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123-681: Italian irredentism in Malta is the movement that uses an irredentist argument to propose the incorporation of the Maltese islands into Italy , with reference to past support in Malta for Italian territorial claims on the islands. Although Malta had formally ceased to be part of the Kingdom of Sicily only since 1814 following the Treaty of Paris , Italian irredentism in Malta was mainly significant during

246-421: A Greater Croatia . Irredentism carries a lot of potential for future conflicts since many states have kin groups in adjacent countries. It has been argued that it poses a significant danger to human security and the international order . For these reasons, irredentism has been a central topic in the field of international relations . For the most part, international law is hostile to irredentism. For example,

369-420: A Greater Serbia following the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s and Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014. Irredentism is closely related to revanchism and secession . Revanchism is an attempt to annex territory belonging to another state. It is motivated by the goal of taking revenge for a previous grievance , in contrast to the goal of irredentism of building an ethnically unified nation-state. In

492-743: A "Maltese Martyr" and created in his honor in Liguria the Battaglione Borg Pisani in November 1943, in which other Maltese irredentists fought. Since World War II, there have been no calls for Italian irredentism in Malta. Enrico Mizzi became Malta's Prime Minister in 1950, but never denied his past when he promoted the union of Malta to Italy: he defined himself as "a man without stain and without fear" (in Italian: "Uomo senza macchia e senza paura"). Irredentism Irredentism

615-419: A Maltese than any other language, excepting his native tongue." Despite this, a more subtle process of Anglicization took place throughout the course of the 19th century. Knowledge of English provided the Maltese with more employment opportunities, and this became more significant as trade between Britain and Malta increased. The colonial authorities continued to promote English but did not forcibly impose it on

738-400: A bigger state, such as the challenges that come with accommodating a wider range of citizens' preferences . Based on these lines of thought, it has been argued that states are more likely to advocate irredentist claims if the enclave is a relatively rich territory. An additional relevant factor is the regime type of both the irredentist state and the neighboring state. In this regard, it

861-478: A case of African irredentism. The goal of this attack was to unite the significant Somali population living in the Ogaden region with their kin by annexing this area to create a Greater Somalia . The invasion escalated into a war of attrition that lasted about eight months. Somalia was close to reaching its goal but failed in the end, mainly due to an intervention by socialist countries. Argentina's invasion of

984-816: A central role in irredentism since most irredentist states justify their expansionist agenda based on shared ethnicity. In this regard, the goal of unifying parts of an ethnic group in a common nation-state is used as a justification for annexing foreign territories and going to war if the neighboring state resists. Ethnicity is a grouping of people according to a set of shared attributes and similarities. It divides people into groups based on attributes like physical features, customs, tradition , historical background, language , culture , religion , and values. Not all these factors are equally relevant for every ethnic group. For some groups, one factor may predominate, as in ethno-linguistic , ethno-racial, and ethno-religious identities. In most cases, ethnic identities are based on

1107-579: A force fueling irredentism is discrimination against the main ethnic group in the enclave. Irredentist states often try to legitimize their aggression against neighbors by presenting them as humanitarian interventions aimed at protecting their discriminated ethnic kin. This justification was used, for example, in Armenia 's engagement in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, in Serbia's involvement in

1230-694: A form of revanchism due to its justification as a revenge intended to reverse previous territorial losses. The term "revanchism" comes from the French term revanche , meaning revenge . It was originally used in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War for nationalists intending to reclaim the lost territory of Alsace-Lorraine . Saddam Hussein justified the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 by claiming that Kuwait had always been an integral part of Iraq and only became an independent nation due to

1353-445: A government that is not broadly supported by the population. According to Siroky and Hale, anocratic regimes are most likely to engage in irredentist conflicts and to become their victim. This is based on the idea that they share some democratic ideals favoring irredentism but often lack institutional stability and accountability . This makes it more likely for the elites to consolidate their power using ethno-nationalist appeals to

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1476-415: A less prestigious status than other languages on the islands. Maltese was primarily a spoken language among the common people and it was not used in official contexts. When Malta was part of the Kingdom of Sicily in the medieval period, the most prestigious languages or acrolects were Latin and Sicilian . After Hospitaller rule was established in 1530, Italian (then known as volgare toscano ) became

1599-481: A minority who not only loved Italy's language but also saw Malta as a geographical extension of the Italian mainland. Malta was described as "the extreme end of Italian soil" (Senator Caruana Gatto who represented the nobility in Malta in 1923). The battle, however, was still being fought in largely cultural terms, as the " Language Question " on the role of Italian in education. This led to the revoking (the second) of

1722-519: A part of it. In this sense, claims by both South Korea and North Korea to incorporate the whole of the Korean Peninsula would be considered a form of irredentism. A popular view combining many of the elements listed above holds that irredentism is based on incongruence between the borders of a state and the boundaries of the corresponding nation . State borders are usually clearly delimited, both physically and on maps. National boundaries, on

1845-576: A political nature, on the other hand, are more closely tied to pre-existing national boundaries. Structural accounts use a slightly different approach and focus on the relationship between nationalism and the regional context. They focus on the tension between state sovereignty and national self-determination . State sovereignty is the principle of international law holding that each state has sovereignty over its own territory. It means that states are not allowed to interfere with essentially domestic affairs of other states. National self-determination, on

