100-498: Madhesh Movement ( Nepali : मधेस अान्दोलन) was a political movement launched by various political parties, especially those based in Madhes , for equal rights, dignity and identity of Madhesis Tharus , Muslims and Janjati groups in Nepal . In nearly a decade, Nepal witnessed three Madhesh Movements - the first Madhesh Movement erupted in 2007, the second Madhesh Movement in 2008 and
200-554: A lingua franca . Nepali has official status in the Indian state of Sikkim and in the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration of West Bengal . It is spoken by about a quarter of Bhutan 's population. Nepali also has a significant number of speakers in the states of Arunachal Pradesh , Assam , Himachal Pradesh , Manipur , Meghalaya , Mizoram and Uttarakhand . In Myanmar it is spoken by
300-554: A concept of reincarnation . Tribals have their own distinct religions based in nature worship , certain Hindutva ideological groups such as BJP and Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) are proselytising them to Hinduism. Some tribal ancestor worshippers have raised objections to be being labelled as Hindu, Muslim, or Christian. Animism (from Latin animus, -i " soul , life ") is the worldview that non-human entities (animals, plants, and inanimate objects or phenomena) possess
400-471: A crucial issue in national discourse of restructuring the state. The first Madhes movement was successful in bringing constitutional identity, representation and political power to a certain limit. Thus, the Madhes movement was a consequence of all such grievances of the ethnic groups against the state of Nepal. The second Madhes Movement took place in 2008, jointly launched by Madhesi Janaadhikar Forum-Nepal ,
500-491: A massive population decline due to disease within four years of the establishment of a colonial presence on the island in 1789. Land dispossession by the zamindars or interference by the colonial government resulted in a number of Adivasi revolts in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, such as the Bhumij rebellion of 1767-1833 and Santal hul (or Santhal rebellion ) of 1855–56. Although these were suppressed by
600-560: A pre-modern orthography. Few changes including changing Kari (करि) to Gari (गरि) and merging Hunu (हुनु) with cha (छ) to create huncha (हुन्छ) were done. The most prominent work written during this time was Bhanubhakta Acharya 's Bhanubhakta Ramayana , a translation of the epic Ramayana from Sanskrit to Nepali for the first time. Acharya's work led to which some describe as "cultural, emotional and linguistic unification" of Nepal, comparatively to Prithvi Narayan Shah who unified Nepal. The modern period of Nepali begins in
700-519: A result, protests broke throughout the southern plains, and more than 50 people were killed in violent clashes." The third Madhes Movement was induced by the unfair formation of seven federal provinces under the new Constitution. It was considered discriminatory because only eight districts in Terai were given the status of a state while the remaining fourteen districts were from the Hilly region . However,
800-649: A short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fuelled by Adhyatma Ramayana ; Sundarananda Bara (1833); Birsikka, an anonymous collection of folk tales; and a version of the ancient Indian epic Ramayana by Bhanubhakta Acharya (d. 1868). The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal , Laxmi Prasad Devkota , and Balkrishna Sama took Nepali to the level of other world languages. The contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India,
900-576: A socio-intellectual NGO) burnt copies of the interim constitution at Maitighar Mandala , Kathmandu." This triggered the Madhes Movement I. The first Madhes movement erupted in 2007 after the seven-party alliance of political parties and CPN- Maoist pronounced the interim constitution of Nepal. The constitution deliberately ignored the demands of Madhesis and other marginalized communities of federalism and equal representation of these ethnic communities. The mass movement brought ethnonationalism as
1000-484: A spiritual essence. The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Society estimates that 1–5% of India's population is animist. India's government recognises that India's indigenous subscribe to pre-Hindu animist-based religions. Animism is used in the anthropology of religion as a term for the belief system of some indigenous tribal peoples , especially prior to the development of organised religion. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, "animism"
1100-405: Is also a separate highest level honorific, which was used to refer to members of the royal family, and by the royals among themselves. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Instead, it relies heavily on periphrasis , a marginal verbal feature of older Indo-Aryan languages. Nepali
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#17327733701291200-671: Is also notable. Nepali-language speakers are rapidly migrating around the globe in last a couple of decades and many books of Nepali language literature are published from different corners of the world. Diasporic literature has developed new ways of thinking and created a new branch in Nepali language literature. Dialects of Nepali include Acchami, Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali, Bheri, Dadeldhuri, Dailekhi, Darchulali, Darchuli, Gandakeli, Humli, Purbeli, and Soradi. These dialects can be distinct from Standard Nepali. Mutual intelligibility between Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali (Bajura), Humli and Acchami
