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63-596: The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (pronounced / m ɑː ˈ p uː n ɡ uː b w eɪ / mah- POON -goob-weh ) was an ancient state located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers in South Africa, south of Great Zimbabwe . The capital's population was 5000 by 1250, and the state likely covered 30,000 km² (11,500 square miles). The kingdom exhibited sacral kingship closely associated with rainmaking , and exported gold and ivory to Swahili city-states on

126-547: A 3K SNP Infinium from Illumina, Inc. Agrobacterium transformation can be used on sorghum, as shown in a 2018 report of such a transformation system. A 2013 study developed and validated an SNP array for molecular breeding . In 2021, world production of sorghum was 61 million tonnes , led by the United States with 19% of the total (table). India, Ethiopia , and Mexico were the largest secondary producers. In 2013, China began purchasing American sorghum as

189-461: A cane juicer to extract the sweet molasses -like juice. The juice is sold as syrup, and used as a feedstock to make biofuel. In India, the panicle stalks are used as bristles for brooms . In Australia, sorghum is personified as a spirit among the Dagoman people of Northern Territory , as well as being used for food; the local species are S. intrans and S. plumosum . In Korea,

252-420: A ceremony that took place on 20 November 2007. Skeletal Analysis has been done on the people of Mapungubwe to learn about their health and lifestyle. Findings include that the populations at Mapungubwe experienced mortality rates expected for a pre-industrial group (comparable to pre-industrial Europeans), with high mortality at youth but an expected 35-40 year life-span after adulthood is reached. Another finding

315-452: A complementary livestock feed to its domestically grown maize. It imported around $ 1 billion worth per year until April 2018, when it imposed retaliatory tariffs as part of a trade war . By 2020, the tariffs had been waived, and trade volumes increased before declining again as China began buying sorghum from other countries. As of 2020, China is the world's largest sorghum importer, importing more than all other countries combined. Mexico

378-419: A major cemetery was uncovered nearby the palace, which housed 23 graves. Most were buried with few or no accessories, with most adults buried with glass beads, however three were different. The first, known as the original gold burial, was buried with a wooden headrest and three objects all made from wood covered in gold foil; a divining bowl, a sceptre (likely a knobkerrie ), and a rhino . The second, likely

441-496: A praise singer would tell everyone. Wives were viewed as a route to success and status, and as such the king had many, with the senior wife in charge. Some wives lived outside of the capital, to help maintain the network of alliances. Life in Mapungubwe was centred on family and farming. Special sites were created for initiation ceremonies, household activities, and other social functions. Cattle lived in kraals located close to

504-468: A protective circle. The kingdom was likely divided into a five-tiered hierarchy due to the wide spread of the population; family heads, headmen , petty chiefs, senior chiefs, and the king. The king slept in a small wooden hut, in a supposedly secret location. Visitors were secluded from the king. His entourage included soldiers and praise singers , along with musicians who played mbiras and xylophones . His actions were ritualised, such that if he sneezed,

567-474: A sugar-rich syrup and as forage. Sweet sorghum was important to the sugar trade in the 19th century. The price of sugar was rising because of decreased production in the British West Indies and more demand for confectionery and fruit preserves , and the United States was actively searching for a sugar plant that could be produced in northern states. The "Chinese sugar-cane", sweet sorghum,

630-560: A trance and go into the spirit world themselves to capture the animals associated with rain. The community at K2 chose the San rather than the Zhizo, their political rivals, because the San did not believe in ancestors, and by not acknowledging the Zhizo's ancestors they would not be held to ransom by them. Hilltops with streams at their base were used as rainmaking sites. As the society became more complex, houses and shrines were built on hills, with

693-521: A woman, was buried facing west with over 100 gold bangles, 12,000 gold beads, and 26,000 glass beads. The third, likely a tall middle-aged man, was also buried facing west, and with a necklace of gold beads and cowrie shells , and various objects covered in gold foil, including a crocodile. In 2007, the South African Government gave the green light for the skeletal remains that were excavated in 1933 to be reburied on Mapungubwe Hill in