1968-481: A popular revolt in Malta in 1919, was later considered in fascist Italy as the beginning of the "active" Italian irredentism in Malta. This commemoration (official since 1986) is in remembrance of the riots of 1919 when the Maltese population organized marches to obtain some form of representative government. Four people died when troops stationed on the islands fired into the crowd. The Fascists invested heavily in promoting Italian culture in Malta. They made overtures to

2091-439: A pre-existing parent state is necessary for irredentism. Political scientist Thomas Ambrosio restricts his definition to cases involving a pre-existing parent state and distinguishes three types of irredentism: (1) between two states, (2) between a state and a former colony , and (3) between a state and a collapsed state. The typical case is between two states. A textbook example of this is Somalia's invasion of Ethiopia . In

2214-561: A precautionary measure. When Italy declared war in June 1940, pro-Italian civil servants including Arturo Mercieca were also arrested. They were later sent to internment camps in Uganda , where they remained throughout the war. Malta was heavily bombarded by Italian and German aircraft between 1940 and 1943, and during the war the Maltese developed strong sympathies with the British. Malta

2337-545: A preference for British sovereignty among the population. Both the UK and Spain claimed sovereignty in the 18th Century and Argentina claims the islands as a colonial legacy from independence in 1816. The breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s resulted in various irredentist projects. They include Slobodan Milošević 's attempts to establish a Greater Serbia by absorbing some regions of neighboring states that were part of former Yugoslavia. A simultaneous similar project aimed at

2460-472: A replacement of dynastic imperial governments. A central aspect of nationalism is that it sees states as entities with clearly delimited borders that should correspond to national boundaries. Irredentism reflects the importance people ascribe to these borders and how exactly they are drawn. One difficulty in this regard is that the exact boundaries are often difficult to justify and are therefore challenged in favor of alternatives. Irredentism manifests some of

2583-535: A report about using Maltese in court in 1924, and he stated that the language was inadequate in this context and that it "would undoubtedly detract from the solemnity, the seriousness and decorum which characterized the Criminal Court." In 1931, 13.4% of the Maltese population knew Italian while 22.6% had knowledge of English. The rise of political parties changed Malta's socio-political landscape and led to public opinion starting to matter more. This resulted in

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2706-491: A sense of belonging as well as physical and mental security. It can help people identify with a common purpose. However, ethnicity has also been the source of many conflicts. It has been responsible for various forms of mass violence , including ethnic cleansing and genocide . The perpetrators usually form part of the ruling majority and target ethnic minority groups. Not all ethnic-based conflicts involve mass violence, like many forms of ethnic discrimination . Irredentism

2829-425: A set of common features. A central aspect of many ethnic identities is that all members share a common homeland or place of origin. This place of origin does not have to correspond to the area where the majority of the ethnic group currently lives in case they migrated from their homeland. Another feature is a common language or dialect . In many cases, religion also forms a vital aspect of ethnicity. Shared culture

2952-683: A tool or pretext to increase the parent state's power. Rational choice theories study how irredentism is caused by decision-making processes of certain groups within a state. In this view, irredentism is a tool used by elites to secure their political interests. They do so by appealing to popular nationalist sentiments. This can be used, for example, to gain public support against political rivals or to divert attention away from domestic problems. Other explanations focus on economic factors. For example, larger states enjoy advantages that come with having an increased market and decreased per capita cost of defense. However, there are also disadvantages to having

3075-530: Is a part." Irredentism, by contrast, is initiated by members of an ethnic group in one state to incorporate territories across their border housing ethnically kindred people. Secession happens when a part of an existing state breaks away to form an independent entity. This was the case, for example, in the United States , when many of the slaveholding southern states decided to secede from the Union to form

3198-418: Is another contributing factor. A closely related explanation argues that national identities based primarily on ethnicity, culture , and history increase irredentist tendencies. Another approach is to explain irredentism as an attempt to increase power and wealth. In this regard, it is argued that irredentist claims are more likely if the neighboring territory is relatively rich. Many explanations also focus on

3321-419: Is another significant factor. It is a wide term and can include characteristic social institutions, diet, dress, and other practices. It is often difficult to draw clear boundaries between people based on their ethnicity. For this reason, some definitions focus less on actual objective features and stress instead that what unites an ethnic group is a subjective belief that such common features exist. In this view,

3444-412: Is as war-prone as irredentism". Political scholar Rachel Walker points out that "there is scarcely a country in the world that is not involved in some sort of irredentist quarrel ... although few would admit to this". Political theorists Stephen M. Saideman and R. William Ayres argue that many of the most important conflicts of the 1990s were caused by irredentism, such as the wars for a Greater Serbia and

3567-496: Is claimed. Most scholars define irredentism as a claim made by one state on the territory of another state. In this regard, there are three essential entities to irredentism: (1) an irredentist state or parent state, (2) a neighboring host state or target state, and (3) the disputed territory belonging to the host state, often referred to as irredenta . According to this definition, popular movements demanding territorial change by non-state actors do not count as irredentist in

3690-479: Is ethnically similar and the intention is to retrieve the area to unite the people. This definition implies, for example, that the majority of the border disputes in the history of Latin America were not forms of irredentism. Usually, irredentism is defined in terms of the motivation of the irredentist state, even if the territory is annexed against the will of the local population. Other theorists focus more on

3813-474: Is motivated by resentment and aims to reverse territorial losses due to a previous defeat. In an attempt to contrast irredentism with revanchism, political scientist Anna M. Wittmann argues that Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland in 1938 constitutes a form of irredentism because of its emphasis on a shared language and ethnicity. But she characterizes Germany's invasion of Poland the following year as