1300-461: Is an Indian holy man, and a title of a devotee or ascetic, especially in north and east India. Generally, a holy or saintly person is referred to as a mahatma, paramahamsa, or swami, or given the prefix Sri or Srila before their name. The term is sometimes misrepresented in English as " Hindu saint ", although "sant" is unrelated to "saint". Some Hindus do not believe that Indian tribals are close to
1400-595: Is considered to be a Golden Age for the language. In West Bengal , Nepali language was recognised by West Bengal Government in 1961 as the official language for the Darjeeling district , and Kalimpong and Kurseong . The Nepali Language Movement took place in India around 1980s to include Nepali language in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India . In 1977, Nepali was officially accepted by Sahitya Academy , an organisation dedicated to
1500-416: Is currently known as Sajha Prakashan . Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the former national anthem entitled " Shriman Gambhir " was changed to Nepali in 1951. However, the term Nepali was used before the official adoption notably by Jaya Prithvi Bahadur Singh , now considered one of the national heroes of Nepal , who advocated for the embracement of the term. The initial name of Nepali language
1600-535: Is dominated by Munda tribes like the Bhumijs , Hos and Santals . Roughly 75% of the total tribal population live in this belt, although the tribal population there accounts for only around 10% of the region's total population. Further south, the region near Bellary in Karnataka has a large concentration of tribals, mostly Boyas/ Valmikis . Small pockets can be found throughout the rest of South India. By far
1700-666: Is dominated by Indo-Aryan speaking tribes like the Bhils . The central region, covering eastern Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, western and southern Chhattisgarh, northern and eastern Telangana, northern Andhra Pradesh and western Odisha is dominated by Dravidian tribes like the Gonds and Khonds . The eastern belt, centred on the Chhota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand and adjacent areas of Chhattisgarh, Odisha and West Bengal,
1800-773: Is generally written in Devanagari script. In certain regions, the Tibetan script was also used in regions with predominantly Tibetic population, with common Tibetan expressions and pronunciation. In the section below Nepali is represented in Latin transliteration using the IAST scheme and IPA . The chief features are: subscript dots for retroflex consonants ; macrons for etymologically, contrastively long vowels ; h denoting aspirated plosives . Tildes denote nasalised vowels . Nepali developed significant literature within
1900-552: Is guided by the 2007 Interim Constitution and the Peace Agreement of 2006. It has numerous provisions for economic, social, and political development such as supporting clauses for free market and international trade. A majority of the political parties, citizens and other interest groups have supported the constitution. The new constitution is gender discriminatory as it denies single woman to pass on citizenship to their children. According to The Kathmandu Post , clauses in
2000-621: Is low. The dialect of the Nepali language spoken in Karnali Province is not mutually intelligible with Standard Nepali. The language is known by its old name as Khas Bhasa in Karnali. The following is a sample text in Nepali, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , with a transliteration (IAST) and transcription ( IPA ). Adivasi The Adivasi are heterogeneous tribal groups across
2100-557: Is marked by the dominance and interplay with spirit worship, witch doctors and animal sacrifice. Some historians and anthropologists assert that many Hindu practices might have been adopted from Adivasi culture. This also includes the sacred status of certain animals such as monkeys , cows, fish (matsya), peacocks , cobras ( nagas ) and elephants and plants such as the sacred fig ( pipal ), Ocimum tenuiflorum ( tulsi ) and Azadirachta indica ( neem ), which may once have held totemic importance for certain adivasi tribes. A sant
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#17327733701292200-824: Is often in free variation with [õ]. Nepali has ten diphthongs : /ui̯/, /iu̯/, /ei̯/, /eu̯/, /oi̯/, /ou̯/, /ʌi̯/, /ʌu̯/, /ai̯/, and /au̯/. [j] and [w] are nonsyllabic allophones of [i] and [u], respectively. Every consonant except [j], [w], and /ɦ/ has a geminate counterpart between vowels. /ɳ/ and /ʃ/ also exist in some loanwords such as /baɳ/ बाण "arrow" and /nareʃ/ नरेश "king", but these sounds are sometimes replaced with native Nepali phonemes. The murmured stops may lose their breathy-voice between vowels and word-finally. Non-geminate aspirated and murmured stops may also become fricatives, with /pʰ/ as [ ɸ ], /bʱ/ as [ β ], /kʰ/ as [ x ], and /ɡʱ/ as [ ɣ ]. Examples of this are /sʌpʰa/ 'clean' becoming [sʌɸa] and /ʌɡʱaɖi/ 'before' becoming [ʌɣaɽi]. Typically, sounds transcribed with
2300-415: Is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples' "spiritual" or "supernatural" perspectives. The animistic perspective is so fundamental, mundane, everyday and taken-for-granted that most animistic indigenous people do not even have a word in their languages that corresponds to "animism" (or even "religion"); the term is an anthropological construct rather than one designated by
2400-506: Is the literature composed by the tribals of the Indian subcontinent. It is composed in more than 100 languages. The tradition of tribal literature includes oral literature and written literature in tribal languages and non-tribal languages. The basic feature of tribal literature is the presence of tribal philosophy in it. Prominent tribal writers include Nirmala Putul , Vahru Sonawane , Temsula Ao , Mamang Dai , Narayan , Rose Kerketta , Ram Dayal Munda , Vandana Tete , Anuj Lugun etc. In
