Masada ( Hebrew : מְצָדָה məṣādā , 'fortress'; Arabic : جبل مسعدة ) is an ancient fortification in southern Israel, situated on top of an isolated rock plateau , akin to a mesa . It is located on the eastern edge of the Judaean Desert , overlooking the Dead Sea 20 km (12 miles) east of Arad .
116-577: Herod the Great built two palaces for himself on the mountain and fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BC. According to Josephus , the siege of Masada by Roman troops from 72 to 73 AD, at the end of the First Jewish–Roman War , ended in the mass suicide of the 960 Sicarii rebels who were hiding there. However, the archaeological evidence relevant to a mass suicide event is ambiguous at best and rejected entirely by some scholars. In modern times,
232-550: A 4 m (13 ft) high casemate wall around the plateau totaling 1,300 m (4,300 ft) in length, reinforced by many towers. The fortress contained storehouses, barracks , an armory , a palace, and a series of cisterns (capacity around 40,000 cubic metres) that were refilled by rainwater - with the runoff collected from a single day's rain allegedly able to sustain over 1,000 people for 2 to 3 years. Three narrow, winding paths led from below up to fortified gates. Almost all historical information about Masada comes from
348-619: A Jew and was considered as such by some, this religious identification was undermined by the decadent lifestyle of the Herodians , which would have earned them the antipathy of observant Jews. Herod later executed several members of his own family, including his wife Mariamne I. Herod's rule marked a new beginning in the history of Judea. Judea had been ruled autonomously by the Hasmonean kings from 140 until 63 BCE. The Hasmonean kings retained their titles, but became clients of Rome after
464-582: A battering ram was constructed and moved laboriously up the completed ramp. According to Josephus, when Roman troops entered the fortress, they discovered that its defenders had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and committed mass suicide or killed each other, 960 men, women, and children in total. Josephus wrote of two stirring speeches that the Sicari leader had made to convince his men to kill themselves. Only two women and five children were found alive. Josephus presumably based his narration upon
580-550: A bodyguard of 2,000 soldiers. Josephus describes various units of Herod's personal guard taking part in Herod's funeral, including the Doryphnoroi , and a Thracian , Celtic (probably Gallic ) and Germanic contingent. While the term Doryphnoroi does not have an ethnic connotation, the unit was probably composed of distinguished veteran soldiers and young men from the most influential Jewish families. Thracians had served in
696-568: A breach would appear in the fabric of the wall, enabling armed attackers to force their way through the gap and engage the inhabitants of the citadel. The introduction in the later Middle Ages of siege cannons , which harnessed the explosive power of gunpowder to propel weighty stone or iron balls against fortified obstacles, spelled the end of battering rams and other traditional siege weapons. Smaller, hand-held versions of battering rams are still used today by law enforcement officers and military personnel to break open locked doors. A capped ram
812-493: A cave outside and below the southern wall. The remains of another two males and a female were found in the bathhouse of the Northern Palace. Of the bathhouse remains, the males were variously estimated to have been of an age of either 40 and 20–22, or 22 and 11–12, or based on dental remains, between 16–18 of age. One estimate for the female's age was 17–18 years. The skeletal remains of the males were incomplete. Only
928-680: A dream not to report back to Herod. Similarly, Joseph was warned in a dream that Herod intended to kill Jesus, so he and his family fled to Egypt. When Herod realized he had been outwitted, he gave orders to kill all boys of the age of two and under in Bethlehem and its vicinity. Joseph and his family stayed in Egypt until Herod's death, then moved to Nazareth in Galilee to avoid living under Herod's son Archelaus . Most modern biographers of Herod, and some biblical scholars, dismiss Matthew's story as
1044-701: A group of Jewish rebels, the Sicarii , overcame the Roman garrison of Masada with the aid of a ruse. According to Josephus, the Sicarii were an extremist Jewish splinter group antagonistic to a larger grouping of Jews referred to as the Zealots , who carried the main burden of the rebellion. Josephus said that the Sicarii raided nearby Jewish villages including Ein Gedi , where they massacred 700 women and children. In 73 AD,
1160-408: A large palace, a race track, service quarters, and a monumental building whose function is still a mystery. Perhaps, says Ehud Netzer, who excavated the site, it is Herod's mausoleum . Next to it is a pool, almost twice as large as modern Olympic-size pools . On May 7, 2007, an Israeli team of archaeologists of Hebrew University, led by Netzer, announced they had discovered the tomb. The site
