123-543: Opposition (38) The Madhesh Provincial Assembly ( Nepali / Maithili / Bhojpuri : मधेश प्रदेश सभा) is a unicameral governing and law making body of Madhesh Province , one of the seven Provinces in Nepal , The assembly is seated in the provincial capital at Janakpur in Dhanusha District . The assembly has 107 members, 64 of whom are elected through single-member constituencies and 43 of whom are elected through
246-407: A government institution established in 1913 ( B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself as Nepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which is currently known as Sajha Prakashan . Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the former national anthem entitled " Shriman Gambhir " was changed to Nepali in 1951. However, the term Nepali
369-471: A close connect, subsequently, the language became the lingua franca in the area. As a result, the grammar became simplified, vocabulary was expanded, and its phonology was softened, after it was syncretised, Nepali lost much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. In the Kathmandu Valley (then known as Nepal Mandala ), Nepali language inscriptions can be seen during
492-516: A location is dependent on the season, orientation and bearing with respect to the Sun , and the mass of the mountain. As the Sun is the major contributor to the temperature, it is often directly proportional to the received radiation from the Sun with faces receiving more sunlight having a higher heat buildup. In narrow valleys between steep mountain faces, the weather conditions may differ significantly on both
615-495: A notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as a result of climate change. The rate of retreat varies across regions depending on the local conditions. Since 1975, a marked increase in the loss of glacial mass from 5–13 Gt/yr to 16–24 Gt/yr has been observed with an estimated 13% overall decrease in glacial coverage in the Himalayas. The resulting climate variations and changes in hydrology could affect
738-649: A short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fuelled by Adhyatma Ramayana ; Sundarananda Bara (1833); Birsikka, an anonymous collection of folk tales; and a version of the ancient Indian epic Ramayana by Bhanubhakta Acharya (d. 1868). The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal , Laxmi Prasad Devkota , and Balkrishna Sama took Nepali to the level of other world languages. The contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India,
861-593: A standardised prose in the Lal mohar (royal charter)—documents related to the Nepalese Kingdom dealing with diplomatic writings, tax, and administrative records. The language of the Lal mohar is nearly modern with some minor differences in grammar and with a pre-modern orthography. Few changes including changing Kari (करि) to Gari (गरि) and merging Hunu (हुनु) with cha (छ) to create huncha (हुन्छ) were done. The most prominent work written during this time
984-824: Is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau . The range has several peaks exceeding an elevation of 8,000 m (26,000 ft) including Mount Everest , the highest mountain on Earth. The mountain range runs for 2,400 km (1,500 mi) as an arc from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of the Indian subcontinent. The Himalayas occupy an area of 595,000 km (230,000 sq mi) across six countries – Afghanistan , Bhutan , China , India , Nepal , and Pakistan . The sovereignty of
1107-405: Is also a separate highest level honorific, which was used to refer to members of the royal family, and by the royals among themselves. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Instead, it relies heavily on periphrasis , a marginal verbal feature of older Indo-Aryan languages. Nepali
1230-671: Is also notable. Nepali-language speakers are rapidly migrating around the globe in last a couple of decades and many books of Nepali language literature are published from different corners of the world. Diasporic literature has developed new ways of thinking and created a new branch in Nepali language literature. Dialects of Nepali include Acchami, Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali, Bheri, Dadeldhuri, Dailekhi, Darchulali, Darchuli, Gandakeli, Humli, Purbeli, and Soradi. These dialects can be distinct from Standard Nepali. Mutual intelligibility between Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali (Bajura), Humli and Acchami
1353-612: Is also the source of major streams of the Ganges river system. The Eastern Himalayas form the eastern most stretch of the range and consist of the states of parts of Tibet in China, Sikkim , Assam , Arunachal Pradesh , parts of other North East Indian states and north West Bengal in India, entirety of Bhutan, mountain regions of central and eastern Nepal, and most of the western lowlands in Nepal. The eastern Himalayas broadly consists of two regions–the western Nepal Himalayas and
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#17327866550161476-518: Is among the highest in the world, at typically around 5,500 m (18,000 ft) while several equatorial mountains such as in New Guinea , the Rwenzoris , and Colombia , have a snow line at 900 m (3,000 ft) lower. As the physical features of mountains are irregular, with broken jagged contours, there can be wide variations in temperature over short distances. The temperature at
1599-479: Is amongst the most affected regions due to climate change . Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported a notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat and changes occurring at a far rapid rate. As per a 2019 assessment, the Himalayan region, which had experienced a temperature rise of 0.1 °C (32.2 °F) per decade was warming at an increased rate of 0.1 °C (32.2 °F) per decade over
1722-577: Is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Himalayas region of South Asia . It is the official, and most widely spoken, language of Nepal , where it also serves as a lingua franca . Nepali has official status in the Indian state of Sikkim and in the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration of West Bengal . It is spoken by about a quarter of Bhutan 's population. Nepali also has a significant number of speakers in
1845-627: Is believed to have originated around 500 years ago with the mass migration of a branch of Khas people from the Karnali - Bheri - Seti eastward to settle in lower valleys of the Karnali and the Gandaki basin. During the times of Sena dynasty , who ruled a vast area in Terai and central hills of Nepal, Nepali language became influenced by the Indian languages including Awadhi , Bhojpuri , Braj Bhasha and Maithili . Nepali speakers and Senas had
1968-492: Is followed by monsoon rains from June to September. The post monsoon season is largely devoid of rain and snow before beginning of cold winters in December-January with intermediate spring before the summer. There are localised wind pressure systems at high altitudes resulting in heavy winds. Due to its high altitude, the range blocks the flow of cold winds from the north into the Indian subcontinent. This causes