2500-518: Is the official language of the state of Sikkim and of Gorkhaland , West Bengal . Despite being spoken by about a quarter of the population, Nepalese has no official status in Bhutan. According to the 2011 national census , 44.6% of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as its first language . and 32.8% speak Nepali as a second language. Ethnologue reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal (from
2600-538: Is the second most commonly spoken language other than English. Allawah and Hurstville have third most Nepali speaking population in New South Wales . There are regular Nepali language News papers and Magazines in Australia. Vowels and consonants are outlined in the tables below. Nepali distinguishes six oral vowels and five nasal vowels . /o/ does not have a phonemic nasal counterpart, although it
2700-774: The 2011 census , and 2 million people in Bangladesh according to the 2010 estimate. Though claimed to be among the original inhabitants of India, many present-day Adivasi communities formed after the decline of the Indus Valley civilisation , harboring various degrees of ancestry from ancient hunter-gatherers , Indus Valley civilisation , Indo-Aryan , Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language speakers. Tribal languages can be categorised into seven linguistic groupings, namely Andamanese ; Austro-Asiatic ; Dravidian ; Indo-Aryan ; Nihali ; Sino-Tibetan ; and Kra-Dai . Tribals of East, Central, West and South India use
2800-713: The Burmese Gurkhas . The Nepali diaspora in the Middle East , Brunei , Australia and worldwide also use the language. Nepali is spoken by approximately 19 million native speakers and another 14 million as a second language . Nepali is commonly classified within the Eastern Pahari group of the Northern zone of Indo-Aryan. The language originated from the Sinja Valley , Karnali Province then
2900-490: The Census of India from 1871 to 1941, tribal people and their religions were described in several ways: Forest tribe (1891); animist (1901); tribal animist (1911); hill and forest tribe (1921); primitive tribe (1931); and tribes (1941). However, since the census of 1951, the tribal population has been recorded separately. Some Adivasis have been converted to Christianity starting with British period and after independence. During
3000-525: The Constitution of India . Tribal people constitute 8.6% of India 's population and 1.1% of Bangladesh 's. One concentration lies in a belt along the northwest Himalayas: consisting of Jammu and Kashmir , where are found many semi-nomadic groups, to Ladakh and northern Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand , where are found Tibeto-Burman groups. In the northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh , Meghalaya , Mizoram , and Nagaland , more than 90% of
3100-666: The Constitution of Nepal 2015 backtracked from those issues that were already ensured by the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2008. Supreme Court of Nepal Advocate Dipendra Jha wrote in The Kathmandu Post that "many other aspects of the new constitution are more regressive than the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007. Out of all its deficiencies, the most notable one concerns the issue proportional representation or inclusion in all organs of
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3200-468: The Gandaki basin. During the times of Sena dynasty , who ruled a vast area in Terai and central hills of Nepal, Nepali language became influenced by the Indian languages including Awadhi , Bhojpuri , Braj Bhasha and Maithili . Nepali speakers and Senas had a close connect, subsequently, the language became the lingua franca in the area. As a result, the grammar became simplified, vocabulary
3300-464: The Indian subcontinent . The term is a Sanskrit word coined in the 1930s by political activists to give the tribal people an indigenous identity by claiming an indigenous origin. The Constitution of India does not use the word Adivasi , instead referring to Scheduled Tribes and Janjati. The government of India does not officially recognise tribes as indigenous people . The country ratified
3400-753: The International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 107 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the United Nations (1957) and refused to sign the ILO Convention 169 . Most of these groups are included in the Scheduled Tribe category under constitutional provisions in India. They comprise a substantial minority population of India and Bangladesh, making up 8.6% of India 's population and 1.1% of Bangladesh 's, or 104.2 million people in India, according to
3500-450: The International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 107 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the United Nations (1957). In 1989, India refused to sign the ILO Convention 169 . The term Adivasi, in fact, is a modern Sanskrit word specifically coined in the 1930s by tribal political activists to give a differentiated indigenous identity to tribals by alleging that Indo-European and Dravidian speaking peoples are not indigenous. The word
3600-644: The Jagirdari system and then under the zamindari system. Beginning with the Permanent Settlement imposed by the British in Bengal and Bihar, which later became the template for a deepening of feudalism throughout India, the older social and economic system in the country began to alter radically. Land, both forest areas belonging to adivasis and settled farmland belonging to non-adivasi peasants,
3700-621: The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar , there are Brahmin and Badu (tribal) priests. The Badus have the most intimate contact with the deity of the temple, and only they can bathe and adorn it. The Bhils are mentioned in the Mahabharata . The Bhil boy Ekalavya 's teacher was Drona , and he had the honour to be invited to Yudhishthira 's Rajasuya Yajna at Indraprastha . Indian tribals were also part of royal armies in