Italian irredentism in Malta - Misplaced Pages Continue

3936-572: Is not very common in Africa since most African states are ethnically heterogeneous. Relevant factors for the ethnic motivation for irredentism are how large the dominant ethnic group is relative to other groups and how large it is in absolute terms. It also matters whether the ethnic group is relatively dispersed or located in a small core area and whether it is politically disadvantaged. Explanations focusing on nationalism are closely related to ethnicity-based explanations. Nationalism can be defined as

4059-418: Is often argued that democratic states are less likely to engage in irredentism. One reason cited is that democracies often are more inclusive of other ethnic groups. Another is that democracies are in general less likely to engage in violent conflicts. This is closely related to democratic peace theory , which claims that democracies try to avoid armed conflicts with other democracies. This is also supported by

4182-532: Is often seen as a product of modern nationalism, i.e. the claim that a nation should have its own sovereign state. In this regard, irredentism emerged with and depends on the modern idea of nation-states. The start of modern nationalism is often associated with the French Revolution in 1789. This spawned various nationalist revolutions in Europe around the mid-nineteenth century. They often resulted in

4305-652: Is one state 's desire to annex the territory of another state. This desire can be motivated by ethnic reasons because the population of the territory is ethnically similar or the same to the population of the parent state. Historical reasons may also be responsible, i.e., that the territory previously formed part of the parent state. However, difficulties in applying the concept to concrete cases have given rise to academic debates about its precise definition. Disagreements concern whether either or both ethnic and historical reasons have to be present and whether non-state actors can also engage in irredentism. A further dispute

4428-422: Is their political form as a state or a state-like entity. The physical and visible aspects of ethnicity, such as skin color and facial features, are often referred to as race , which may thus be understood as a subset of ethnicity. However, some theorists, like sociologist Pierre van den Berghe, contrast the two by restricting ethnicity to cultural traits and race to physical traits. Ethnic solidarity can provide

4551-429: Is whether attempts to absorb a full neighboring state are also included. There are various types of irredentism. For typical forms of irredentism, the parent state already exists before the territorial conflict with a neighboring state arises. However, there are also forms of irredentism in which the parent state is newly created by uniting an ethnic group spread across several countries. Another distinction concerns whether

4674-411: Is wide consensus that irredentism is a form of territorial dispute involving the attempt to annex territories belonging to a neighboring state. However, not all such attempts constitute forms of irredentism and there is no academic consensus on precisely what other features need to be present. This concerns disagreements about who claims the territory, for what reasons they do so, and how much territory

4797-686: The Partito Unionista before splitting up again in 1893. The Church also played a role in politics, with the pro-British Pietro Pace being appointed as Bishop of Malta in the hopes of improving relations between the Maltese and their colonial masters. In 1895 Savona founded a new party known as the Partito Popolare , and he clashed with the Anglophile Gerald Strickland , the Chief Secretary to

4920-624: The Abyssinia Crisis and Italy's alliance with Nazi Germany in 1936. In the mid-1930s, Maltese civil servants with pro-Italian sympathies began to be dismissed from their jobs. A new constitution was established in 1939, and this recognized English and Maltese as the islands' official languages. As the threat of war became more apparent, an anti-Italian sentiment appeared in the Maltese working classes. Fears of an Italian attack increased when World War II broke out in 1939, and prominent Nationalists including Enrico Mizzi were arrested as

5043-776: The Confederate States of America in 1861. In the case of irredentism, the break-away area does not become independent but merges into another entity. Irredentism is often seen as a government decision, unlike secession. Both movements are influential phenomena in contemporary politics but, as Horowitz argues, secession movements are much more frequent in postcolonial states. However, he also holds that secession movements are less likely to succeed since they usually have very few military resources compared to irredentist states. For this reason, they normally need prolonged external assistance, often from another state. However, such state policies are subject to change. For example,

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5166-535: The Croatian War of Independence , and in Russia's annexation of Crimea . Some political theorists, like David S. Siroky and Christopher W. Hale, hold that there is little empirical evidence for arguments based on ethnic homogeneity and discrimination. In this view, they are mainly used as a pretext to hide other goals, such as material gain. Another relevant factor is the outlook of the population inhabiting

5289-487: The Italian Fascist era . Until the end of the 18th century Malta's fortunes—political, economic, religious, cultural—were closely tied with Sicily's . Successive waves of immigration from Sicily and Italy strengthened these ties and increased the demographic similarity. Italian was Malta's language of administration, law, contracts and public records, Malta's culture was similar to Italy's , Malta's nobility

5412-649: The Reform Party under the leadership of Sigismondo Savona . The party was in favour of the reforms recommended by the Rowsell-Julyan-Keenan Commission, and it saw anglicization as necessary for Maltese workers dependent on the British presence on the islands. Meanwhile Fortunato Mizzi set up the Anti-Reform Party ( Italian : Partito Anti-Reformista ) in opposition to the proposed reforms, and it later became known as

5535-744: The Ukrainian government did not uphold the rights of ethnic Russians inhabiting Crimea, using this as a justification for the annexation in March 2014. However, it has been claimed that this was only a pretext to increase its territory and power. Ultimately, Russia invaded the mainland territory of Ukraine in February 2022, thereby escalating the war that continues to the present day. Other frequently discussed cases of irredentism include disputes between Pakistan and India over Jammu and Kashmir as well as China 's claims on Taiwan . Ethnicity plays