1276-451: A literary device. Contemporary non-biblical sources, including Josephus and the surviving writings of Nicolaus of Damascus (who knew Herod personally), provide no corroboration for Matthew's account of the massacre, and it is not mentioned in the Gospel of Luke . Classical historian Michael Grant states "[t]he tale is not history but myth or folk-lore", while Peter Richardson notes that
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#17327723163281392-860: A massive expansion project on the Temple Mount . In addition to fully rebuilding and enlarging the Second Jewish Temple , he artificially expanded the platform on which it stood, doubling it in size. Today's Western Wall formed part of the retaining perimeter wall of this platform. In addition, Herod also used the latest technology in hydraulic cement and underwater construction to build the harbor at Caesarea Maritima . While Herod's zeal for building transformed Judea, his motives were not selfless. Although he built fortresses ( Masada , Herodium , Alexandrium , Hyrcania , and Machaerus ) in which he and his family could take refuge in case of insurrection, these vast projects were also intended to gain
1508-730: A mixed response from the Jewish populace. Although Herod considered himself king of the Jews, he let it be known that he also represented the non-Jews living in Judea, building temples for other religions outside of the Jewish areas of his kingdom. Many Jews questioned the authenticity of Herod's Judaism on account of his Idumean background and his infamous murders of members of his family. However, he generally respected traditional Jewish observances in his public life. For instance, he minted coins without human images to be used in Jewish areas and acknowledged
1624-637: A new aristocracy from practically nothing, he has still been criticized by various historians. His reign polarizes opinion among historians, some viewing his legacy as evidence of success, and some viewing it as a reminder of his tyrannical rule. While Herod the Great is described in the Christian Bible as the author of the Massacre of the Innocents , the remainder of the Biblical references to
1740-457: A pair of soldiers advance towards a fortress under the protection of a mobile roofed structure, carrying a long pole that may represent a simple battering ram. During the Iron Age , in the ancient Middle East and Mediterranean, the battering ram's log was slung from a wheeled frame by ropes or chains so that it could be made more massive and be more easily bashed against its target. Frequently,
1856-552: A proposal that has received strong criticism from major Israeli archeologists. Macrobius (c. 400 CE), one of the last pagan writers in Rome, in his book Saturnalia , wrote: "When it was heard that, as part of the slaughter of boys up to two years old, Herod, king of the Jews, had ordered his own son to be killed, he [the Emperor Augustus] remarked, 'It is better to be Herod's pig [Gr. hys] than his son' [Gr. hyios]". This
1972-413: A ram, as used by Alexander the Great , is described by Vitruvius. Alternatives to the battering ram included the drill , the sapper's mouse, the pick, the siege hook , and the hunting ram. These devices were smaller than a ram and could be used in confined spaces. Battering rams had an important effect on the evolution of defensive walls, which were constructed ever more ingeniously in a bid to nullify
2088-593: A seed. The remnants of a Byzantine church dating from the fifth and sixth centuries have been excavated on the plateau. Yadin's team could detect no architectural remains of the Hasmonean period, the only findings firmly dated to this period being the numerous coins of Alexander Jannaeus . Researchers have speculated that the southwestern block of the Western Palace and the auxiliary buildings east and south of it could be Hasmonean, relying on similarities to
2204-458: A severe famine that occurred in 25 BCE. Although he made many attempts at conforming to traditional Jewish laws, there were more instances where Herod was insensitive, which constitutes one of the major Jewish complaints of Herod as highlighted in Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews . In Jerusalem, Herod introduced foreign forms of entertainment, and erected a golden eagle at the entrance of
2320-405: A single name. One reads "ben Ya'ir" ( בןיאיר ) and could be short for Eleazar ben Ya'ir, the commander of the fortress. The other 10 names may be those of the men chosen by lot to kill the others and then themselves, as recounted by Josephus. The remains of a maximum of 28 people were unearthed at Masada, possibly 29 including a foetus . The skeletal remains of 25 individuals were found in
2436-459: A small church was established at the site. The church was part of a monastic settlement identified with the monastery of Marda known from hagiographical literature . This identification is generally accepted by researchers. The Aramaic common noun marda , "fortress", corresponds in meaning to the Greek name of another desert monastery of the time, Kastellion , and is used to describe that site in