3800-544: The Marma , Chakma , Bawm , Tripuri , Mizo , Mru , Rakhine and more. In Bangladesh most Adivasis are Buddhists who follow the Theravada school of Buddhism , Animism and Christianity are also followed in fact Buddhism has affected Adivasis so much that it has influenced local Animistic beliefs of other Adivasis. Though claimed to be the original inhabitants of India, many present-day Adivasi communities formed after
3900-714: The Munda , the Ho , the Santali , the Khuruk , and the others. The Munda, Ho, Santhal and Oraon tribe followed the Sarna religion, where Sarna means sacred grove. Their religion is based on the oral traditions passed from generation-to-generation. It involves worship of village deity, Sun and Moon. Animist hunter gatherer Nayaka people of Nilgiri hills of South India. Animism is the traditional religion of Nicobarese people ; their religion
4000-729: The Ramayana and in the Arthashastra . Shabari was a Bhil woman who offered Rama and Lakshmana jujubes when they were searching for Sita in the forest. Matanga, a Bhil, became a Brahmana. Bhangya Bhukya notes that during the final years of the British Raj , while education introduced Westernization in the hilly areas of central India, the regions also parallelly underwent the Hinduization and Rajputization processes. The Gond people and their chiefs started doing
4100-572: The Terai Madhes Loktantrik Party and the Sadbhawana Party led by Rajendra Mahato . The three political goals of this movement launched jointly by Madhesi parties included: federalism , proportional representation , and population-based election constituency, which were later ensured in the 2008 Interim Constitution of Nepal. Violent protests led to the inclusion of federalism in the constitution later. Despite
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4200-666: The capital city of the Khasa Kingdom around the 10th and 14th centuries. It developed proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages , most significantly to other Pahari languages . Nepali was originally spoken by the Khas people , an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group native to the Himalayan region of South Asia . The earliest inscription in the Nepali language is believed to be an inscription in Dullu , Dailekh District which
4300-472: The "caste–Hindu practices" and frequently claimed the " Rajput , and thus kshatriya status". The British government used to support these claims as they viewed the adivasi society to be less civilized than the caste society and believed that adivasi peoples' association with the castes would make the adivasis "more civilized and sober" and "easier for the colonial state to control". Bhukya also points out that central India's "Raj Gond families" had already adopted
4400-491: The 2011 census). It is spoken by 20,250,952, about 77.20% of the population, as their first language and second language . Total number of Nepali speakers in India by state (2011 census) According to the 2011 census of India , there were a total of 2,926,168 Nepali language speakers in India. In Bhutan , native Nepali speakers, known as Lhotshampa , are estimated at 35% of the population. This number includes displaced Bhutanese refugees , with unofficial estimates of
4500-638: The Adivasi origins of Valmiki , who composed the Ramayana , were acknowledged, as were the origins of Adivasi tribes such as the Garasia and Bhilala , which descended from mixed Rajput and Bhil marriages. Unlike the subjugation of the Dalits, the Adivasis often enjoyed autonomy and, depending on region, evolved mixed hunter-gatherer and farming economies, controlling their lands as a joint patrimony of
4600-663: The Adivasis and the rest of Indian society is patchy. There are references to alliances between Ahom Kings of Brahmaputra valley and the hill Nagas. This relative autonomy and collective ownership of Adivasi land by Adivasis was severely disrupted by the advent of the Mughals in the early 16th century. Rebellions against Mughal authority include the Bhil Rebellion of 1632 and the Bhil-Gond Insurrection of 1643 which were both pacified by Mughal soldiers. With
4700-577: The Hinduization of tribal areas". Some Adivasi organisations have demanded that a distinct religious code be listed for Adivasis in the 2011 census of India. The All India Adivasi Conference was held on 1 and 2 January 2011 at Burnpur, Asansol, West Bengal. 750 delegates were present from all parts of India and cast their votes for Religion code as follows: Sari Dhorom – 632, Sarna – 51, Kherwalism – 14 and Other Religions – 03. Census of India . Tribal communities in India are
4800-569: The Indian context. Adivasi is the collective term for the tribes of the Indian subcontinent , who are claimed to be the indigenous people of India prior to the Dravidians and Indo-Aryans. It refers to "any of various ethnic groups considered to be the original inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent." However, Tribal and Adivasi have different meanings. Tribal means a social unit whereas Adivasi means ancient inhabitants. India does not recognise tribes as indigenous people. India ratified
4900-763: The Nepali language is believed to have started with the Shah kings of Gorkha Kingdom , in the modern day Gorkha District of Nepal. Following the Unification of Nepal , the language moved to the court of the Kingdom of Nepal in the 18th century, where it became the state language. One of the earliest works in the Middile Nepali is written during the reign of Ram Shah , King of Gorkha, a book by unknown writer called Ram Shah ko Jivani (A Biography of Ram Shah). Prithvi Narayan Shah 's Divyopadesh , written toward