5658-842: The United Nations Charter calls for respect for established territorial borders and defends state sovereignty. Similar outlooks are taken by the Organization of African Unity , the Organization of American States , and the Helsinki Final Act . Since irredentist claims are based on conflicting sovereignty assertions, it is often difficult to find a working compromise. Peaceful resolutions of irredentist conflicts often result in mutual recognition of de facto borders rather than territorial change. International relation theorists Martin Griffiths et al. argue that

5781-554: The breakup of Yugoslavia when Yugoslavian Slovenes formed the new state of Slovenia while the Austrian Slovenes did not join them and remained part of Austria . Not all theorists accept that the second type constitutes a form of irredentism. In this regard, it is often argued that it is too similar to secession to maintain a distinction between the two. For example, political scholar Benyamin Neuberger holds that

5904-403: The regime type and hold that democracies are less likely to engage in irredentism while anocracies are particularly open to it. Irredentism has been an influential force in world politics since the mid-nineteenth century. It has been responsible for many armed conflicts , even though international law is hostile to it and irredentist movements often fail to achieve their goals. The term

6027-696: The 1860s, France was expanding its influence in North Africa and it opened the Suez Canal in 1869, further alarming the British who felt that their influence in the Mediterranean was being challenged. The British feared that the French could influence the Maltese lower classes due to the relatively large number of Maltese emigrants in French North Africa. The British authorities felt that intensifying their efforts at anglicization

6150-498: The 1880s, and political parties were established along linguistic lines. It remained a key factor in Maltese politics until World War II , and its impact on contemporary Malta remains significant. The Language Question arose from the diglossia which developed in the Maltese Islands over the centuries. The islands' native language, Maltese , is a Semitic language which evolved from Siculo-Arabic , and historically it had

6273-405: The 19th and early 20th centuries. Irredentist projects often use the term "Greater" to label the desired outcome of their expansion, as in " Greater Serbia " or " Greater Russia ". Irredentism is often understood as the claim that territories belonging to one state should be incorporated into another state because their population is ethnically similar or because it historically belonged to

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6396-443: The 2011 census, out of a population of 377,952 people aged 10 and over, 357,692 (94.6%) stated that they speak at least average Maltese, 310,279 (82.1%) stated that they speak at least average English and 156,264 (41.3%) stated that they speak at least average Italian. Today, Maltese is the predominant language used in politics and administration. Both English and Maltese are used in education at primary and secondary levels, but English

6519-479: The British in 1800. At the time, the islands were regarded by many as part of Italy, with British Civil Commissioner Alexander Ball referring to Malta's capital Valletta as "the most tranquill City in Italy." During the 19th century, British colonial authorities introduced English on the islands, resulting in disagreements between those who favoured English and those who favoured Italian. This dispute became known as

6642-481: The British, leading to the 1921 self-government constitution being revoked in 1933. Usage of Italian in official contexts was phased out at this point although it remained a de jure official language. On 21 August 1934, Maltese was declared to be an official language alongside English and Italian. In practice only English was used in administration and public notices, and Italian ceased to be an official language after increased tensions between Britain and Italy due to

6765-675: The Falkland Islands in 1982 is cited as an example of irredentism in South America, where the Argentine military government sought to exploit national sentiment over the islands to deflect attention from domestic concerns. President Juan Perón exploited the issue to reduce British influence in Argentina, instituting educational reform teaching the islands were Argentine and creating a strong nationalist sentiment over

6888-520: The Government. At this point Savona's party began to publish a newspaper in Italian, but later they began to promote the Maltese language. After an incident involving a British officer refusing to sign a transcript of evidence which was written in Italian in 1898, use of English was imposed in court in cases where non-Maltese British subjects were involved. This move was opposed by Mizzi, who travelled to London to petition more autonomy for Malta. Due to

7011-635: The Indian government supported the Sri Lankan Tamil secessionists up to 1987 but then reach an agreement with the Sri Lankan government and helped suppress the movement. Horowitz holds that it is important to distinguish secessionist and irredentist movements since they differ significantly concerning their motivation, context, and goals. Despite these differences, irredentism and secessionism are closely related nonetheless. In some cases,

7134-601: The Language Question. Malta became a de facto British crown colony in 1813, and Sir Thomas Maitland was appointed as its first Governor . This political change was confirmed de jure in the Treaty of Paris of 1814. Efforts to introduce English on the islands began around this time, and in 1813 Secretary of State for War and the Colonies Lord Henry Bathurst instructed Maitland that Italian should be replaced by English and that

7257-518: The Language Question. Italy made efforts to promote its culture in Malta, and the British authorities challenged this by further limiting the use of Italian. In 1927, bilingual public notices and street names were replaced by English-only versions. Self-government was restored in 1931 and the Nationalists won the elections held in 1932 . They attempted to promote Italian language and culture including fascist propaganda in Malta, and this antagonized

7380-633: The Maltese Constitution in 1934 over the Government's budgetary vote for the teaching of Italian in elementary schools. Italian was eventually dropped from official language status in Malta in 1934, its place being taken by Maltese. Italian ceased to be taught at all levels of education and the language of instruction at the University of Malta and the Law Courts. In 1935 there were manifestations against all these decisions, promoted by

7503-669: The Maltese fascists; the Nationalist Party declared that most of the Maltese population was supporting directly or indirectly the Italian Maltese 's struggle. But when Italy entered the war on the side of the Axis powers and aerial bombardments of Malta began, what little interest in Italian irredentism that existed in Malta was lost. The colonial authorities however took precautions; in 1940 they interned and eventually deported 49 Italophile Maltese to Uganda including