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756-600: Is a road bridge and a rail bridge south of Francistown . The lower Shashe River forms the border between Botswana and Zimbabwe and is unbridged. However, at Tuli , both sides of the river are in Zimbabwe and there are two legal crossing points. The Shashi runs through the Shashi Irrigation Scheme and the Tuli Block . The Shashe River is dammed near Francistown at Shashe Dam . The original purpose

819-684: Is a sand filled channel, with extensive alluvial aquifers in the river channel and below the alluvial plains. These supply water for a number of irrigation schemes including Sibasa and Shashi . More than two million years ago , the Upper Zambezi River used to flow south through what is now the Makgadikgadi Pan (presently a vast seasonal wetland) to the Shashe River and thence the Limpopo River . There

882-428: Is also accounts for 7% of global sorghum production. The grain is edible and nutritious. It can be eaten raw when young and milky, but has to be boiled or ground into flour when mature. Sorghum grain is 72% carbohydrates including 7% dietary fiber, 11% protein, 3% fat , and 12% water (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), sorghum grain supplies 79 calories and rich contents (20% or more of

945-589: Is also used to make alcoholic beverages , and biofuels such as ethanol . It can be made into couscous , porridge, or flatbreads such as Indian Jōḷada roṭṭi or tortillas; and it can be burst in hot oil to make a popcorn , smaller than that of maize. Since it does not contain gluten, it can be used in gluten-free diets . In Nigeria , the pulverized red leaf-sheaths of sorghum have been used to dye leather, while in Algeria , sorghum has been used to dye wool. In South Africa, characteristically sour malwa beer

1008-531: Is generally considered diploid and contains 20 chromosomes, however, there is evidence to suggest a tetraploid origin for S. bicolor . The genome size is approximately 800 Mbp. Paterson et al. , 2009 provides a genome assembly of 739 megabase . The most commonly used genome database is SorGSD maintained by Luo et al. , 2016. A gene expression atlas is available from Shakoor et al. , 2014 with 27,577 genes . For molecular breeding (or other purposes) an SNP array has been created by Bekele et al. , 2013,

1071-457: Is made from sorghum or millet. The process involves souring the mashed grain with lactic acid bacteria , followed by fermenting by the wild yeasts that were on the grain. In China and Taiwan, sorghum is one of the main materials of Kaoliang liquor , a type of the colourless distilled alcoholic drink Baijiu . In countries including the US, the stalks of sweet sorghum varieties are crushed in

1134-521: Is native to Africa with many cultivated forms. Most production uses annual cultivars, but some wild species of Sorghum are perennial, which may enable the Land Institute to develop a perennial cultivar for "repeated, sufficient grain harvests without resowing." Sorghum is closely related to maize and the millets within the PACMAD clade of grasses, and more distantly to the cereals of

1197-736: Is not known. The site and capital was called Mapungubwe following archaeological naming conventions, and extended to the kingdom. Mapungubwe means "a place of (many) jackals ". In various Bantu languages , "-pungubwe" refers to jackals. Jackal is "phunguwe" in Venda , while in Northern Sotho it is "phukubje". The region was inhabited by the San for some 100,000 years. The origins of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe lie in Leopard's Kopje . Motivated by

1260-449: Is planted in narrow rows. Sorghum actively suppresses weeds by producing sorgoleone, an alkylresorcinol . Sorghum grows in a wide range of temperatures. It can tolerate high altitude and toxic soils, and can recover growth after some drought. Optimum growth temperature range is 12–34 °C (54–93 °F), and the growing season lasts for around 115–140 days. It can grow on a wide range of soils, such as heavy clay to sandy soils with

1323-415: Is possible the old village was burnt down to make way for a new one. Mapungubwe Hill became the sole rainmaking hill, and its habitation by the leader emphasised a link between himself and rainmaking, which was substantial in the development of sacral kingship . The hill had been inhabited by the San long ago and a rock shelter on the east side featured some of their art. The first king had their palace on