5000-574: The advent of the Kachwaha Rajputs and Mughals into their territory, the Meenas were gradually sidelined and pushed deep into the forests. As a result, historical literature has completely bypassed the Meena tribe. The combined army of Mughals and Bharmal attacked the tribal king Bada Meena and killed him damaging 52 kots and 56 gates. Bada's treasure was shared between Mughals and Bharmal. During
5100-806: The case of Bangladesh , most Adivasi groups are found in the Chittagong hill tracks along the border with Myanmar , in Sylhet and in the Northwest of Bangladesh . In Sylhet and in the north west you can find groups such as the Sauria Paharia , Kurukh , Santal , Munda and more, and other groups such as the Pnar , Garo , Meitei , Bishnupriya Manipuri and more. In the Chittagong Hill tracts you can find variouse Tibeto-Burman groups such as
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#17327733701295200-555: The colloquial flavour of its language, its religious sincerity, and its realistic natural descriptions". The term Nepali derived from Nepal was officially adopted by the Government of Nepal in 1933, when Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee), a government institution established in 1913 ( B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself as Nepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which
5300-580: The complex declensional system present in the older languages. Nepali developed significant literature within a short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. Around 1830, several Nepali poets wrote on themes from the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana , which was followed by Bhanubhakta Acharya translating the Ramayana in Nepali which received "great popularity for
5400-406: The constitution draft say that both parents have to be Nepali to acquire citizenship. Likewise, a Nepali woman married to a foreigner may not acquire citizenship, but if the father is Nepali, the child is given citizenship regardless. Madhesi communities, who often have marital ties with Indians across the border, are disproportionality affected because they are ethnically and socially connected with
5500-553: The current-day Nepal and Uttarakhand, making Nepali the lingua franca . Nepali is a highly fusional language with a relatively free word order , although the dominant arrangement is subject–object–verb word order (SOV). There are three major levels or gradations of honorific : low, medium and high. Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of
5600-643: The decline of the Indus Valley civilisation , harboring various degrees of ancestry from ancient hunter-gatherers , Indus Valley civilisation , Indo-Aryan , Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language speakers. Only tribal people of Andaman Islands remained isolated for more than 25000 years. According to linguist Anvita Abbi , tribes in India are characterized by distinct lifestyle and are outside of caste system . Although considered uncivilised and primitive, Adivasis were usually not held to be intrinsically impure by surrounding populations (usually Dravidian or Indo-Aryan ), unlike Dalits , who were. Thus,
5700-414: The decline of the Khasa Kingdom, it was divided into Baise Rajya (22 principalities) in Karnali - Bheri region and Chaubise rajya (24 principalities) in Gandaki region. The currently popular variant of Nepali is believed to have originated around 500 years ago with the mass migration of a branch of Khas people from the Karnali - Bheri - Seti eastward to settle in lower valleys of the Karnali and
5800-430: The early 20th century. During this time the ruling Rana dynasty made various attempts to make Nepali the language of education, notably, by Dev Shumsher and Chandra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana , who established Gorkhapatra , and the Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti respectively. At this time, Nepali had limited literature compared to Hindi and Bengali languages , a movement notably in Banaras , and Darjeeling
5900-419: The emerging tea plantations in Assam . There were tribal reform and rebellion movements during the period of the British Empire , some of which also participated in the Indian independence movement or attacked mission posts. There were several Adivasis in the Indian independence movement including Birsa Munda, Dharindhar Bhyuan, Laxman Naik, Jantya Bhil, Bangaru Devi and Rehma Vasave, Mangri Oraon. During
6000-439: The end of his life, around 1774–75, contains old Nepali dialect of the era, is considered as the first work of essay of Nepali literature. During this time Nepali developed a standardised prose in the Lal mohar (royal charter)—documents related to the Nepalese Kingdom dealing with diplomatic writings, tax, and administrative records. The language of the Lal mohar is nearly modern with some minor differences in grammar and with
6100-486: The ethnic Bhutanese refugee population as high as 30 to 40%, constituting a majority in the south (about 242,000 people). Nepali is the third-most spoken language in the Australian state of Tasmania , where it is spoken by 1.3% of its population, and fifth-most spoken language in the Northern Territory , Australia, spoken by 1.3% of its population. Nepali is the most spoken language other than English in Rockdale and Kogarah . In Granville , Campsie and Ashfield it
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#17327733701296200-485: The final schwa: Note: Schwas are often retained in music and poetry to add extra syllables when needed. Nepali is a highly fusional language with relatively free word order , although the dominant arrangement is SOV (subject–object–verb). There are three major levels or gradations of honorifics : low, medium and high. Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. There