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#17327723163282552-542: A spoof history essay by Professor David Daube written for The Oxford Magazine in 1956, which was widely believed despite obvious improbabilities (e.g., planning to cross the River Severn by running the ram down a hill at speed, although the river is about 30 m (100 feet) wide at this point). Battering rams still have a use in modern times. Police forces often employ small, one-man or two-man metal rams, known as enforcers , for forcing open locked portals or effecting
2668-526: A vassal of the Roman Empire , expected to support the interests of his Roman patrons. Nonetheless, just when Herod obtained leadership in Judea, his rule faced two threats. The first threat came from his mother-in-law Alexandra, who sought to regain power for her family, the Hasmoneans, whose dynasty Herod had overthrown in 37 BCE (see Siege of Jerusalem ). In the same year, Cleopatra married
2784-436: A wall or gate, or by using grappling hooks to immobilize the ram's log. Alternatively, the ram could be set ablaze, doused in fire-heated sand, pounded by boulders dropped from battlements or invested by a rapid sally of troops. Some battering rams were not slung from ropes or chains, but were instead supported by rollers. This allowed the ram to achieve a greater speed before striking its target, making it more destructive. Such
2900-463: A whole, especially the attack ramp, are the best preserved of their kind, and the reason for declaring Masada a UNESCO World Heritage site. Due to the great interest shown by the public, Yadin published a book in 1966 for the general public, "מצדה" ("Masada"). Inside the synagogue, an ostracon bearing the inscription ma'aser cohen ( מעשר כוהן , tithe for the priest) was found, as were fragments of two scrolls: parts of Deuteronomy and of
3016-431: A wife, Doris, and a young son, Antipater , and chose therefore to banish Doris and her child. Herod and Sosius, the governor of Syria, at the behest of Mark Antony, set out with a large army in 37 BCE and captured Jerusalem , Herod then sending Antigonus for execution to Mark Antony. From this moment, Herod took the role as sole ruler of Judea and the title of basileus (Βασιλεύς, "king") for himself, ushering in
3132-423: A year. The cliff of Masada is, geologically speaking, a horst . As the plateau abruptly ends in cliffs steeply falling about 400 m (1,300 ft) to the east and about 90 m (300 ft) to the west, the natural approaches to the fortress are very difficult to navigate. The top of the mesa-like plateau is flat and rhomboid -shaped, about 550 m (1,800 ft) by 270 m (890 ft). Herod built
3248-424: Is a battering ram that has an accessory at the head (usually made of iron or steel and sometimes punningly shaped into the head and horns of an ovine ram ) to do more damage to a building. It was much more effective at destroying enemy walls and buildings than an uncapped ram but was heavier to carry. The earliest depiction of a possible battering ram is from the tomb of the 11th Dynasty Egyptian noble Khety, where
3364-573: Is ambiguous and rejected entirely by some scholars. Eric Cline also believes that Josephus is retelling a similar event that happened to him during the Siege of Yodfat . There he and another soldier, the last survivors, decided to surrender rather than have one kill the other. Masada was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001. In 2007, the Masada Museum in Memory of Yigael Yadin opened at
3480-536: Is documented by Josephus , who writes, "And the body was carried two hundred furlongs , to Herodium, where he had given order to be buried." Professor Ehud Netzer , an archaeologist from the Hebrew University , read the writings of Josephus and focused his search on the vicinity of the pool and its surroundings. An article in the New York Times states, Lower Herodium consists of the remains of
3596-723: Is located at the exact location given by Josephus, atop tunnels and water pools, at a flattened desert site, halfway up the hill to Herodium , 12 km (7.5 mi) south of Jerusalem. The tomb contained a broken sarcophagus but no remains of a body. Not all scholars agree with Netzer: in an article for the Palestine Exploration Quarterly , archaeologist David Jacobson ( University of Oxford ) wrote that "these finds are not conclusive on their own and they also raise new questions." In October 2013, archaeologists Joseph Patrich and Benjamin Arubas also challenged
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3712-595: Is sometimes referred to as Herod's Temple. Today, only the four retaining walls remain standing, including the Western Wall . These walls created a flat platform (the Temple Mount) upon which the Temple was then constructed. Herod's other achievements include the development of water supplies for Jerusalem, building fortresses such as Masada and Herodium , and founding new cities such as Caesarea Maritima and
3828-626: Is the first time that this succeeded with a Chalcolithic plant genome, which is also the oldest one sequenced so far. The result helped determine that the earliest domestication of barley, dated elsewhere in the Fertile Crescent to 10,000 years ago, happened further north up the Jordan Rift Valley , namely in the Upper Jordan Valley in northern Israel. The Yoram Cave seeds were found to be fairly different from