2091-603: Is found in the mixed deciduous and conifer forests of the Eastern Himalayas and the Himalayan water shrew are found on the river banks. The forests of the foothills are inhabited by several different primates, including the endangered Gee's golden langur and the Kashmir gray langur , within highly restricted ranges in the east and west of the Himalayas, respectively. The yaks are large domesticated cattle found in
2214-773: Is generally written in Devanagari script. In certain regions, the Tibetan script was also used in regions with predominantly Tibetic population, with common Tibetan expressions and pronunciation. In the section below Nepali is represented in Latin transliteration using the IAST scheme and IPA . The chief features are: subscript dots for retroflex consonants ; macrons for etymologically, contrastively long vowels ; h denoting aspirated plosives . Tildes denote nasalised vowels . Nepali developed significant literature within
2337-560: Is home to more than a billion people. In 2011, the population in the Himalayan region was estimated to be about 52.8 million with the combined drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers home to nearly 600 million. Of this, 7.96 million (15.1% of the total Himalayan population) live in Eastern Himalayas, 19.22 million in Central Himalayas (36.4%), and 25.59 million reside in Western Himalayas (48.5%). The population of
2460-710: Is low. The dialect of the Nepali language spoken in Karnali Province is not mutually intelligible with Standard Nepali. The language is known by its old name as Khas Bhasa in Karnali. The following is a sample text in Nepali, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , with a transliteration (IAST) and transcription ( IPA ). Himalayas The Himalayas , or Himalaya ( / ˌ h ɪ m ə ˈ l eɪ . ə , h ɪ ˈ m ɑː l ə j ə / HIM -ə- LAY -ə, hih- MAH -lə-yə )
2583-824: Is often in free variation with [õ]. Nepali has ten diphthongs : /ui̯/, /iu̯/, /ei̯/, /eu̯/, /oi̯/, /ou̯/, /ʌi̯/, /ʌu̯/, /ai̯/, and /au̯/. [j] and [w] are nonsyllabic allophones of [i] and [u], respectively. Every consonant except [j], [w], and /ɦ/ has a geminate counterpart between vowels. /ɳ/ and /ʃ/ also exist in some loanwords such as /baɳ/ बाण "arrow" and /nareʃ/ नरेश "king", but these sounds are sometimes replaced with native Nepali phonemes. The murmured stops may lose their breathy-voice between vowels and word-finally. Non-geminate aspirated and murmured stops may also become fricatives, with /pʰ/ as [ ɸ ], /bʱ/ as [ β ], /kʰ/ as [ x ], and /ɡʱ/ as [ ɣ ]. Examples of this are /sʌpʰa/ 'clean' becoming [sʌɸa] and /ʌɡʱaɖi/ 'before' becoming [ʌɣaɽi]. Typically, sounds transcribed with
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#17327866550162706-614: Is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock . According to the modern theory of plate tectonics , it was formed as a result of a continental collision and orogeny along the convergent boundary between the India and Eurasian Plates . During the Jurassic period (201 to 145 mya ), the Tethys Ocean formed the southern border of then existent Eurasian landmass. When
2829-580: Is the lower middle sub-section of the Himalayas. It extends almost along the entire length of the Himalayas and is about 75 km (47 mi) wide. It is mostly composed of rocky surfaces and has an average elevation of 3,700–4,500 m (12,100–14,800 ft). The Greater Himalayas (also known as Himadri ) form the highest section of the Himalayas and extend for about 2,300 km (1,400 mi) from northern Pakistan to northern Arunachal Pradesh in India. The sub-range has an average elevation of more than 6,100 m (20,000 ft) and contains many of
2952-466: Is the official language of the state of Sikkim and of Gorkhaland , West Bengal . Despite being spoken by about a quarter of the population, Nepalese has no official status in Bhutan. According to the 2011 national census , 44.6% of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as its first language . and 32.8% speak Nepali as a second language. Ethnologue reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal (from
3075-538: Is the second most commonly spoken language other than English. Allawah and Hurstville have third most Nepali speaking population in New South Wales . There are regular Nepali language News papers and Magazines in Australia. Vowels and consonants are outlined in the tables below. Nepali distinguishes six oral vowels and five nasal vowels . /o/ does not have a phonemic nasal counterpart, although it
3198-452: Is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Nepali developed significant literature within a short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. Around 1830, several Nepali poets wrote on themes from
3321-470: The 1951 Nepalese revolution and during the Panchayat system. In 1957, Royal Nepal Academy was established with the objectives of developing and promoting Nepali literature, culture, art and science. During Panchayat, Nepal adopted a " One King, One Dress, One Language, One Nation " ideology, which promoted Nepali language as basis for Nepali nationalism, this time is considered to be a Golden Age for
3444-755: The Andaman Sea . The Salween , Mekong , Yangtze , and Yellow Rivers all originate from parts of the Tibetan Plateau, north of the great water divide. These are considered distinct from the Himalayan watershed and are known as circum-Himalayan rivers. The Himalayan region has multiple lakes across various elevations including endorheic freshwater and saline lakes . The geology of the lakes vary across geographies depending on various factors such as altitude, climate, water source, and lithology . Tarns are high altitude mountain lakes situated above 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and are formed primarily by
3567-567: The Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of the same tectonic processes that formed the Himalayas. The Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau at about 67 mm (2.6 in) per year, forcing it to continue to move upwards. About 20 mm (0.79 in) per year is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front , which leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm (0.20 in) per year. This makes
3690-663: The Dihang River to the India-Tibet border. The highest peak is the eastern anchor Namcha Barwa at 7,756 m (25,446 ft). The region is the source of many of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra River and consists of major mountain passes such as Nathu La , and Jelep La . Beyond the Dihang valley, the mountains extend as Purvanchal mountain range across the eastern boundary of India. The Himalayan range