6300-420: The forests and resources they traditionally depended on and sometimes coerced to pay taxes, many adivasis were forced to borrow at usurious rates from moneylenders, often the zamindars themselves. When they were unable to pay, that forced them to become bonded labourers for the zamindars. Often, far from paying off the principal of their debt, they were unable even to offset the compounding interest, and this
6400-451: The forests that were alienated during the colonial period. In 2006, India finally made a law to "undo the historical injustice" committed to the Adivasis. Tribals of North East India don't use the term adivasi for themselves and use the word tribe. In Assam , the term adivāsi applies only to the Tea-tribes imported from Central India during colonial times. A substantial list of Scheduled Tribes in India are recognised as tribal under
6500-544: The governing British authority (the East India Company prior to 1858, and the British government after 1858), partial restoration of privileges to adivasi elites (e.g. to Mankis , the leaders of Munda tribes ) and some leniency in levels of taxation resulted in relative calm in the region, despite continuing and widespread dispossession from the late nineteenth century onwards. The economic deprivation, in some cases, triggered internal adivasi migrations within India that would continue for another century, including as labour for
6600-693: The largest of these pockets is in found in the region containing the Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu , Wayanad district of Kerala and nearby hill ranges of Chamarajanagar and Mysore districts of southern Karnataka . Further south, only small pockets of tribal settlement remain in the Western and Eastern Ghats. The scheduled tribe population in Jharkhand constitutes 26.2% of the state. Tribals in Jharkhand mainly follow Sarnaism , an animistic religion. Chhattisgarh has also over 80 lakh scheduled tribe population. Assam has over 60 lakh Adivasis primarily as tea workers. Adivasis in India mainly follow Animism , Hinduism and Christianity . In
6700-449: The last two decades Adivasi from Odisha , Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand have converted to Protestantism , as a result of increased presence of missionaries. Adivasi beliefs vary by tribe, and are usually different from the historical Vedic religion , with its monistic underpinnings, Indo-European deities (who are often cognates of ancient Iranian, Greek and Roman deities, e.g. Mitra / Mithra / Mithras ), lack of idol worship and lack of
6800-858: The least educationally developed. First generation learners have to face social, psychological and cultural barriers to get education. This has been one of the reasons for poor performance of tribal students in schools. Poor literacy rate since independence has resulted in absence of tribals in academia and higher education. The literacy rate for STs has gone up from 8.5% (male – 13.8%, female – 3.2%) in 1961 to 29.6% (male – 40.6%, female – 18.2%) in 1991 and to 40% (male – 59%, female – 37%) in 1999–2000. States with large proportion of STs like Mizoram, Nagaland and Meghalaya have high literacy rate while states with large number of tribals like Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh have low tribal literacy rate. Tribal students have very high drop-out rates during school education. Extending
6900-415: The movement for social change, Madhesis still faced unfair treatment and denial of equal rights. Although the interim constitution of 2008 ensured the demands of Madhesis to be considered, the 2015 Constitution of Nepal failed to address any of those issues. The Nepali Times wrote that, "the mainstream parties wanted to pass the new constitution without determining the number and boundaries of provinces. As
7000-415: The northern Indians. Madhesi parties demanded proportional representation in state organs and guarantees for constituencies to be based on population because 20 out of 75 districts in the Terai region house 50% of the population. The provision of 165 members in the parliament was considered problematic because the Hilly and Mountain region were allotted 100 seats when their share of the total population
7100-419: The oppressed, and citizens of backward regions". The issue with this amendment was the general division of "youths", historically marginalized groups such as Madhesis or the "Khas Arya", and the hilly upper caste community who are already dominant in politics, being placed in the same category. The current constitution is the seventh constitution written in the history of Nepal, after its promulgation in 2015. It
7200-488: The people themselves. Donyi-Polo is the designation given to the indigenous religions , of animistic and shamanic type, of the Tani , from Arunachal Pradesh , in northeastern India. The name "Donyi-Polo" means "Sun-Moon". Sarnaism or Sarna (local languages: Sarna Dhorom , meaning "religion of the holy woods") defines the indigenous religions of the Adivasi populations of the states of Central- East India , such as
7300-492: The period of British rule , the colonial administration encroached upon the adivasi tribal system, which led to widespread resentment against the British among the tribesmen. The tribesmen frequently supported rebellions or rebelled themselves, while their raja looked negatively upon the British administrative innovations. Beginning in the 18th century, the British added to the consolidation of feudalism in India, first under
7400-431: The period of British rule, India saw the rebellions of several then backward castes , mainly tribal peoples that revolted against British rule. These were: There are more than 700 tribal groups in India. The major Scheduled Tribes (Adivasi) are; Tribal languages can be categorised into five linguistic groupings, namely Andamanese ; Austro-Asiatic ; Dravidian ; Indo-Aryan ; and Sino-Tibetan . Adivasi literature