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1386-471: Is small, 2 to 4 millimetres (0.08 to 0.2 in) in diameter. Sweet sorghums are cultivars primarily grown for forage, syrup production, and ethanol; they are taller than those grown for grain. Sorghum is a large stout grass that grows up to 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) tall. It has large bushy flowerheads or panicles that provide an edible starchy grain with up to 3,000 seeds in each flowerhead. It grows in warm climates worldwide for food and forage. Sorghum

1449-439: Is subject to a variety of plant pathogens . The fungus Colletotrichum sublineolum causes anthracnose . The toxic ergot fungus parasitises the grain, risking harm to humans and livestock. Sorghum produces chitinases as defensive compounds against fungal diseases . Transgenesis of additional chitinases increases the crop's disease resistance. The genome of S. bicolor was sequenced between 2005 and 2007. It

1512-648: Is that the people of Mapungubwe grew well, without a notable frequency of chronic infections, though children sometimes were found with anaemia . The site is claimed by both the Vhavenda and the Tshivhula/Sembola , possibly incentivised by the land claims process initiated by the South African government, which has seen various groups dishonestly claim land. Neither of their estimated migration histories, or those of their clans, line up neatly with

1575-485: Is used for food for humans; the plant is used for animal feed and ethanol production. Sorghum originated in Africa, and is now cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical regions. Sorghum is the world's fifth-most important cereal crop after rice , wheat , maize , and barley . Sorghum is typically an annual, but some cultivars are perennial. It grows in clumps that may reach over 4 metres (13 ft) high. The grain

1638-479: Is used primarily as poultry feed, and secondarily as cattle feed and in brewing applications. Insect damage is a major threat to sorghum plants. Over 150 species damage crop plants at different stages of development, resulting in significant biomass loss. Stored sorghum grain is attacked by other insect pests such as the lesser grain borer beetle. Sorghum is a host of the parasitic plant Striga hermonthica , purple witchweed; that can reduce production. Sorghum

1701-521: The BOP clade such as wheat and barley . Bambusoideae (bamboos)  ( fescue , ryegrass ) Hordeum (barley) Triticum (wheat) Secale (rye) Oryza (rice) Pennisetum (fountaingrasses, pearl millet ) Millets Sorghum (sorghum) Zea (maize) S. bicolor was domesticated from its wild ancestor more than 5,000 years ago in Eastern Sudan in the area of

1764-465: The Daily Value , DV) of several B vitamins and dietary minerals (table). In the early stages of plant growth, some sorghum species may contain levels of hydrogen cyanide , hordenine , and nitrates lethal to grazing animals. Plants stressed by drought or heat can also contain toxic levels of cyanide and nitrates at later stages in growth. Sorghum is widely used for food and animal fodder. It

1827-824: The Dikgatlhong Dam impounds the Shashe near the village of Robelela , completed in December 2011. When full it will hold 400,000,000 cubic metres (1.4 × 10  cu ft). The next largest dam in Botswana, the Gaborone Dam , has capacity of 141,000,000 cubic metres (5.0 × 10  cu ft). A pipeline from the Dikgatlhong Dam will connect to the North-South Carrier (NSC) pipeline at

1890-486: The Indian Ocean trade created unprecedented inequalities, evolving over time from a society based on social ranking to one based on social classes . K2's spatial arrangement became unsuited to this development. Amid a harsh drought which likely troubled the society, royal elites moved the capital to Mapungubwe and settled its flat-topped summit around 1220, while most people settled at the foot of Mapungubwe Hill. It

1953-537: The Indian Ocean trade via Sofala . It is unknown what caused Mapungubwe's collapse. Trading routes shifted north towards the Zambezi as traders travelled it to reach the gold-producing interior, which would have dramatically hurt Mapungubwe's economy. It is plausible confidence was lost in the leadership amid the deepening material and spiritual divide between commoners and the king, and a breakdown in common purpose, provoking people to "vote with their feet". The basin