3813-490: The Everest . At lower altitudes, the temperature is pleasantly warm during the summers. During winters, the low-pressure weather systems from the west cause heavy snowfall . There are two periods of precipitation with most of the rainfall occurring during the post summer season and moderate amount during the winter storms. The Himalayan range obstructs the path of the south west monsoon winds, causing heavy precipitation on
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3936-507: The Himalayan region of South Asia . The earliest inscription in the Nepali language is believed to be an inscription in Dullu , Dailekh District which was written around the reign of King Bhupal Damupal around the year 981. The institutionalisation of the Nepali language arose during the rule of the Kingdom of Gorkha (later became known as the Kingdom of Nepal ) in the 16th century. Over
4059-707: The Indian epic Mahabharata , which is the personification of the Hindu deity Himavan . The mountain range is known as Himālaya in Hindi and Nepali (both written हिमालय ), Himalaya ( ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ་ ) in Tibetan , Himāliya ( سلسلہ کوہ ہمالیہ ) in Urdu , Himaloy ( হিমালয় ) in Bengali , and Ximalaya ( simplified Chinese : 喜马拉雅 ; traditional Chinese : 喜馬拉雅 ; pinyin : Xǐmǎlāyǎ ) in Chinese . It
4182-520: The Indian subcontinent and the regions north of the range. The mountains are spread across more than eight degrees of latitude and hence includes a wide range of climatic zones including sub-tropical , temperate , and semi-arid . The climate in a region is determined by factors such as altitude, latitude, and the impact on monsoon. There are generally five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn or post-monsoon, winter, and spring. The summer in April-May
4305-602: The Kashmir valley . The higher elevations consist of rock fragements and lithosols with very low humus content. The Himalayas and the Central Asian mountain ranges consist of the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after the Antarctic and Arctic regions. It is often referred to as the "Third Pole" as it encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km (2,900 cu mi) of fresh water. The South Col and Khumbu Glacier in
4428-657: The Khasa Kingdom in the western Nepal . Following the Unification of Nepal led by Shah dynasty 's Prithvi Narayan Shah , Nepali language became known as Gorakhā Bhāṣā ( गोरखा भाषा ; language of the Gorkhas ) as it was spoken by Gorkhas . The people living in the Pahad or the hilly region, where it does not generally contain snow, called the language Parvate Kurā ( पर्वते कुरा ), meaning "the speech of
4551-516: The Kumaon region. The northern extremes of the Great Himalayas in Kashmir and Ladakh receive only 3–6 in (76–152 mm) of rainfall per year. During the winter season, a high pressure system develops over Central Asia, which results in winds flowing towards the Himalayas. However, due to the presence of less water bodies in the Central Asian region, the moisture content is low. As
4674-1272: The Main Frontal Thrust and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT); the Lesser Himalayan Zone between the MBT and the Main Central Thrust (MCT); the Higher Himalayan Zone beyond the MCT; the Tethyan Zone, separated by the South Tibetan Detachment System; and the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, where the Indian plate is subducted below the Asian plate. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
4797-481: The Mount Everest region are amongst the world's highest glaciers. The Gangotri which is 32 km (20 mi) long and is one of the largest glaciers, is one of the sources of the Ganges . The Himalayan glaciers show considerable variation in the rate of descent. The Khumbu moves about 1 ft (0.30 m) daily compared to certain other glaciers which move about 6 ft (1.8 m) per day. During
4920-454: The Paris agreement , aimed at climate change mitigation and adaptation . The actions are aimed at reducing emissions , increase the usage of renewable energy , and sustainable environmental practices. As the local population increasingly experience the impact of the changes in climate such as variations in temperature and precipitation, and change in vegetation, they are forced to adapt for
5043-702: The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana , which was followed by Bhanubhakta Acharya translating the Ramayana in Nepali which received "great popularity for the colloquial flavour of its language, its religious sincerity, and its realistic natural descriptions". The term Nepali derived from Nepal was officially adopted by the Government of Nepal in 1933, when Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee),
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5166-738: The Sivalik Hills on the south; the Lower Himalayas ; the Great Himalayas , which is the highest and central range; and the Tibetan Himalayas on the north. The Sivalik Hills form the lowest sub-Himalayan range and extends for about 1,600 km (990 mi) from the Teesta River in the Indian state of Sikkim to northern Pakistan. The name derives from Sanskrit meaning "Belonging to Shiva ", which
5289-542: The Western Himalayas has characteristics of species from Central Asia and Mediterranean region. Fossils of species such as giraffe , and hippopotamus have been found in the foothills, suggesting the presence of African species some time ago. Large mammals such as Indian elephant , and Indian rhinoceros are confined to the densely forested moist ecosystems in the Eastern and Central Himalayas. Many of
5412-473: The Yarlung Tsangpo River . The Himalayas consists of four parallel mountain ranges: the Sivalik Hills on the south; the Lower Himalayas ; the Great Himalayas , which is the highest and central range; and the Tibetan Himalayas on the north. The range varies in width from 350 km (220 mi) in the north-west to 150 km (93 mi) in the south-east. The Himalayan range is one of
5535-517: The Zanskar , Pir Panjal Ranges , and parts of the Sivalik and Great Himalayas. The western anchor Nanga Parbat is the highest point in the region at 8,126 m (26,660 ft). It is also referred Punjab, Kashmir or Himachal Himalyas from west to east locally. The central Himalayas or Kumaon extend for about 320 km (200 mi) along the state of Uttarakhand in northern India from
5658-631: The last ice age , there was a connected ice stream of glaciers between Kangchenjunga in the east and Nanga Parbat in the west. The glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the Karakoram in the west, the Tibetan inland ice in the north, and came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft) in the south. While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20–32 km (12–20 mi) in length, several of
5781-417: The party list proportional representation system . They are elected for five-year terms unless the assembly is dissolved earlier. Provincial assemblies were established in 2015 in accordance with the Constitution of Nepal. The first elections to the assemblies were held in 2017 . The inaugural meeting of the assembly was held on 4 February 2018. Saroj Kumar Yadav from RJPN served as the first speaker of