7500-410: The politically assertive term Adivasi , while Tribals of North East India use 'Tribal' or 'Scheduled Tribe' and do not use term 'Adivasi' for themselves. Adivasi studies is a new scholarly field, drawing upon archaeology, anthropology, agrarian history, environmental history, subaltern studies , indigenous studies, aboriginal studies, and developmental economics . It adds debates that are specific to
7600-539: The population is tribal. However, in the remaining northeast states of Assam , Manipur , Sikkim , and Tripura , tribal peoples form between 20 and 30% of the population. The largest population of tribals lives in a belt stretching from eastern Gujarat and Rajasthan in the west all the way to western West Bengal, a region known as the tribal belt . These tribes correspond roughly to three regions. The western region, in eastern Gujarat, southeastern Rajasthan, northwestern Maharashtra as well as western Madhya Pradesh ,
7700-456: The professions and high-ranking administrative posts. tribal children in middle and high schools and higher education institutions are central to government policy, but efforts to improve a tribe's educational status have had mixed results. Recruitment of qualified teachers and determination of the appropriate language of instruction also remain troublesome. Commission after commission on the "language question" has called for instruction, at least at
7800-711: The promotion of Indian literature . After Sikkim was annexed by India, the Sikkim Official Languages Act, 1977, made Nepali as one of the official languages of state. On 20 August 1992, the Lok Sabha passed a motion to add the Nepali language to the Eighth Schedule. Nepali written in the Devanagari script is the official language of Nepal. On 31 August 1992, Nepali was added to the list of scheduled languages of India . Nepali
7900-451: The purposes of this constitution". The term Adivasi is also used for the ethnic minorities of Bangladesh , the Vedda people of Sri Lanka and the native Tharu people of Nepal . Another Nepalese term is Adivasi Janjati ( Nepali : आदिवासी जनजाति ; Adivāsi Janajāti ), although the political context differed historically under the Shah and Rana dynasties. In India, opposition to
8000-526: The religious and social traditions of the Rajputs before the British Raj in India, and there were "matrimonial relations" between a number of Gond and Rajput Rajas. However, the British governments' policies of offering " zamindari rights, village headships and patelships " fueled the process. According to Patit Paban Mishra, "the 'ksatriyaization' of tribal rulers and their surroundings, resulted in
8100-445: The retroflex symbols ⟨ ʈ , ʈʰ, ɖ , ɖʱ, ɽ, ɳ, ɽ̃⟩ are not purely retroflex [ ʈ , ʈʰ, ɖ , ɖʱ, ɽ , ɳ , ɽ̃] but apical postalveolar [ t̠ , t̠ʰ, d̠ , d̠ʱ, ɾ̠ , n̠ , ɾ̠̃]. Some speakers may use purely retroflex sounds after /u/ and /a/, but other speakers use the apical articulation in all positions. Final schwas may or may not be preserved in speech. The following rules can be followed to figure out whether or not Nepali words retain
8200-495: The romantic ideal of the ancient silvan culture of the Vedic people. Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar said: The tribals "can be given yajñopavîta (...) They should be given equal rights and footings in the matter of religious rights, in temple worship, in the study of Vedas, and in general, in all our social and religious affairs. This is the only right solution for all the problems of casteism found nowadays in our Hindu society." At
8300-448: The state." This triggered the third Madhes Movement by Madhesis in Nepal. Although the first amendment to the constitution was done, resistance over the document by Madhesi and Tharus in Nepal still continues. After the second amendment, the constitution of Nepal attempted to satisfy one of the key demands of the protesters - participation and proportional inclusion. The Madhesi parties did not accept this amendment because this change again
8400-412: The system of primary education into tribal areas and reserving places for needing them, they say, to work in the fields. On the other hand, in those parts of the northeast where tribes have generally been spared the wholesale onslaught of outsiders, schooling has helped tribal people to secure political and economic benefits. The education system there has provided a corps of highly trained tribal members in
8500-537: The then seven-party alliance of the mainstream political parties and the CPN-Maoist jointly announced the Interim Constitution in 2007, it totally ignored the concept of federalism, the most desired political agenda of Madhesis and other marginalised communities. A day after the promulgation of the interim statute, a group of Madhesi activists under the Upendra Yadav -led Madhesi Janaadhikar Forum-Nepal (then
8600-517: The third Madhesh Movement in 2015. Ramesh Mahato was Madhesi martyr in 2007 at Lahan . The discussions around the 1990 constitution became crucial in encouraging the Madhes movement that aimed to abandon cultural and lingual superiority of the high castes. The first Madhes Movement broke out in the southern plains of Nepal in 2007. About the origin of the first Madhes Movement, Journalist Amarendra Yadav writes in The Rising Nepal , "When
8700-546: The tribe. In some areas, securing Adivasi approval and support was considered crucial by local rulers, and larger Adivasi groups were able to sustain their own kingdoms in central India. The Bhil , Meenas and Gond Rajas of Garha-Mandla and Chanda are examples of an Adivasi aristocracy that ruled in this region, and were "not only the hereditary leaders of their Gond subjects, but also held sway over substantial communities of non-tribals who recognized them as their feudal lords." The historiography of relationships between