3944-446: The vita (biography) of St Sabbas , but it is used as a proper name only for the monastery at Masada, as can be seen from the vita of St Euthymius . An almost inaccessible cave, dubbed Yoram Cave, located on the sheer southern cliff face 100 m below the plateau, has been found to contain numerous plant remains, of which 6,000-year-old barley seeds were in such good state of preservation that their genome could be sequenced. This
4060-707: The Augusteum , a temple dedicated to Augustus. Herod's most famous and ambitious project was the expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem which was undertaken so that he would "have a capital city worthy of his dignity and grandeur", and with this reconstruction Herod hoped to gain more support from the Jews. Recent findings suggest that the Temple Mount walls and Robinson's Arch may not have been completed until at least 20 years after his death, during
4176-607: The Book of Ezekiel including the vision of the "dry bones" ( Deuteronomy 33–34 and Ezekiel 35–38 ), found hidden in pits dug under the floor of a small room built inside the synagogue. In other loci , fragments were found of the books of Genesis , Leviticus , Psalms , and Sirach , as well as of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice . In the area in front of the Northern Palace, 11 small ostraca were recovered, each bearing
4292-716: The Herodian dynasty and ending the Hasmonean Dynasty . Josephus reports this as being in the year of the consulship of Agrippa and Gallus (37 BCE), but also says that it was exactly 27 years after Jerusalem fell to Pompey, which would indicate 36 BCE. Cassius Dio also reports that in 37 "the Romans accomplished nothing worthy of note" in the area. According to Josephus, Herod ruled for 37 years, 34 of them after capturing Jerusalem. As some believe Herod's family were converts to Judaism, his religious commitment
4408-638: The Jordan River ; and Herod's sister Salome I , who was given a toparchy including the cities of Jabneh , Ashdod , and Phasaelis . Herod was born around 72 BCE in Idumea , south of Judea. He was the second son of Antipater the Idumaean , a high-ranking official under ethnarch Hyrcanus II , and Cypros, a Nabatean princess from Petra , in present-day Jordan . Herod's father was by descent an Edomite; his ancestors had converted to Judaism . Herod
4524-460: The Twin Palaces at Jericho . However, their excavators could make no archaeological discovery able to support this presumption. According to Shaye Cohen, archaeology shows that Josephus' account is "incomplete and inaccurate". Josephus writes of only one palace; archaeology reveals two. His description of the northern palace contains several inaccuracies, and he gives exaggerated figures for
4640-525: The "two Herods of the Bible" are all ascribed to Herod Antipas , Herod the Great's son. Upon Herod's death in 4 BCE, the Romans divided his kingdom among three of his sons and his sister: his son Herod Antipas received the tetrarchy of Galilee and Peraea . Other family members of Herod the Great include Herod's son Herod Archelaus who became ethnarch of Judea, Samaria , and Idumea ; Herod's son Philip who became tetrarch of territories north and east of
4756-515: The 114 m (375 ft) high assault ramp consisted mostly of a natural spur of bedrock. The ramp was complete in the spring of 73, after probably two to three months of siege, allowing the Romans to breach the wall of the fortress with a battering ram on April 16. The Romans employed the X Legion and a number of auxiliary units and Jewish prisoners of war, totaling some 15,000, of whom an estimated 8,000 to 9,000 were fighting men, in crushing Jewish resistance at Masada. A giant siege tower with
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4872-444: The 20th year of Tiberius (34 CE), which implies his accession as 4 BCE. Some scholars support the traditional date of 1 BCE for Herod's death. Yet others support 1 CE for the probable date of Herod's death. Filmer, for example, proposes that Herod died in 1 BCE, and that his heirs backdated their reigns to 4 or 3 BCE to assert an overlapping with Herod's rule, and bolster their own legitimacy. Based on
4988-466: The 4 BCE date include the assertion that there was not nearly enough time between the eclipse on March 13 and Passover on April 10 for the recorded events surrounding Herod's death to have taken place. In 66 CE, Eleazar ben Hanania compiled the Megillat Taanit , which contains two unattributed entries for cause of festivity: 7 Kislev and 2 Shevat. A later Scholion (commentary) on
5104-646: The 9th century BC. The defenders of a town wall are trying to set the ram alight with torches and have also put a chain under it. The attackers are trying to pull on the chain to free the ram, while the aforementioned wet hides on the canopy provide protection against the flames. By the time the Kushites made their incursions into Egypt, c. 715 BC , walls, siege tactics and equipment had undergone many changes. Early shelters protecting sappers armed with poles trying to breach mudbrick ramparts gave way to battering rams. The first confirmed use of rams in