5904-410: The 18th century till the independence of the constituent states in the mid 20th century. The long history along with various outside influences have resulted in the mixture of various traditions and existence of wide range of ethnicity in the region. People speak various languages belonging to four principal language families– Indo-European , Tibeto-Burman , Austroasiatic , and Dravidian , with
6027-476: The 18th century, where it became the state language. One of the earliest works in the Middile Nepali is written during the reign of Ram Shah , King of Gorkha, a book by unknown writer called Ram Shah ko Jivani (A Biography of Ram Shah). Prithvi Narayan Shah 's Divyopadesh , written toward the end of his life, around 1774–75, contains old Nepali dialect of the era, is considered as the first work of essay of Nepali literature. During this time Nepali developed
6150-491: The 2011 census). It is spoken by 20,250,952, about 77.20% of the population, as their first language and second language . Total number of Nepali speakers in India by state (2011 census) According to the 2011 census of India , there were a total of 2,926,168 Nepali language speakers in India. In Bhutan , native Nepali speakers, known as Lhotshampa , are estimated at 35% of the population. This number includes displaced Bhutanese refugees , with unofficial estimates of
6273-457: The Brahmaputra river system from the Tibetan rivers to the north. There are 19 major rivers in the Himalayas which form part of the two major river systems of Ganges - Brahmaputra , which follow an easterly course and Indus , which follows a north-westerly course. The northern slopes of Gyala Peri and the peaks beyond the Tsangpo drain into the Irrawaddy River , which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into
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#17327866550166396-425: The Eastern Pahari group of the Northern zone of Indo-Aryan. The language originated from the Sinja Valley , Karnali Province then the capital city of the Khasa Kingdom around the 10th and 14th centuries. It developed proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages , most significantly to other Pahari languages . Nepali was originally spoken by the Khas people , an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group native to
6519-420: The Himalayan lakes present the danger of a glacial lake outburst flood as they have grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting. While these lakes support a range of ecosystems and local communities, many of them remain poorly studied in terms of their hydrology and biodiversity. Due to its location and size, the Himalayas acts as a climatic barrier which affects the weather conditions of
6642-413: The Himalayan region geologically active and the movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes the region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time. The northern slopes of the Himalayas have a thicker soil cover than the southern slopes due to presence of lesser number of rivers and streams. These soils are loamy and are dark brown in colour, and are covered with forests in
6765-531: The Himalayan region including Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan are amongst the most vulnerable countries in the Global South due to climate change. The temperature rise increases the incidence of tropical diseases such as malaria , and dengue further north. The extreme weather events might cause physical harm directly and indirectly due to lack of access and contamination of drinking water , pollution , exposure to chemicals, and destruction of crops, and drought . The climate change also impact
6888-420: The Himalayan region occurred in 2000 BCE when Aryans came from Central Asia and progressively settled along the plains to the south. Information on the Aryan culture in the region is found in Hindu literature such as the Vedas , and Puranas . Since the second century BCE, the Silk Road in China was connected to the Indian subcontinent by various routes running along the Himalayan region. The northern side of
7011-433: The Himalayan waters. The extremes of high altitude favor the presence of extremophile organisms, which include various species of insects such as spiders , and mites . The Himalayan fauna include endemic plants and animals and critically endangered or endangered species such as Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, musk deer and hangul . There are more than 7,000 endemic plants and 1.9% of global endemic vertebrates in
7134-426: The Himalayas has grown considerably over the last five decades from 19.9 million in 1961 with the annual growth rate (3.31%) more than three times higher than the world average (1.1%) during the same period. The earliest tribes in the Himalayas might have originated from Dravidian people from the south of the Indian subcontinent as evidenced by the presence of Dravidian languages . The major human migration towards
7257-447: The Himalayas reduce by 2 °C (36 °F) for every 300 m (980 ft) increase of altitude. Higher altitudes invariably experience low temperatures. In the Eastern Himalayas, Darjeeling at an altitude of 1,945 m (6,381 ft) has an average minimum temperature of 11 °C (52 °F) during the month of May, while the same has been recorded as −22 °C (−8 °F) at an altitude of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) on
7380-425: The Himalayas was under the influence of various Tibetan kingdoms across history. In the middle ages , the southern side came under the influence of various Rajput kings and later under the Mughal rule . Nepal was ruled by various kingdoms from both the Indian and Tibetan regions, until it was conquered by the Gurkha kingdom in the early 18th century. Most of the southern region came under the British influence in
7503-617: The Indian Himalayas. Pangong Lake spread across India and China is the highest saline lake in the world at an altitude of 4,350 m (14,270 ft) and amongst the largest in the region with a surface area of 700 km (270 sq mi). Spread across 189 km (73 sq mi), Wular Lake is amongst the largest fresh water lakes in Asia. Other large lakes include Tso Moriri , and Tso Kar in Ladakh , Nilnag , and Tarsar Lake , in Jammu and Kashmir , Gurudongmar , Chholhamu , and Tsomgo Lakes in Sikkim , Tilicho , Rara , Phoksundo , and Gokyo Lakes in Nepal. Some of
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#17327866550167626-487: The Sutlej River in the east to the Kali River in the west. The region comprises parts of Sivalik and Great Himalayas. At lower elevations below 2,400 m (7,900 ft), the region has a temperate climate and consists of permanent settlements. At elevations higher than 4,300 m (14,100 ft), permanent snow caps cover the Great Himalayas with the highest peaks being Nanda Devi at 7,817 m (25,646 ft) and Kamet at 7,756 m (25,446 ft). The region