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7626-415: The Maltese language acquiring increased importance since it was the language of the majority of the population. Maltese-language political newspapers such as Leħen is-Sewwa and Il-Berqa were first published in the 1920s and 1930s. The fascist regime in Italy which was established in 1922 renewed irredentist claims over Malta, and this alarmed the British authorities and led to increased tensions in

7749-464: The National Party ( Italian : Partito Nazionale ). The party regarded Italian as a necessary lingua franca for Malta and it actively promoted the language, although Mizzi also believed that English was important due to the islands' status as a British colony. The party wanted greater autonomy and was opposed to continued British rule, and the colonial authorities made attempts to undermine

7872-548: The Sudetenland formed part of Czechoslovakia but had a majority German population. Adolf Hitler justified the annexation based on his allegation that Sudeten Germans were being mistreated by the Czechoslovak government. The Sudetenland was yielded to Germany following the Munich Agreement in an attempt to prevent the outbreak of a major war. Somalia's invasion of Ethiopia in 1977 is frequently discussed as

7995-411: The amount of area that is to be annexed. Usually, irredentism is restricted to the attempt to incorporate some parts of another state. In this regard, irredentism challenges established borders with the neighboring state but does not challenge the existence of the neighboring state in general. However, some definitions of irredentism also include attempts to absorb the whole neighboring state and not just

8118-530: The available evidence may not be sufficient to decide between them. An active research topic in this regard concerns the reasons for irredentism. Many countries have ethnic kin outside their borders. But only a few are willing to engage in violent conflicts to annex foreign territory in an attempt to unite their kin. Research on the causes of irredentism tries to explain why some countries pursue irredentism but others do not. Relevant factors often discussed include ethnicity, nationalism , economic considerations,

8241-429: The breakup of Yugoslavia. Explanations of irredentism try to determine what causes irredentism, how it unfolds, and how it can be peacefully resolved. Various hypotheses have been proposed but there is still very little consensus on how irredentism is to be explained despite its prevalence and its long history of provoking armed conflicts. Some of these proposals can be combined but others conflict with each other and

8364-578: The case of secession, a territory breaks away and forms an independent state instead of merging with another state. The term irredentism was coined from the Italian phrase Italia irredenta (unredeemed Italy). This phrase originally referred to territory in Austria-Hungary that was mostly or partly inhabited by ethnic Italians . In particular, it applies to Trentino and Trieste , but also Gorizia , Istria , Fiume , and Dalmatia during

8487-467: The claim that the boundaries of a state should match those of the nation. According to constructivist accounts, for example, the dominant national identity is one of the central factors behind irredentism. In this view, identities based on ethnicity, culture, and history can easily invite tendencies to enlarge national borders. They may justify the goal of integrating ethnically and culturally similar territories. Civic national identities focusing more on

8610-458: The colony's two official languages. At this point, four political parties dominated the islands' political scene: the hard-line pro-Italian Democratic Nationalist Party ( Italian : Partito Democratico Nazionalista , PDN) led by Enrico Mizzi, the moderate pro-Italian Maltese Political Union ( Italian : Unione Politica Maltese , UPM) led by Ignazio Panzavecchia , the hard-line pro-British Constitutional Party (CP) led by Gerald Strickland and

8733-698: The common belief matters more than the extent to which those shared features actually exist. Examples of large ethnic groups are the Han Chinese , the Arabs , the Bengalis , the Punjabis , and the Turks . Some theorists, like sociologist John Milton Yinger, use terms like ethnic group or ethnicity as near-synonyms for nation . Nations are usually based on ethnicity but what sets them apart from ethnicity

8856-400: The country to which the disputed territory currently belongs is a regular state, a former colony , or a collapsed state. A central research topic concerning irredentism is the question of how it is to be explained or what causes it. Many explanations hold that ethnic homogeneity within a state makes irredentism more likely. Discrimination against the ethnic group in the neighboring territory

8979-421: The desire to increase power, and the type of regime . A common explanation of irredentism focuses on ethnic arguments. It is based on the observation that irredentist claims are primarily advanced by states with a homogenous ethnic population. This is explained by the idea that, if a state is composed of several ethnic groups , then annexing a territory inhabited primarily by one of those groups would shift

9102-477: The disagreements brought about by the Language Question, the 1887 constitution was replaced by an autocratic one in 1903. Gerald Strickland became a prominent figure in early 20th century Maltese politics, maintaining a pro-British stance and promoting both the English and Maltese languages. Fortunato Mizzi died in 1905 and his son Enrico Mizzi later became a prominent leader of the pro-Italian faction. In 1912,

9225-627: The establishment of a Greater Croatia. Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014 is a more recent example of irredentism. Beginning in the 15th century CE , the Crimean peninsula was a Tartar Khanate . However, in 1783 the Russian Empire broke a previous treaty and annexed Crimea. In 1954, when both Russia and Ukraine were part of the Soviet Union, it was transferred from Russia to Ukraine. Sixty years later, Russia alleged that

9348-474: The expense of Italian. The Royal Commission's report also had significant political impact. Supporters and opponents organised themselves into a Reform and Anti-Reform parties which, apart from being the forerunners of the present day two main political parties in Malta, assumed respectively the anglophile and italophile imprint (and also, subsequently, pro-colonial and anti-colonial policies) that were to characterise them for decades to come. Sette Giugno ,