5220-429: The Jewish and non-Jewish people of his kingdom had to be balanced with satisfying Augustus' aim to spread the culture, architecture and values of Rome throughout his empire. The sway of Augustus and the Roman Empire on the policy led to the use of Romanized construction throughout Herod's Kingdom. An example of Herod's architectural expansion of Judea in devotion to Rome can be seen with the third temple he commissioned,
5336-588: The Jewish armies since the Hasmonean dynasty, while the Celtic contingent were former bodyguards of Cleopatra given as a gift by Augustus to Herod following the Battle of Actium . The Germanic contingent was modeled upon Augustus's personal bodyguard, the Germani Corporis Custodes , responsible for guarding the palace. Herod undertook many colossal building projects. Around 19 BCE, he began
5452-602: The Judean throne from his uncle with the help of the Parthians . Herod fled to Rome to plead with the Romans to restore Hyrcanus II to power. The Romans had a special interest in Judea because their general Pompey the Great had conquered Jerusalem in 63 BCE , thus placing the region in the Roman sphere of influence. In Rome, Herod was unexpectedly appointed King of the Jews by the Roman Senate. Josephus puts this in
5568-525: The Mediterranean Basin, featuring in this case the simultaneous employment of siege towers to shelter the rammers from attack, occurred on the island of Sicily in 409 BC, at the Selinus siege. Defenders manning castles, forts or bastions would sometimes try to foil battering rams by dropping obstacles in front of the ram, such as a large sack of sawdust, just before the ram's head struck
5684-679: The Megillat Taanit attributes the 7 Kislev festivity to king Herod the Great's death (no year is mentioned). Some scholars ignore the Scholion and attribute the 2 Shevat date instead to Herod's death. Augustus respected the terms of Herod's will, which stipulated the division of Herod's kingdom among three of his sons. Augustus recognised Herod's son Herod Archelaus as ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea from c. 4 BCE – c. 6 CE Augustus then judged Archelaus incompetent to rule, removed him from power, and combined
5800-639: The Northern Palace—was enclosed by a casemate wall, which consisted of a double wall with a space between that was divided into rooms by perpendicular walls; these were used as living chambers for the soldiers and as extra storage space. The Western Palace was also extended for a third time to include more rooms for the servants and their duties. A. ostraca cache found in casemate B. Herod's throne room C. colorful mosaic D. Roman breaching point E. coin cache found F. ostraca cache found G. three skeletons found The Masada story
5916-520: The Occident happened from 503 to 502 BC when Opiter Verginius became consul of the Romans during the fight against Aurunci people: The following consuls, Opiter Virginius and Sp. Cassius, first endeavored to take Pometia by storm, and afterwards by raising battering rams (vineae) and other works. The second known use was in 427 BC, when the Spartans besieged Plataea . The first use of rams within
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#17327723163286032-494: The Roman Empire was a major factor in enabling him to maintain his authority over Judea. There have been mixed interpretations concerning Herod's popularity during his reign. In The Jewish War , Josephus characterizes Herod's rule in generally favorable terms, and gives Herod the benefit of the doubt for the infamous events that took place during his reign. However, in his later work, Jewish Antiquities , Josephus emphasizes
6148-478: The Roman governor of Iudaea, Lucius Flavius Silva , headed the Roman legion X Fretensis and laid siege to Masada. Another source gives the year of the siege of Masada as 73 or 74 AD. The Roman legion surrounded Masada, building a circumvallation wall and then a siege ramp against the western face of the plateau. According to Dan Gill, geological investigations in the early 1990s confirmed earlier observations that
6264-643: The Roman leader Antony. Recognizing Cleopatra's influence over Antony, Alexandra asked Cleopatra for aid in making Aristobulus III the High Priest. As a member of the Hasmonean family, Aristobulus III might partially repair the fortunes of the Hasmoneans if made High Priest. Alexandra's request was made, but Cleopatra urged Alexandra to leave Judea with Aristobulus III and visit Antony. Herod received word of this plot, and feared that if Antony met Aristobolus III in person he might name Aristobulus III King of Judea. This concern induced Herod, in 35 BCE, to order
6380-608: The Temple's construction. The Sadducees, who were closely associated with priestly responsibilities in the Temple, opposed Herod because he replaced their high priests with outsiders from Babylonia and Alexandria, in an effort to gain support from the Jewish Diaspora. Herod's outreach efforts gained him little, and at the end of his reign anger and dissatisfaction were common amongst Jews. Heavy outbreaks of violence and riots followed Herod's death in many cities, including Jerusalem, as pent-up resentments boiled over. The scope of