7749-411: The Tethys ocean. The upliftment of the Himalayas occurred gradually and as the Great Himalayas became higher, they became a climatic barrier and blocked the winds, which resulted in lesser precipitation on the upper slopes. The lower slopes continued to be eroded by the rivers, which flowed in the gaps between the mountains and the folded lower Shivalik Hills and the Lesser Himalayas were formed due to
7872-419: The Tibetan Himalayas and the plateau beyond. It also played a role in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the Taklamakan and Gobi . The monsoon is triggered by the different rates of heating and cooling between the Indian Ocean and Central Asia, which create large differences in the atmospheric pressure prevailing above each. As the Central Asian landmass heats up during the summer compared to
7995-534: The Western Himalayas. The high altitude mountainous areas are mostly barren or, at the most, sparsely sprinkled with stunted bushes. The Himalayas are home to various medicinal plants such as Abies pindrow used to treat bronchitis , Andrachne cordifolia used for snake bites , and Callicarpa arborea used for skin diseases . Nearly a fifth of the plant species in the Himalayas are used for medicinal purposes. Climate change , illegal deforestation , and introduction of non native species have had an effect on
8118-455: The animal species found in the region are unique and endemic or nearly endemic to the region. Other large animal species found in the Himalayas include Asiatic black bear , clouded leopard , and herbivores such as bharal , Himalayan tahr , takin , Himalayan serow , Himalayan musk deer , and Himalayan goral . Animals found at higher altitudes include brown bear , and the elusive snow leopard , which mainly feed on bharal. The red panda
8241-562: The assembly. Lalbabu Raut of FSFN , later Samajbadi Party and PSP-N , was elected as chief minister with support from RJPN . The province was previously known as Province No. 2 and Janakpur served as the temporary capital of the province. The 17 January 2022 session of the assembly endorsed a proposal to name the province Madhesh and designated Janakpur as the permanent provincial capital with two-thirds majority. Nepali language Nepali ( English: / n ɪ ˈ p ɔː l i / ; Devanagari : नेपाली , [ˈnepali] )
8364-425: The bend of the Indus River along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border region in the north-west to the Satlej river basin in India in the south-east. Most of the region lies in the Kashmir territory disputed between India and Pakistan with certain portions of the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh . The Indus forms the division between the Western Himalayas and the Karakoram range to the north. The Western Himalayas include
8487-514: The centuries, different dialects of the Nepali language with distinct influences from Sanskrit , Maithili , Hindi , and Bengali are believed to have emerged across different regions of the current-day Nepal and Uttarakhand, making Nepali the lingua franca . Nepali is a highly fusional language with a relatively free word order , although the dominant arrangement is subject–object–verb word order (SOV). There are three major levels or gradations of honorific : low, medium and high. Low honorific
8610-510: The cold winds from Central Asia , and plays a significant roles in influencing the monsoons . The vast size, varying altitude range, and complex topography of the Himalayas result in a wide range of climates, from humid and subtropical to cold and dry desert conditions. The mountains have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia and Tibet . Many Himalayan peaks are considered sacred across various Indian and Tibetan religions such as Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism , and Bon . Hence,
8733-400: The condensation occurs at higher altitudes in the north, there is more precipitation in the Great Himalayas in the west during the winter rains and the precipitation reduces towards the east. In January, the Kumaon region receives about 3 in (76 mm) of rainfall compared to about 1 in (25 mm) in the Eastern Himalayas. The Himalayan region has a highly sensitive ecosystem and
8856-475: The downwarping of the intermediate lands. Minor streams ran between the faults within the mountains until they joined the major river systems in the plains. Intermediate valleys such as Kashmir and Kathmandu were formed from temporary lakes that were formed during pleistocene , which dried up later. The Himalayan region is made up of five geological zones– the Sub-Himalayan Zone bound by
8979-508: The eastern Assam Himalayas. The Nepal Himalayas forms the centre of the Himalayan curve and extend for 800 km (500 mi) between the Kali and Teesta Rivers . The Great Himalayas in the region form the highest part of the entire Himalayas and consist of many of the eight-thousanders including Everest, Kanchenjunga at 8,586 m (28,169 ft), and Makalu at 8,463 m (27,766 ft). These mountains host large glaciers that form
9102-495: The ecosystem. At higher altitudes, Eastern and Western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests consisting of various conifers occur. Chir pine is the dominant species which occurs at elevations from 800–900 m (2,600–3,000 ft). Other species include Deodar cedar , which grows at altitudes of 1,900–2,700 m (6,200–8,900 ft), blue pine and morinda spruce between 2,200–3,000 m (7,200–9,800 ft). At higher altitudes, alpine shrubs and meadows occur above
9225-668: The ethnic Bhutanese refugee population as high as 30 to 40%, constituting a majority in the south (about 242,000 people). Nepali is the third-most spoken language in the Australian state of Tasmania , where it is spoken by 1.3% of its population, and fifth-most spoken language in the Northern Territory , Australia, spoken by 1.3% of its population. Nepali is the most spoken language other than English in Rockdale and Kogarah . In Granville , Campsie and Ashfield it
9348-485: The final schwa: Note: Schwas are often retained in music and poetry to add extra syllables when needed. Nepali is a highly fusional language with relatively free word order , although the dominant arrangement is SOV (subject–object–verb). There are three major levels or gradations of honorifics : low, medium and high. Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. There
9471-417: The flora and fauna of the region. Changes might decrease the territory available for local wildlife and reduction in prey for the predators . This puts the animals in conflict with humans as humans might encroach animal territories and the animals might venture into human habitats for search of food, which might exacerbate the economic loss of the local population. The Himalayan nations are signatories of