9471-534: The expense of existing socio-cultural values. Anglicization at the expense of Italian intensified in the 1880s, and the primary aim was to better integrate the Maltese people into the British Empire . Permanent Colonial Under-Secretary Robert Herbert stated in 1883 that this would help prevent Italian irredentism. At this point a number of Maltese Anglophiles began to play a leading role in promoting English over Italian, and they organized themselves into

9594-565: The historical claim that the disputed territory used to be part of the state's ancestral homeland. This is close to the literal meaning of the original Italian expression terra irredenta as "unredeemed land". In this view, the ethnicity of the people inhabiting this territory is not important. However, it is also possible to combine both characterizations, i.e. that the motivation is either ethnic or historical or both. Some scholars, like Benjamin Neuberger, include geographical reasons in their definitions. A further disagreement concerns

9717-410: The incorporation of various territories including Malta into Italy. This movement did not have significant support on the islands, and the majority of Maltese people who opposed Anglicization in the mid-19th century did so for cultural rather than political reasons. Despite this, colonial authorities feared that Italian influences would lead to irredentist sentiments among Malta's educated classes. In

9840-552: The interference of the British Empire. Language Question (Malta) Before the Language Question, Malta was characterized by a diglossia in which Italian was the language of the elite and Maltese was the language spoken by the common people. The linguistic debate arose as a result of British attempts to introduce English into Maltese society, and in the meantime the Maltese language was gradually developed and formalized. The debate became increasingly politicized after

9963-403: The islands. Both Maltese and English remained official languages when Malta achieved independence in 1964. Despite its resolution, the Language Question remained a sensitive topic for some time and it was not studied academically until the 1970s. The Labour and Nationalist Parties, both of which were founded amidst the language debate, continue to dominate Maltese politics to the present day. In

10086-461: The issue. The war ended with a victory for the UK after about two months even though many analysts considered the Argentine military position unassailable. Although defeated, Argentina did not officially declare the cessation of hostilities until 1989 and successive Argentine Governments have continued to claim the islands. The islands are now self-governing with the UK responsible for defence and foreign relations. Referenda in 1986 and 2013 show

10209-462: The justification for the crusades was to liberate fellow Christians from Muslim rule and to redeem the Holy Land . Nonetheless, most theorists see irredentism as a more recent phenomenon. The term was coined in the 19th century and is linked to border disputes between modern states. Nazi Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland in 1938 is an often-cited example of irredentism. At the time,

10332-528: The language (written in both the Arabic and Latin scripts ) be taught in primary schools, although little progress was made in this regard. Significant developments in Maltese literature began in the 1820s and increased after freedom of the press was established in 1839. Pamphlets, journals, poems and novels were published by writers such as Ġan Anton Vassallo and Ġużè Muscat Azzopardi . These changes led to

10455-479: The language was also an incentive for Maltese emigrants seeking to go to English-speaking countries like Britain, Australia or the United States . At this point, more people could speak English rather than read or write the language. Knowledge of English remained lower than that of Italian among secondary students until the late 1930s. In 1921, Malta was granted a new constitution which allowed for limited self-government , and English and Italian were recognized as

10578-549: The latter should be promoted among the islands' inhabitants. This attempted Anglicization was opposed by many Maltese people, who held on to Italian culture and the Roman Catholic religion, which were distinguishing features compared to their Anglophone and Protestant rulers. Maitland and his successors did not follow Bathurst's instructions so as to prevent conflict with the Catholic Church. Anglicization

10701-592: The leader of the Nationalist Party , Enrico Mizzi . Another 700 Maltese with ideals linked to the Italian irredentism in Malta were sent to camps in central Africa. A number of Maltese living in Italy participated in fascist organizations and joined the Italian military forces during World War II. Among them were Carmelo Borg Pisani , Antonio Cortis, Paolo Frendo, Ivo Leone Ganado, Roberto Mallia, Manuele Mizzi, Antonio Vassallo, Joe d’Ancona and Carlo Liberto. Carmelo Borg Pisani attempted to enter Malta during

10824-556: The masses. Irredentism is a widespread phenomenon and has been an influential force in world politics since the mid-nineteenth century. It has been responsible for countless conflicts. There are still many unresolved irredentist disputes today that constitute discords between nations. In this regard, irredentism is a potential source of conflict in many places and often escalates into military confrontations between states. For example, international relation theorist Markus Kornprobst argues that "no other issue over which states fight

10947-452: The moderate pro-British Labour Party (LP) led by William Savona , the son of Sigismondo Savona. The pro-Italian parties won the 1921 and 1924 elections , and they merged into the Nationalist Party (PN) in 1926. The CP won the 1927 election and Stickland became Prime Minister, before self-government was suspended in 1930 due to clashes between Strickland's government and the Catholic Church. Chief Justice Sir Arturo Mercieca prepared

11070-401: The most aggressive aspects of modern nationalism. It can be seen as a side effect of nationalism paired with the importance it ascribes to borders and the difficulties in agreeing on them. Irredentism is closely related to secession. Secession can be defined as "an attempt by an ethnic group claiming a homeland to withdraw with its territory from the authority of a larger state of which it

11193-474: The motivation fuelling this attempt. Irredentism has a positive goal of building a "greater" state that fulfills the ideals of a nation-state. It aims to unify people claimed to belong together because of their shared national identity based on ethnic, cultural, and historical aspects. For revanchism, on the other hand, the goal is more negative because it focuses on taking revenge for some form of grievance or injustice suffered earlier. In this regard, it