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2016-540: The Mopane District , heard a legend of "a white man gone wild, who had lived a hermit's life in a cave on the banks of the Limpopo" in the late 19th century who "climbed the sacred hill and found things there". After several years of searching for the treasure, they set out again accompanied by a team including an unnamed African guide. They uncovered pottery fragments and artefacts of copper, glass, and gold, and

2079-452: The Zhizo moved west to settle Toutswe in modern day Botswana. Some scholars believe their relations to have been hostile, however others insist they were more complex, both socially and politically. Leopard's Kopje people spoke an early form of Shona , likely Kalanga (western Shona). K2 was the capital, and was likely divided into residential areas under the authority of a family head, with

2142-428: The ivory trade , some Zhizo people moved south around 900 to settle Schroda , near the Limpopo River . The San were largely driven off their ancestral lands. Early San society left a rich legacy of cave paintings across Southern Africa. The Zhizo herded cattle and engaged in farming. They traded and possibly hunted with the San, who lived in different settlements. Schroda was likely the Zhizo's capital due to being

2205-463: The BPT1 break pressure tank at Moralane . The NSC will take the water south to Gaborone . Citations Sources Sorghum Sorghum bicolor , commonly called sorghum ( / ˈ s ɔːr ɡ ə m / ) and also known as great millet , broomcorn , guinea corn , durra , imphee , jowar , or milo , is a species in the grass genus Sorghum cultivated for its grain . The grain

2268-659: The East African coast into the Indian Ocean trade . Although traditionally assumed to have been the first kingdom in Southern Africa, excavations in the same region at Mapela Hill show evidence for sacral kingship nearly 200 years earlier. Following unknown events and shifting trade routes north around 1300, Mapungubwe's population scattered. In the present day they are often associated with the Shona , Tshivhula , and Venda peoples. Despite locals having knowledge of

2331-640: The Indian subcontinent; around 3,000 years ago it reached West Africa. Four other races evolved through cultivation to have larger grains and to become free-threshing, making harvests easier and more productive. These were caudatum in the Sahel ; durra , most likely in India; guinea in West Africa (later reaching India), and from that race mageritiferum that gave rise to the varieties of Southern Africa. In

2394-646: The Middle Ages, the Arab Agricultural Revolution spread sorghum and other crops from Africa and Asia across the Arab world as far as Al-Andalus in Spain. Sorghum remained the staple food of the medieval kingdom of Alodia and most Sub-Saharan cultures prior to European colonialism. Tall varieties of sorghum with a high sugar content are called sweet sorghum; these are useful for producing

2457-663: The Rivers Atbara and Gash . It has been found at an archaeological site near Kassala in eastern Sudan, dating from 3500 to 3000 BC, and is associated with the neolithic Butana Group culture. Sorghum bread from graves in Predynastic Egypt , some 5,100 years ago, is displayed in the Egyptian Museum, Turin , Italy. The first race to be domesticated was bicolor ; it had tight husks that had to be removed forcibly. Around 4,000 years ago, this spread to

2520-520: The Semi-Arid Tropics has improved sorghum using traditional genetic improvement and integrated genetic and natural resources management practices. Some 194 improved cultivars are now planted worldwide. In India , increases in sorghum productivity resulting from improved cultivars have freed up 7 million hectares (17 million acres) of land, enabling farmers to diversify into high-income cash crops and boost their livelihoods. Sorghum

2583-739: The belief that Afrikaners were "champions of civilisation". As happened similarly with Great Zimbabwe , the government attempted to hide, discredit, and "protect" the site. The site was declared a national monument in the 1980s. The area is now part of the Mapungubwe National Park , which in turn is contained in the UNESCO Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape and the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area . The Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape

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2646-622: The burial of a highly decorated person. The younger Van Graan, a former student of the University of Pretoria , reported the discovery to an archaeologist. The University of Pretoria, at the time an exclusively Afrikaner institution, gained the rights to the treasure, and the Hertzog government monopolised the site. The discovery contradicted the White supremacist myth that Africa was a dark and backward continent in need of "saving", as well as