9594-521: The flora of the range. The increase in temperature has resulted in shifting of various species to higher elevations, and early flowering and fruiting. Many of the animal species are from the tropics, which have adapted to the various conditions across the Himalayan range. Some of the species of the Eastern Himalayas are similar to those found in East and South East Asia , while the animals of
9717-405: The formation of the Tibetan plateau . During miocene (20 mya), the increasing collision between the plates resulted in the top layer of metamorphic rocks getting peeled, which moved southwards to form nappes with trenches in between. As the mountains received rainfall, the waters flowing down the mountains eroded and steepened the southern slopes. The silt deposited by these rivers and streams in
9840-647: The hills". Early forms of present-day Nepali developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhraṃśa Vernaculars of present-day western Nepal in the 10th–14th centuries, during the times of the Khasa Kingdom . The language evolved from Sanskrit , Prakrit , and Apabhraṃśa . Following the decline of the Khasa Kingdom, it was divided into Baise Rajya (22 principalities) in Karnali - Bheri region and Chaubise rajya (24 principalities) in Gandaki region. The currently popular variant of Nepali
9963-555: The language of education, notably, by Dev Shumsher and Chandra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana , who established Gorkhapatra , and the Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti respectively. At this time, Nepali had limited literature compared to Hindi and Bengali languages , a movement notably in Banaras , and Darjeeling was started to create uniformed Nepali identity, which was later adopted in Nepal following
10086-556: The language. In West Bengal , Nepali language was recognised by West Bengal Government in 1961 as the official language for the Darjeeling district , and Kalimpong and Kurseong . The Nepali Language Movement took place in India around 1980s to include Nepali language in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India . In 1977, Nepali was officially accepted by Sahitya Academy , an organisation dedicated to
10209-456: The last ice age , and give rise to some of the world's major rivers such as the Indus , Ganges , and Tsangpo – Brahmaputra . Their combined drainage basin is home to nearly 600 million people including 52.8 million living in the vicinity of the Himalayas. The region is also home to many endorheic lakes. The Himalayas have a major impact on the climate of the Indian subcontinent. It blocks
10332-458: The livelihoods of the people in the Himalayas and the plains below. Despite its greater size, the Himalayas does not form a water divide across its span because of the multiple river systems that cut across the range. While the mountains were formed gradually, the rivers concurrently cut across deeper gorges ranging from 1,500–5,000 m (4,900–16,400 ft) in depth and 10–50 km (6.2–31.1 mi) in width. The actual water divide lies to
10455-590: The lower ranges on the southern slopes speak Indo-European languages. The inhabitants of the Western Himalayas include the Kashmiri people , who speak Kashmiri in the Vale of Kashmir and the Gujjar and Gaddi people , who speak Gujari and Gaddi respectively in the lower altitudes of Jammu and Himachal Pradesh in India. The last two are pastoral and nomadic people, who own flocks of cattle and migrate across
10578-468: The lowlands and grassland meadows in the mid altitudes. The composition and texture of the soils in the Himalayas also vary across regions. In the Eastern Himalayas , the wet soils has a high humus content conducive for growing tea . Podzolic soils occur in the eastern range of the Indus basin between the Indus and Shyok Rivers . The Ladakh region is generally dry with saline soil while fertile alluvial soils occur in select river valleys such as
10701-419: The main valley glaciers were 60–112 km (37–70 mi) long during the ice age. The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and ablation of a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 m (4,590–5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate would have been at least 7.0–8.3 °C (12.6–14.9 °F) colder than it is today. Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported
10824-477: The majority of the languages belonging to the first two categories. The Tibetan Himalayas are inhabited by Tibetan people , who speak Tibeto-Burman languages. The Great Himalayas are mostly inhabited by nomadic groups and tribes, with most of the population in Lesser Himalayas , and Shivalik Hills . People towards the Great Himalayas in the north parts mostly speak Tibeto-Burman, while populations in
10947-404: The margins. The mountains act as heat islands and heavier mountains absorb and retain more heat than the surroundings, and therefore influences the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature from the winter minimum to the summer maximum. However, soil temperatures mostly remain the same on both the sides of a mountain at altitudes higher than 4,500 m (14,800 ft). Temperatures in
11070-530: The north of the Himalayas with rivers flowing down both the sides of the mountains. Some of the major river systems and their drainage system outdate the formation of the mountains itself. The water divide is formed by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges on the west and the Ladakh Range on the east, separating the Indus system from Central Asia. On the east, Kailas and Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains separate
11193-678: The northwest, which extend into Central Asia . Its western anchor Nanga Parbat lies south of the northernmost bend of the Indus river in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and its eastern anchor Namcha Barwa lies to the west of the great eastern bend of the Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet Autonomous Region of China . The Himalayas occupies an area of 595,000 km (230,000 sq mi) across six countries – Afghanistan , Bhutan , China, India , Nepal , and Pakistan . The sovereignty of
11316-436: The number of glacial lakes , some of which may be prone to dangerous floods. The region is expected to encounter continued increase in average annual temperature and 81% of the region's permafrost is projected to be lost by the end of the century. The increased warming and melting of snow is projected to accelerate the regional river flows until 2060 after which it would decline due to reduction in ice caps and glacier mass. As
11439-403: The ocean below, the difference in pressure creates a thermal low . The moist air from the ocean is pushed inwards towards the low pressure system causing the monsoon winds. It results in precipitation along the slopes due to the orographic effect as the air rises along the mountains and condenses. The monsoon begins at the end of May in the eastern fringes of the range and moves upwards towards