11316-406: The observation that most irredentist conflicts are started by authoritarian regimes . However, irredentism constitutes a paradox for democratic systems. The reason is that democratic ideals pertaining to the ethnic group can often be used to justify its claim, which may be interpreted as the expression of a popular will toward unification. But there are also cases of irredentism made primarily by

11439-422: The one found in the territory intending to break away. The anticipated reaction of the international community is an additional factor, i.e. whether it would embrace, tolerate, or reject the detachment or the absorption by another state. Irredentism and revanchism are two closely related phenomena because both of them involve the attempt to annex territory which belongs to another state. They differ concerning

11562-452: The other hand, are less tangible since they correspond to a group's perception of its historic, cultural , and ethnic boundaries. Irredentism may manifest if state borders do not correspond to national boundaries. The objective of irredentism is to enlarge a state to establish a congruence between its borders and the boundaries of the corresponding nation. Various types of irredentism have been proposed. However, not everyone agrees that all

11685-487: The other hand, concerns the right of people to determine their own international political status . According to the structural explanation, emphasis on national self-determination may legitimize irredentist claims while the principle of state sovereignty defends the status quo of the existing sovereign borders. This position is supported by the observation that irredentist conflicts are much more common during times of international upheavals. Another factor commonly cited as

11808-413: The other state before. Many definitions of irredentism have been proposed to give a more precise formulation. Despite a wide overlap concerning its general features, there is no consensus about its exact characterization. The disagreements matter for evaluating whether irredentism was the cause of war which is difficult in many cases and different definitions often lead to opposite conclusions. There

11931-498: The party by increasing the number of registered voters to ensure that pro-British members could be elected to the Council of Government. The 1880s were characterized by frequent elections and resignations within the Council of Government, along with several reforms including a relatively liberal new constitution in 1887. Savona and Mizzi collaborated in opposition of Governor Lintorn Simmons and they briefly merged their parties into

12054-448: The population. In the late 1850s, knowledge of both English and Italian became necessary requirements for joining the civil service. Initially the Maltese language did not play a prominent role in the linguistic debate on Malta, since it was regarded by many as a vernacular corrupted dialect of Arabic . In 1822, John Hookham Frere created a chair of Maltese at the University of Malta for Mikiel Anton Vassalli and he suggested that

12177-488: The power balance in favor of this group. For this reason, other groups in the state are likely to internally reject the irredentist claims. This inhibiting factor is not present for homogeneous states. A similar argument is also offered for the enclave to be annexed: an ethnically heterogenous enclave is less likely to desire to be absorbed by another state for ethnic reasons since this would only benefit one ethnic group. These considerations explain, for example, why irredentism

12300-579: The primary language used by the Hospitaller knights, and the Maltese middle class subsequently adopted Italian rather than Sicilian as their preferred language, while Latin continued to be used in official contexts and in education. After France expelled the Hospitallers and occupied Malta in 1798, an attempt was made to introduce French into Maltese society and it became an official language, but this ceased after France surrendered Malta to

12423-451: The role of power and economic benefits as reasons for irredentism. Realist explanations focus on the power balance between the irredentist state and the target state: the more this power balance shifts in favor of the irredentist state, the more likely violent conflicts become. A key factor in this regard is also the reaction of the international community , i.e. whether irredentist claims are tolerated or rejected. Irredentism can be used as

12546-494: The second case of decolonization, the territory to be annexed is a former colony of another state and not a regular part of it. An example is the Indonesian invasion and occupation of the former Portuguese colony of East Timor . In the case of state collapse, one state disintegrates and a neighboring state absorbs some of its former territories. This was the case for the irredentist movements by Croatia and Serbia during

12669-550: The second type, there is no pre-existing parent state. Instead, a cohesive group existing as a minority in multiple countries intends to unify to form a new parent state. The intended creation of a Kurdistan state uniting the Kurds living in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran is an example of the second type. If such a project is successful for only one segment, the result is secession and not irredentism. This happened, for example, during

12792-432: The standardization of Maltese and they contributed to it being recognized as a language in its own right rather than an Arabic dialect. In the 1840s George Percy Badger supported the idea that Arabic and English, rather than Maltese or Italian, should be taught to the Maltese population. The proposal to reintroduce Arabic failed to gain any support among the Maltese people, and a group called Accademia Filologica Maltese

12915-408: The strict sense. A different definition characterizes irredentism as the attempt of an ethnic minority to break away and join their "real" motherland even though this minority is a non-state actor. The reason for engaging in territorial conflict is another issue, with some scholars stating that irredentism is primarily motivated by ethnicity. In this view, the population in the neighboring territory

13038-552: The territory to be annexed. The desire of the irredentist state to annex a foreign territory and the desire of that territory to be annexed do not always overlap. In some cases, a minority group does not want to be annexed, as was the case for the Crimean Tatars in Russia's annexation of Crimea. In other cases, a minority group would want to be annexed but the intended parent state is not interested. Various accounts stress

13161-475: The threat of rising irredentism may be reduced by focusing on political pluralism and respect for minority rights . Irredentist movements, peaceful or violent, are rarely successful. In many cases, despite aiming to help ethnic minorities, irredentism often has the opposite effect and ends up worsening their living conditions. On the one hand, the state still in control of those territories may decide to further discriminate against them as an attempt to decrease

13284-610: The threat to its national security . On the other hand, the irredentist state may merely claim to care about the ethnic minorities but, in truth, use such claims only as a pretext to increase its territory or to destabilize an opponent. The emergence of irredentism is tied to the rise of modern nationalism and the idea of a nation-state, which are often linked to the French Revolution . However, some political scholars, like Griffiths et al. , argue that phenomena similar to irredentism existed even before. For example, part of