6496-624: The Temple, which suggested a greater interest in the welfare of Rome than of Jews. Herod's taxes garnered a bad reputation: his constant concern for his reputation led him to make frequent, expensive gifts, increasingly emptying the kingdom's coffers, and such lavish spending upset his Jewish subjects. The two major Jewish sects of the day, the Pharisees and the Sadducees , both showed opposition to Herod. The Pharisees were discontented because Herod disregarded many of their demands with respect to
6612-400: The Western Palace and directed visitors into a portico , used as a reception area for visitors. Visitors were then led to a throne room. Off the throne room was a corridor used by the king, with a private dressing room, which also had another entrance way that connected to the courtyard through the mosaic room. The mosaic room contained steps that led to a second floor with separate bedrooms for
6728-480: The assassination of Aristobulus, ending this first threat to Herod's throne. The marriage of 37 BCE also sparked a power struggle between Roman leaders Octavian, who would later be called Augustus , and Antony . Herod, owing his throne to Rome, had to pick a side, and he chose Antony. In 31 at Actium, Antony lost to Octavian, posing a second threat to Herod's rule. Herod had to regain Octavian's support if he
6844-622: The attempt succeeds; for example, in the 12th-century Eadwine Psalter . Other medieval dramatizations, such as the Ordo Rachelis , follow Josephus' account. Josephus stated that Herod was so concerned that no one would mourn his death that he commanded a large group of distinguished men to come to Jericho, and he gave an order that they should be killed at the time of his death so that the displays of grief that he craved would take place; his brother-in-law Alexas and his sister Salome did not carry out this wish. Most scholarship concerning
6960-568: The backing of Rome, but the Sanhedrin condemned his brutality. When yet a private man, Herod had determined to punish Hyrcanus the Hasmonean king, who had once summoned Herod to stand trial for murder, but Herod was restrained from doing so by the intervention of his father and his elder brother. In 41 BCE, the Roman leader Mark Antony named Herod and his brother Phasael as tetrarchs . They were placed in this role to support Hyrcanus II. In 40 BCE Antigonus , Hyrcanus' nephew, took
7076-450: The birth of Jesus , a group of magi from the East visited Herod to inquire the whereabouts of "the one having been born king of the Jews", because they had seen his star in the east (or, according to certain translations, at its rising) and therefore wanted to pay him homage. Herod, as King of the Jews, was alarmed at the prospect of a usurper. Herod assembled the chief priests and scribes of
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#17327723163287192-408: The coins of Herod's sons Steinmann and Young argue that Herod's sons antedated their reigns to 6 BCE before Herod's death so that their reigns cannot be used to argue for a 4 BCE date for Herod's death. In Josephus' account, Herod's death was preceded by first a Jewish fast day (10 Tevet 3761/Sun 24 Dec 1 BCE), a lunar eclipse (29 Dec 1 BCE) and followed by Passover (27 March 1 CE). Objections to
7308-533: The conquest by Pompey in 63 BCE. Herod overthrew the Hasmonean Antigonus in a three-year-long war between 37 and 34 BCE, ruled under Roman overlordship until his death c. 4 BCE , and officially passed on the throne to his sons, thus establishing his own, so-called Herodian dynasty . Herod was granted the title of "King of Judea" by the Roman Senate . As such, he was
7424-492: The date of Herod's death follows Emil Schürer 's calculations, which suggest that the date was in or around 4 BCE; this is three years earlier than the previous consensus and tradition (1 BCE). Two of Herod's sons, Archelaus and Philip the Tetrarch, dated their rule from 4 BCE, though Archelaus apparently held royal authority during Herod's lifetime. Philip's reign would last for 37 years, until his death in
7540-412: The disturbances sparked hopes that the Jews of Judea might some day overthrow the Roman overlords, hopes reawakened decades later in the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War in 66 CE. The relationship between Herod and Augustus demonstrates the fragile politics of a deified Emperor and a King who ruled over the Jewish people and their holy lands. As they interacted, Herod's desire to satisfy both
7656-616: The effects of siege engines. Historical instances of the usage of battering rams in sieges of major cities include: There is a popular myth in Gloucester , England that the well known children's rhyme, Humpty Dumpty , is about a battering ram used in the siege of Gloucester in 1643, during the Civil War . However, the story is almost certainly untrue; during the siege, which lasted only one month, no battering rams were used, although many cannons were. The idea seems to have originated in
7772-581: The enclosures of Cave of the Patriarchs and Mamre in Hebron . He and Cleopatra owned a monopoly over the extraction of asphalt from the Dead Sea, which was used in shipbuilding. He leased copper mines on Cyprus from the Roman emperor. Herod's reign over Judea is recorded in the Gospel of Matthew , which describes an event known as the Massacre of the Innocents . According to this account, after