8800-401: The usage of the term is varied. Critics argue that the "original inhabitant" contention is based on the fact that they have no land and are therefore asking for land reform. The Adivasis argue that they have been oppressed by the "superior group" and that they require and demand a reward, more specifically land reform. Adivasi issues are not related to land reforms but to the historical rights to
8900-434: The use of word Adivasi as they believe the word unites the tribal people of India. Although terms such as atavika , vanavāsi ("forest dwellers"), or girijan (" mountain people ") are also used for the tribes of India, adivāsi carries the specific meaning of being the original and autochthonous inhabitants of a given region, and the self-designation of those tribal groups. The Constitution of India doesn't use
9000-583: The word Adivasi, and directs government officials to not use the word in official documents. The notified tribals are known as Scheduled Tribes and Janjati in the Constitution. The constitution of India grouped these ethnic groups together "as targets for social and economic development. Since that time the tribe of India have been known officially as Scheduled Tribes ." Article 366 (25) defined scheduled tribes as "such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for
9100-473: Was " Khas Kura " ( खस कुरा ), meaning language or speech of the Khas people , who are descended from the ancient Khasas of Mahabharata , as the language developed during the rule of the Khasa Kingdom in the western Nepal . Following the Unification of Nepal led by Shah dynasty 's Prithvi Narayan Shah , Nepali language became known as Gorakhā Bhāṣā ( गोरखा भाषा ; language of the Gorkhas ) as it
9200-471: Was ambiguous and did not specify rights in particular to the Madhesis. The constitution states that 45% of all jobs in state organs and public employment are reserved to 17 groups: "socially backward women, Dalits, Adivasis , Janjatis, Khas Aryas , Tharus, minority groups, persons with disability, marginalized groups, Muslims, backward classes, gender and secularly minority groups, youths, peasants, laborers,
9300-571: Was expanded, and its phonology was softened, after it was syncretised, Nepali lost much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. In the Kathmandu Valley (then known as Nepal Mandala ), Nepali language inscriptions can be seen during the reigns of Lakshmi Narasimha Malla and Pratap Malla , which indicates the significant increment of Nepali speakers in Kathmandu Valley. The institutionalisation of
9400-524: Was less than 50% while the Terai region that made up more than 50% of the total population was allotted only 65 seats. Nepali language Nepali ( English: / n ɪ ˈ p ɔː l i / ; Devanagari : नेपाली , [ˈnepali] ) is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Himalayas region of South Asia . It is the official, and most widely spoken, language of Nepal , where it also serves as
9500-544: Was made the justification for their children working for the zamindar after the death of the initial borrower. In the case of the Andamanese adivasis, their protective isolation changed with the establishment of a British colonial presence on the islands. Lacking immunity against common infectious diseases of the Eurasian mainland, the large Jarawa habitats on the southeastern regions of South Andaman Island experienced
9600-432: Was rapidly made the legal property of British-designated zamindars (landlords), who in turn moved to extract the maximum economic benefit possible from their newfound property and subjects. Adivasi lands sometimes experienced an influx of non-local settlers, often brought from far away (as in the case of Muslims and Sikhs brought to Kol territory) by the zamindars to better exploit local land, forest and labour. Deprived of
9700-618: Was spoken by Gorkhas . The people living in the Pahad or the hilly region, where it does not generally contain snow, called the language Parvate Kurā ( पर्वते कुरा ), meaning "the speech of the hills". Early forms of present-day Nepali developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhraṃśa Vernaculars of present-day western Nepal in the 10th–14th centuries, during the times of the Khasa Kingdom . The language evolved from Sanskrit , Prakrit , and Apabhraṃśa . Following
9800-523: Was started to create uniformed Nepali identity, which was later adopted in Nepal following the 1951 Nepalese revolution and during the Panchayat system. In 1957, Royal Nepal Academy was established with the objectives of developing and promoting Nepali literature, culture, art and science. During Panchayat, Nepal adopted a " One King, One Dress, One Language, One Nation " ideology, which promoted Nepali language as basis for Nepali nationalism, this time
9900-572: Was used by Thakkar Bapa to refer to inhabitants of forest in 1930s. The word was used in 1936 and included in English dictionary prepared by Pascal. The term was recognised by Markandey Katju the judge of the Supreme Court of India in 2011. In Hindi and Bengali, Adivasi means "Original Inhabitants," from ādi 'beginning, origin'; and vāsin 'dweller' (itself from vas 'to dwell'), thus literally meaning 'beginning inhabitant'. Tribal of India and different political parties are continuing
10000-435: Was written around the reign of King Bhupal Damupal around the year 981. The institutionalisation of the Nepali language arose during the rule of the Kingdom of Gorkha (later became known as the Kingdom of Nepal ) in the 16th century. Over the centuries, different dialects of the Nepali language with distinct influences from Sanskrit , Maithili , Hindi , and Bengali are believed to have emerged across different regions of
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