11562-477: The past half a century. The average warm days and nights had also increased by 1.2 days and 1.7 nights per decade while the average cold days and nights had declined by 0.5 and 1 respectively. This has also prolonged the length of the growing season by 4.25 days per decade. The climate change might results in erratic rainfall, varying temperatures, and natural disasters like landslides , and floods . The increasing glacier melt had been followed by an increase in
11685-603: The precipitation is projected to increase concurrently, the annual river flows would be largely unaffected for the Eastern Himalayan rivers fed by monsoons, but would reduce the flows in the Western Himalayan rivers. Almost a billion people live on either side of the mountain and are prone to impact of the climate change. This includes the people who live in the mountains, who are more vulnerable due to temperature variations and other biota. Countries in
11808-711: The promotion of Indian literature . After Sikkim was annexed by India, the Sikkim Official Languages Act, 1977, made Nepali as one of the official languages of state. On 20 August 1992, the Lok Sabha passed a motion to add the Nepali language to the Eighth Schedule. Nepali written in the Devanagari script is the official language of Nepal. On 31 August 1992, Nepali was added to the list of scheduled languages of India . Nepali
11931-469: The range in the Kashmir region is disputed among India, Pakistan, and China. It is bordered by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges on the northwest, Tibetan Plateau in the north, and by the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the south. Its western anchor Nanga Parbat lies south of the northernmost bend of the Indus river and its eastern anchor Namcha Barwa lies to the west of the great bend of
12054-517: The range in the Kashmir region is disputed amongst India, Pakistan, and China. The range varies in width from 350 km (220 mi) in the north-west to 150 km (93 mi) in the south-east. The range has several peaks exceeding an elevation of 8,000 m (26,000 ft) including Mount Everest , the highest mountain on Earth at 8,848 m (29,029 ft). The Himalayas consist of four parallel mountain ranges from south to north:
12177-1034: The region tropical and subtropical , temperate , coniferous , and grasslands . Tropical and subtropical broadleaf forests are mostly constricted to the high temperature and humid regions in Eastern and Central Himalayas , and pockets of Kashmir in the west. There are about 4,000 species of Angiosperms with major vegetation include Dipterocarpus , and Ceylon ironwood on porous soils at elevations below 2,400 m (7,900 ft) and oak , and Indian horse chestnut on lithosol between 1,100–1,700 m (3,600–5,600 ft). Himalayan subtropical pine forests with Himalayan screw pine trees occur above 4,000 m (13,000 ft) and Alder , and bamboo are found on terrains with higher gradient. Temperate forest occur at altitudes between 1,400–3,400 m (4,600–11,200 ft) while moving from south-east to north-west towards higher latitude. Eastern and Western Himalayan broadleaf forests consisting of sal trees dominate
12300-777: The region. More than 800 species of birds have been recorded with a large number of species restricted to the Eastern Himalayas. Amongst the bird species found include magpies such as black-rumped magpie and blue magpie , titmice , choughs , whistling thrushes , and redstarts . Raptors include bearded vulture , black-eared kite , and Himalayan griffon . Snow partridge and Cornish chough are found at altitudes above 5,700 m (18,700 ft). The Himalayan lakes also serve as breeding grounds for species such as black-necked crane and bar-headed goose . There are multiple species of reptiles including Japalura lizards, blind snakes , and insects such as butterflies . Several fresh water fish such as Glyptothorax are found in
12423-500: The region. As of 2022 , there are 575 protected areas established by the nations in the Himalayan-Hindu Kush region, which account for 40% of the land area and 8.5% of the global protected area. There are also four biodiversity hotspots , 12 ecoregions , 348 key biodiversity areas, and six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the region. The Himalayan region with the associated Indo-Gangetic Plain and Tibetan plateau
12546-528: The reigns of Lakshmi Narasimha Malla and Pratap Malla , which indicates the significant increment of Nepali speakers in Kathmandu Valley. The institutionalisation of the Nepali language is believed to have started with the Shah kings of Gorkha Kingdom , in the modern day Gorkha District of Nepal. Following the Unification of Nepal , the language moved to the court of the Kingdom of Nepal in
12669-445: The retroflex symbols ⟨ ʈ , ʈʰ, ɖ , ɖʱ, ɽ, ɳ, ɽ̃⟩ are not purely retroflex [ ʈ , ʈʰ, ɖ , ɖʱ, ɽ , ɳ , ɽ̃] but apical postalveolar [ t̠ , t̠ʰ, d̠ , d̠ʱ, ɾ̠ , n̠ , ɾ̠̃]. Some speakers may use purely retroflex sounds after /u/ and /a/, but other speakers use the apical articulation in all positions. Final schwas may or may not be preserved in speech. The following rules can be followed to figure out whether or not Nepali words retain
12792-494: The same. The Himalayan region belongs to the Indomalayan realm . The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary broadly across regions depending on the climate and geology. The Himalayas are home to multiple biodiversity hotspots, and is home to an estimated 35,000+ species of plants and 200+ species of animals. An average of 35 new species have been found every year since 1998. There are four types of vegetation found in
12915-593: The same. This has led to increased awareness on the impact of climate change, and adaptations such as change in crop cycles , introduction of drought resistant crops, and plantation of new trees. This has also led to the construction of more dams , canals , and other water structures, to prevent flooding and aid in agriculture. New plantations on barren lands to prevent landslides, and construction of fire lines made of litter and mud to prevent forest fires have been undertaken. However, lack of funding, awareness, access to technology, and government policy are barriers for
13038-413: The slopes and the plains below. The effect of Himalayas on the hydroclimate impacts millions in the plains as the variability in monsoon rainfall is the main factor behind wet and dry years. As the Himalayas force the monsoon winds to give up most of the moisture before ascending up, the winds became dry once its reaches the north of the mountains. This results in the dry and windy cold desert climate in
13161-451: The slopes based on seasons. Various ethnic people such as Ladakhi , Balti , and Dard live on the north of the Great Himalayas along the Indus basin in the Kashmir and Ladakh regions spread across India, Pakistan, and China. The Dard speak Dard , which is part of Indo-European languages, while the Balti and Lakadkhi people speak Balti , and Ladakhi , which are part of Tibeto-Burman. In