7888-399: The field commentaries of the Roman commanders that were accessible to him. There are discrepancies between archaeological findings and Josephus' writings. Josephus mentions only one of the two palaces that have been excavated, refers only to one fire, though many buildings show fire damage, and claims that 960 people were killed, though the remains of at most 28 bodies have been found. Some of
8004-412: The first phase the Western Palace was built, along with three smaller palaces, a storeroom, and army barracks. Three columbarium towers and a swimming pool at the south end of the site were also completed during this building phase. The original center of the Western Palace was square and was accessed through an open courtyard on the northwest corner of the building. The courtyard was the central room of
8120-478: The first-century Jewish Roman historian Josephus . Masada is also mentioned in the Judean Desert Documents . Josephus writes that the site was first fortified by Hasmonean ruler Alexander Jannaeus in the first century BC. However, so far no Hasmonean-period building remains could be identified during archaeological excavations. Josephus further writes that Herod the Great captured it in
8236-463: The hair, a full head of hair with braids, but no bones of the female were found. Forensic analysis showed the hair had been shaved from the woman's head with a sharp instrument while she was still alive, a practice prescribed for captured women in the Bible ( Deuteronomy 21:10–12 ) and the 2nd-century BCE Temple Scroll . The braids indicate that she was married. Based on the evidence, anthropologist Joe Zias and forensic scientist Azriel Gorski believe
8352-404: The height of the walls and towers. Josephus' account is contradicted by the "skeletons in the cave, and the numerous separate fires". According to Josephus , the siege of Masada by Roman troops from 73 to 74 CE , at the end of the First Jewish–Roman War , ended in the mass suicide of the 960 Sicarii rebels who were hiding there. However, the archaeological evidence relevant to this event
8468-485: The identification of the tomb as that of Herod. According to Patrich and Arubas, the tomb is too modest to be Herod's and has several unlikely features. Roi Porat, who replaced Netzer as excavation leader after the latter's death, stood by the identification. The Israel Nature and Parks Authority and the Gush Etzion Regional Council intend to recreate the tomb out of a light plastic material,
8584-401: The king and a semicircular portico to provide a view of the area. A stairway on the west side led down to the middle terrace that was a decorative circular reception hall. The lower terrace was also for receptions and banquets. It was enclosed on all four sides with porticos and included a Roman bathhouse. In 15 BCE, during the third and final building phase, the entire site of Masada—except for
8700-415: The king and queen. The second building phase in 25 BCE included an addition to the Western Palace, a large storage complex for food, and the Northern Palace. The Northern Palace is one of Herod's more lavish palace-fortresses, and was built on the hilltop on the north side of Masada and continues two levels down, over the end of the cliffs. The upper terrace of the Northern Palace included living quarters for
8816-421: The last wives, and also that he had more daughters, as female births at that time were often not recorded. As polygamy (the practice of having multiple wives at once) was then permitted under Jewish law, Herod's later marriages were almost certainly polygamous. In part based on the tree of Rick Swartzentrover. Battering ram A battering ram is a siege engine that originated in ancient times and
8932-416: The log in an arrow-proof, fire-resistant canopy mounted on wheels. Inside the canopy, the log was swung from suspensory chains or ropes. Rams proved effective weapons of war because at the time wall-building materials such as stone and brick were weak in tension , and therefore prone to cracking when impacted with force. With repeated blows, the cracks would grow steadily until a hole was created. Eventually,
9048-409: The man himself. Modern critics have described him as "the evil genius of the Judean nation", and as one who would be "prepared to commit any crime in order to gratify his unbounded ambition." His extraordinary spending spree is cited as one of the causes of the serious impoverishment of the people he ruled, adding to the opinion that his reign was exclusively negative. Herod's religious policies gained
9164-421: The marked trail. Following an hour and a half search, Magen David Adom personnel found her unresponsive and suffering from dehydration. After failed attempts to resuscitate, she was declared dead at the scene. An example of Herodian architecture, Masada was the first site Herod the Great fortified after he gained control of his kingdom. The first of three building phases completed by Herod began in 35 BCE. During
9280-474: The other details that Josephus gives were correct – for instance, he describes the baths that were built there, the fact that the floors in some of the buildings 'were paved with stones of several colours', and that many pits were cut into the living rock to serve as cisterns. Yadin found some partially intact mosaic floors which meet that description. Masada was last occupied during the Byzantine period, when