13407-413: The two tendencies may exist side by side. It is also possible that the advocates of one movement change their outlook and promote the other. Whether a movement favors irredentism or secessionism is determined, among other things, by the prospects of forming an independent state in contrast to joining another state. A further factor is whether the irredentist state is likely to espouse a similar ideology to

13530-494: The types listed here constitute forms of irredentism and it often depends on what definition is used. According to political theorists Naomi Chazan and Donald L. Horowitz , there are two types of irredentism. The typical case involves one state that intends to annex territories belonging to a neighboring state. Nazi Germany ’s claim on the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia is an example of this form of irredentism. For

13653-497: The war ( Operation Herkules ), but was captured and executed as an alleged spy in November 1942. He received the Gold Medal of Military Valor , the highest Italian military award, by King Victor Emmanuel III a few days after his death. Requests have been made by his family and the Italian government to exhume his body and give it a burial outside prison grounds, which request has never been acceded to. Benito Mussolini called him

13776-404: The younger Mizzi proposed that Britain should cede Malta to Italy in order to strengthen relations between the two powers. In the meantime, knowledge of English among the Maltese population began to increase, and it surpassed knowledge of Italian for the first time in the decade between 1901 and 1911. Contacts between British employers and Maltese workers played a role in this increase, and learning

13899-552: Was a huge increase in the number of Maltese magazines and newspapers in Italian language during the 1800s and early 1900s. In 1878, a Royal Commission ( the Rowsell-Julyan-Keenan Commission ) recommended in its report the Anglicisation of the educational and judicial systems. While the judicial system remained predominantly Italian until the 20th century, teaching of the English language started to be enforced in State schools at

14022-658: Was also opposed by other members of Maltese society apart from the church, such as merchants who had strong commercial links with Sicily and mainland Italy. It had made little progress by the 1830s, and at that point Italian was still the language of instruction in the few schools present on the islands. After attempts to Anglicize the courts had failed, King William IV confirmed the status of Italian as an official language on legal documents in 1833, although Governor Henry Bouverie stated that English law should be introduced "at least in spirit" in 1837. An 1838 Royal Commission found that "the Italian language [was] far more useful to

14145-411: Was established in opposition. This promoted the use of Maltese in literature and education, whilst also recognizing the diglossia with Italian. As the Language Question arose in Malta, mainland Italy was undergoing a process of unification which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. As Italian nationalism grew, a movement known as irredentism was established, and it argued for

14268-555: Was granted self-government once again in 1947, and at this point universal suffrage was introduced which marked the end of the middle-class' hold on political power. By this point, it was clear that the Language Question had been resolved with Italian giving way to English and Maltese. By the 1940s Maltese literature and grammar were well-developed and the language was used in administrative settings. The majority of Malta's population never adopted Italian as their primary language, and although knowledge of English had increased significantly it

14391-510: Was in favour of introducing English within the administration and courts and phasing out Italian, although he stated that the latter should not be "forcibly restrained" and that Maltese should not be suppressed. He also associated Maltese Italophiles with sedition , increasing the political connotations of the linguistic debate. The reports by Julyan and Keenan (along with that by Francis Roswell who had proposed administrative and tax reforms) were regarded as hostile attempts to anglicise Malta at

14514-485: Was necessary in order to ensure that the Maltese remained loyal to them rather than to other European powers, which contributed to the escalation of the Language Question by the late 1870s and 1880s. In 1878, the Rowsell-Julyan-Keenan Commission was sent to Malta and it published a report two years later. Patrick Keenan recommended using Maltese as a language of instruction to allow children to learn English, with subsequent education being solely in English. Penrose Julyan

14637-435: Was not enough to replace Maltese. Within the educated classes there was a minority which disregarded the new role of Maltese, such as professor J. E. Debono who stated in 1945 that the language can be dropped as its introduction had been a political goal to eliminate Italian and this been accomplished. The position of Maltese was consolidated after education became compulsory in 1946 and many new schools were established around

14760-501: Was originally coined from the Italian phrase Italia irredenta and referred to an Italian movement after 1878 claiming parts of Switzerland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire . Often discussed cases of irredentism include Nazi Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland in 1938, Somalia's invasion of Ethiopia in 1977, and Argentina's invasion of the Falkland Islands in 1982. Further examples are attempts to establish

14883-647: Was originally composed of Italian families who had moved to Malta mainly in the 13th century and the Maltese Catholic Church was suffragan of the Archdiocese of Palermo . There were minor and subtle differences, however. In the early 15th century Malta was incorporated directly into the Sicilian crown following an uprising which led to the abolishment of the County of Malta . Domestic governance

15006-586: Was still formally part of the Kingdom of Sicily . During both the French and British periods, Malta officially remained part of the Sicilian Kingdom, although the French refused to recognise the island as such in contrast to the British. Malta became a British Crown Colony in 1813, which was confirmed a year later through the Treaty of Paris (1814) . Cultural changes were few even after 1814. In 1842, all literate Maltese learned Italian while only 4.5% could read, write and/or speak English. However, there

15129-743: Was thus left to the Università and the Popular Council, early forms of representative local government. The Maltese language , the creation of the Diocese of Malta as well as the granting of Malta to the Knights Hospitaller in 1530 were developments which started to give a distinct character to Maltese culture and history. Following a brief French occupation (1798–1800) the British established control over Malta while it

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