13284-417: The snow-melt of the glaciers. The lower altitude lakes are replenished by a combination of rains, underground springs, and streams. Large lakes in the Himalayan basin were formed in the holocene period, when water pooled in the faults and the water supply was subsequently cut off. There are more than 4500 high altitude lakes of which about 12 large lakes contribute to more than 75% of the total lake area in
13407-409: The source of various rivers of the Ganges - Brahmaputra river system. The high altitude regions are uninhabitable with few mountain passes inbetween that serve as crossovers with the human settlements in the lower valleys. The Assam Himalaya forms the eastern most sub-section that extends eastward for 720 km (450 mi) from the Indian state of Sikkim through Bhutan and north-east India past
13530-545: The states of Arunachal Pradesh , Assam , Himachal Pradesh , Manipur , Meghalaya , Mizoram and Uttarakhand . In Myanmar it is spoken by the Burmese Gurkhas . The Nepali diaspora in the Middle East , Brunei , Australia and worldwide also use the language. Nepali is spoken by approximately 19 million native speakers and another 14 million as a second language . Nepali is commonly classified within
13653-470: The summits of several peaks in the region such as Gangkhar Puensum , Machapuchare , and Kailash have been off-limits to climbers. The name of the range is derived from the Sanskrit word Himālay ( हिमालय ) meaning 'abode of snow'. It is a combination of the words him ( हिम ) meaning 'frost/cold' and ālay ( आलय ) meaning 'dwelling/house'. The name of the range is mentioned as Himavat ( Sanskrit : हिमवत्) in older literature such as
13776-584: The super-continent Gondwana broke up nearly 180 mya, the Indo-Australian plate slowly drifted northwards towards Eurasia for 130-140 million years. The Indian Plate broke up with the Australian Plate about 100 mya. The Tethys ocean constricted as the Indian plate moved gradually upward. As both the plates were made of continental crusts , which were less denser than oceanic crusts , the increased compressive forces resulted in folding of
13899-612: The trees. The Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows extend between 3,200–4,200 m (10,500–13,800 ft) and the Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows occur at altitudes of 3,600–4,500 m (11,800–14,800 ft). Major vegetation include Juniperus , Rhododendron on rocky terrain facing the Sun, various flowering plants at high elevations, and mosses , and lichens in humid, shaded areas. Interspersed Grasslands occur at certain regions, with thorns and semi-desert vegetation at low precipitation areas in
14022-592: The tropical zone to extend farther north in South Asia than anywhere else in the world. The temperatures are more pronounced in the Brahmaputra valley in the eastern section as it lies at a lower latitude and due to the latent heat of the forced air from the Bay of Bengal which condenses before moving past the Namcha Barwa , the eastern anchor of the Himalayas. Due to this, the permanent snow line
14145-543: The trough between the Himalayas and the Deccan plateau formed the Indo-Gangetic Plain . About 0.6 mya in the pleistocene period, the Himalayas rose higher and became the highest mountains on Earth. In the northern Great Himalayas , new gneiss and granite formations emerged on crystalline rocks that gave rise to the higher peaks. The summit of Mount Everest is made of unmetamorphosed marine ordovician limestone with fossil trilobites , crinoids , and ostracods from
14268-593: The underlying rock bed. The thrust faults created between the folds resulted in granite and basalt rocks from the Earth's mantle protruding through the crust . During the paleogene period (about 50 mya), the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate after it completely closed the Tethys ocean gap. The Indian plate continued to subduct under the Eurasian plate over the next 30 million years that resulted in
14391-460: The west in June and July. There is heavy precipitation in the east which reduces progressively towards the west as the air becomes drier. Cherrapunji in Eastern Himalayas is one of the wettest places on Earth with an annual precipitation of 428 in (10,900 mm). The average annual rainfall varies from 120 in (3,000 mm) in the Eastern Himalayas to about 120 in (3,000 mm) in
14514-481: The world's tallest peaks, including Everest. It is mainly composed of granite rocks. The Tibetan Himalayas (also known as Tethys ) form the northern most sub-range of the Himalayas in Tibet . Longitudinally, the range is broadly divided into three regions– western , central , and eastern . The Western Himalayas form the westernmost section of the range and extend for about 560 km (350 mi) from
14637-524: The youngest mountain ranges on Earth and is made up of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It was formed more than 10 mya due to the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian Plate along the convergent boundary . Due to the continuous movement of the Indian plate, the Himalayas keep rising every year, making them geologically and seismically active. The mountains consist of large glaciers , which are remnants of
14760-449: Was Bhanubhakta Acharya 's Bhanubhakta Ramayana , a translation of the epic Ramayana from Sanskrit to Nepali for the first time. Acharya's work led to which some describe as "cultural, emotional and linguistic unification" of Nepal, comparatively to Prithvi Narayan Shah who unified Nepal. The modern period of Nepali begins in the early 20th century. During this time the ruling Rana dynasty made various attempts to make Nepali
14883-475: Was mentioned as Himmaleh in western literature such as Emily Dickinson 's poetry and Henry David Thoreau 's essays. The Himalayas run as an arc for 2,400 km (1,500 mi) from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of the Indian subcontinent , separating the Indo-Gangetic Plains from the Tibetan Plateau . It is bordered by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges on
15006-534: Was originally used to denote the 320 km (200 mi) stretch from Haridwar to the Beas River . The range is about 16 km (9.9 mi) wide on average and the elevation ranges from 900–1,200 m (3,000–3,900 ft). It rises along the Indo-Gangetic Plain and is often separated from the higher northern sub-ranges by valleys. The eastern portion of the range is called Churia Range in Nepal. The Lower or Lesser Himalaya (also known as Himachal )
15129-458: Was used before the official adoption notably by Jaya Prithvi Bahadur Singh , now considered one of the national heroes of Nepal , who advocated for the embracement of the term. The initial name of Nepali language was " Khas Kura " ( खस कुरा ), meaning language or speech of the Khas people , who are descended from the ancient Khasas of Mahabharata , as the language developed during the rule of
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