2709-603: The chief having the largest area. Women worked copper , while men worked iron . They cultivated sorghum , pearl millet , finger millet , ground beans, and cowpeas . The population expanded, and K2 had a population of 1500 by 1200. Rainmaking was widespread, and the chief sometimes hired strangers who were believed to have special relationships with the spirits of the land, such as the San , due to their longer habitation. Likewise some Zhizo who remained at Leokwe , likely subordinate to K2, specialised in rituals also due to their longer habitation. The large wealth generated by

2772-480: The grain is one of the staples for poor and rural people. These varieties provide forage in many tropical regions. S. bicolor is a food crop in Africa, Central America , and South Asia , and is the fifth most common cereal crop grown in the world. It is most often grown without application of fertilizers or other inputs by small-holder farmers in developing countries. They benefit from sorghum's ability to compete effectively with weeds, especially when it

2835-445: The kingdom were buried in hills. Royal wives lived in their own area away from the king. Important men maintained prestigious homes on the outskirts of the capital. This type of spatial division occurred first at Mapungubwe but would be replicated in later Butua and Rozwi states. The growth in population at Mapungubwe may have led to full-time specialists in ceramics, specifically pottery. Gold objects were uncovered in elite burials on

2898-595: The most populated (around 500). The chief was the wealthiest, and accumulated cattle through court fines, forfeits, tributes, raids, and the high price of marrying one of his daughters. The Zhizo made elaborate pottery with diverse styles, for which they were named after. Figurines were used as props in school lessons. They traded ivory, gold, rhino skins, leopard skins, and iron to coastal cities such as Chibuene in exchange for glass beads, cotton and silk cloths, and glazed ceramics. Around 1000, some Leopard's Kopje people moved south to settle Bambandyanalo (known as K2), as

2961-453: The origin tale " Brother and sister who became the Sun and Moon " is also called "The reason sorghum is red". In the tale, a tiger who is chasing a brother and sister follows them up a rotten rope as they climb into the sky, and become the sun and moon. The rope breaks, and the tiger falls to its death, impaling itself on a sorghum stalk, which becomes red with its blood. In Northeastern Italy in

3024-534: The pH tolerance ranging from 5.0 to 8.5. It requires an arable field that has been left fallow for at least two years or where crop rotation with legumes has taken place in the previous year. Diversified 2- or 4-year crop rotation can improve sorghum yield, additionally making it more resilient to inconsistent growth conditions. In terms of nutrient requirements, sorghum is comparable to other cereal grain crops with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium required for growth. The International Crops Research Institute for

3087-566: The palace would have likely been a gift for allowing foreigners to trade. By the end of the 13th century, traders regularly bypassed Sofala and Mapungubwe by travelling the Zambezi River (north of the Limpopo ) into the gold producing interior, as Quelimane and Angoche became the main trading hubs. This precipitated the rise of Great Zimbabwe . Spatial organisation in the kingdom of Mapungubwe, termed dzimbahwe in Shona , involved

3150-406: The practice becoming institutionalised. At Mapungubwe, the elite tried to change the place of practice from a group of hills to one; Mapungubwe Hill, with the royal family the ritual specialists, signifying a step away from the role of ancestors. Mapungubwe traded locally with Toutswe and Eiland among others, however a major source of their wealth came from the Indian Ocean trade . An early link

3213-555: The residents' houses, signifying their value. Courts belonged to the leader, however he would not have been there, but rather in ritual seclusion on the hilltop. A brother would have likely been in charge, and would have been the second most powerful person in the kingdom. Only men of high status were allowed to smelt and work copper and gold. These metals were associated with power, wealth, and fertility, and only elites would have possessed gold. While most had access to iron tools, poorer farmers made use of stone and bone tools. Elites within

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3276-399: The royal hill. Rainmaking , or rain control, intended to induce rain and prevent both droughts and floods. It was based on the belief that humans could influence nature, spirits, or the ancestors who withheld or brought rain. The San , who were believed to have closer connections to the old spirits of the land, were often turned to by other societies for rainmaking. San shamans would enter

