows he cannot, he will not do it. If Ma Chao really did address Liu Bei by his courtesy name, he would be aware of the circumstances under which he could do so. Ma Chao should not even know that Guan Yu asked Liu Bei to execute him. How
14396-457: Was it possible that Ma Chao managed to deduce that Guan Yu and Zhang Fei wanted to kill him for calling their lord by his courtesy name just by seeing them standing nearby and carrying swords? This is totally absurd and illogical. The records written by Yuan Wei (袁暐) and Yue Zi are disorganised, unreliable and nonsensical. Their works should not even be mentioned. Ma Chao died in 222 at the age of 47 (by East Asian age reckoning ). His cause of death
14518-510: Was not recorded in history. Before his death, he wrote to Liu Bei: "Over 200 members of my family were killed by Cao Cao. I only have my cousin Ma Dai left with me. He will be the one to continue my family line. I entrust him to Your Majesty's care. That is all I have to say." In October or November 260, Liu Bei's son and successor, Liu Shan , granted Ma Chao the posthumous title "Marquis Wei" (威侯). Ma Chao's title, Marquis of Tai District (斄鄉侯),
14640-536: Was not welcomed by all. Antagonism grew between Xiaowen and his sinicized court and those who preferred to cling to the traditional Tuoba tribal ways, and it only increased with further changes calling for the abandonment of Tuoba dress and names. Eventually, under the leadership of Gao Huan (a Chinese general who was Tuoba in his ways and "outlook" ), the sinicization -dissenting 'northern garrisons' mutinied and captured Luoyang in 534. "At three days' notice its inhabitants were required to accompany Gao Huan to his own base,
14762-610: Was so extensive that he alone, more than any ruler of the city before and after, is associated with the city of Ye in the Chinese cultural memory . Ironically, after Cao Cao's grandson Cao Huan was forced to abdicate to Sima Yan in February 266, Cao Huan was relocated to Ye where he lived for the rest of his life. During the Sixteen Kingdoms period, Ye was an important city for the Jie -led Later Zhao dynasty that unified most of northern China, later becoming its capital in 335 during
14884-513: Was unable to capture Fancheng so he retreated, but was caught off guard by Lü Meng and had already lost Jing Province before he knew it. With his army's morale falling and the troops gradually deserting, Guan Yu and his remaining men withdrew to Maicheng, where they were surrounded by Sun Quan's forces. In desperation, Guan Yu attempted to break out of the siege but failed and was captured in an ambush. Sun Quan had him executed after he refused to surrender. Shortly after Guan Yu's death, Cao Cao died of
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