3339-586: The site, Mapungubwe was popularly rediscovered when, on New Year's Eve 1933, a farmer set out to follow up on a legend he had heard about. The Mapungubwe Collection of artefacts found at the archaeological site is housed in the Mapungubwe Museum in Pretoria . The site is located in the Mapungubwe National Park in South Africa , on the border with Zimbabwe and Botswana . Its original name

3402-498: The timeline of the site. Mapungubwe's population are regarded as the "cultural ancestors" of the Shona and Venda. Locals had knowledge of the site through their oral histories , and considered the site imbued with the power and presence of ancestral kings, warned by their oral traditions against visiting or even pointing at the hill for fear of something terrible happening. The site was visited by European researchers led by Leo Frobenius in 1929. The Van Graans, who were farmers in

3465-406: The use of stone walls to demarcate important areas, embedding class distinction and providing ritual seclusion for the king. There was a stone-walled residence likely occupied by the principal councillor. Stone and wood were used together. There would have also been a wooden palisade surrounding Mapungubwe Hill. Most of the capital's population would have lived inside the western wall. In the 1930s

3528-435: The western part of the hill, and it included a room where the king could receive visitors, and another where the visitors could be vetted, as well as a hut for the king's special diviner . By 1250, Mapungubwe had a population of 5000, with settlements all around the hill, forming a protective circle. The second king had their palace in the middle of the hill, with the same arrangements as his predecessor, however his visitor room

3591-491: Was abandoned as people scattered northwest and south. They didn't regroup. To the north near the Zambezi, Great Zimbabwe , on the fringe of the Mapungubwe state and with a distinct population, rose to become its successor, adopting the same elitist spatial arrangement and sacred leadership. Over the course of settlement at K2, their society transitioned from a society based on social ranking to one based on social classes , and

3654-520: Was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 3 July 2003. Shashe River The Shashe is a highly ephemeral river, with flow generally restricted to a few days of the year. The river contributes 12.2% of the mean annual runoff of the Limpopo Basin. Major tributaries of the Shashe River include the Simukwe , Shashani , Thuli , Tati and Ramokgwebana rivers. The lower Shashe

3717-608: Was divided so as to separate visitors from the king, who would have spoken through an intermediary. The king had many wives, with some living outside of the capital to help maintain the network of alliances. The economy was based on agriculture, and to make more productive use of the land, cattle (previously held as the primary identifier of wealth) were herded away from the capital and permitted to graze on other communities' land, forming social and political ties and increasing Mapungubwe's influence. They traded locally with Toutswe and Eiland among others, and gold and ivory were exported to

3780-406: Was one of the first class-based social systems and examples of sacral kingship in southern Africa. The leader and elites inhabited the hilltop, with the population below. There were four paths up the hill, with the main one guarded by soldiers, who were called the "eye" of the king. Settlements were divided into residential areas under the authority of family heads , and surrounded the hill, forming

3843-595: Was to supply water to the industrial city of Selebi-Phikwe . In 1982 it was found that groundwater from the local wells in Francistown had high levels of nitrate, and was also inadequate to meet public demand, so the public water supply for that city was changed over to using water from the Shashe Dam. The dam also supplies water to surrounding villages, Phoenix Mine (Tati Nickel Mining Company/Norilsk Nickel) and Mupane Gold Mine (IAMGOLD). Further downstream,

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3906-489: Was viewed as a plant that would be productive in the West Indies. The name sorghum derives from Italian sorgo , which in turn most likely comes from 12th century Medieval Latin surgum or suricum . This in turn may be from Latin syricum , meaning "[grass] of Syria". Most varieties of sorghum are drought - and heat-tolerant, nitrogen -efficient, and are grown particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where

3969-406: Was with Chibuene . After Chibuene burnt down, Sofala became the main trading port, which was frequented by Arab merchants, due to higher demand for gold from the 10th century following various Muslim, European, and Indian states issuing gold coinage. Mapungubwe exported gold and ivory, while a large number of glass beads were imported from India and Southeast Asia . The Chinese celadon found at

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