9396-457: The park opens, to avoid the mid-day heat, which can exceed 43 °C (109 °F) in the summer. In fact, the hiking paths are often closed during the day in the summer because of the heat. Visitors are encouraged to bring drinking water for the hike up, as water is available only at the top. Alternatively, for a higher fee, visitors can take a cable car (the Masada cableway , opens at 8 am) to
9512-512: The people and asked them where the "Anointed One" (the Messiah , Greek: Ὁ Χριστός , ho Christos ) was to be born. They answered, in Bethlehem , citing Micah 5:2 . Herod therefore sent the magi to Bethlehem, instructing them to search for the child and, after they had found him, to "report to me, so that I too may go and worship him". However, after they had found Jesus, they were warned in
9628-404: The power struggle that followed the death of his father Antipater in 43 BC. It survived the siege of the last Hasmonean king Antigonus II Mattathias , who ruled with Parthian support. According to Josephus, between 37 and 31 BC, Herod the Great built a large fortress on the plateau as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt and erected two palaces with an endless food supply. In 66 AD,
9744-414: The presence of a priest. There is some speculation as to whether or not these baths were actual mikvehs as they have also been identified as stepped frigidaria or Roman cold-water baths; however, several historians have identified these baths as a combination of both types. While it has been proven that Herod showed a great amount of disrespect toward the Jewish religion, scholar Eyal Regev suggests that
9860-441: The presence of these ritual baths shows that Herod found ritual purity important enough in his private life to place a large number of these baths in his palaces despite his several connections to gentiles and pagan cults. These baths also show, Regev continues, that the combination of the Roman frigidaria and the Jewish mikvehs suggests that Herod sought some type of combination between the Roman and Jewish cultures, as he enjoyed
9976-573: The provinces of Samaria, Judea proper, and Idumea into Iudaea province . This enlarged province was ruled by a prefect until the year 41 CE. As to Herod's other sons, Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea from Herod's death to 39 CE when he was deposed and exiled; Philip became tetrarch of territories north and east of the Jordan, namely Iturea , Trachonitis , Batanea , Gaulanitis , Auranitis and Paneas , and ruled until his death in 34 CE. The location of Herod's tomb
10092-461: The purity of Jewish tradition and the comfort of Roman luxury simultaneously. However, he was also praised for his work, being considered the greatest builder in Jewish history, and one who "knew his place and followed [the] rules." What is left of his building ventures are now popular tourist attractions in the Middle East. It is very probable that Herod had more children, especially with
10208-447: The ram against the wall when they reached it. Many battering rams had curved or slanted wooden roofs and side-screens, covered in protective materials, usually fresh wet hides. These canopies reduced the risk of the ram being set on fire, and protected the operators of the ram from arrow and spear volleys launched from above. An image of an Assyrian battering ram depicts how sophisticated attacking and defensive practices had become by
10324-518: The ram's point would be reinforced with a metal head or cap while vulnerable parts of the shaft were bound with strengthening metal bands. Vitruvius details in his text De architectura that Ceras the Carthaginian was the first to make a ram with a wooden base with wheels and a wooden superstructure, with the ram hung within. This structure moved so slowly, however, that he called it the testudo (Latin for "tortoise"). Another type of ram
10440-421: The reign of Herod Agrippa II . In the 18th year of his reign (20–19 BCE), Herod rebuilt the Temple on "a more magnificent scale". Although work on out-buildings and courts continued for another 80 years, the new Temple was finished in a year and a half. To comply with religious law, Herod employed 1,000 priests as masons and carpenters in the rebuilding. The finished temple, which was destroyed in 70 CE,
10556-416: The remains in the cave indicate they are contemporaneous with the period of the revolt, and pig bones were present, occasionally occurring for Roman burials due to pig sacrifices. This indicates that the remains may belong to non-Jewish Roman soldiers or civilians who occupied the site before or after the siege. Zias questioned whether as many as 24 individuals were present, since only 4% of that number of bones
10672-476: The remains may have been Romans whom the rebels captured when they seized the garrison. As to the sparse remains of 24 people found in the southern cave at the base of the cliff, excavator Yigael Yadin was unsure of their ethnicity. The rabbinical establishment concluded that they were remains of the Jewish defenders, and in July 1969, they were reburied as Jews in a state ceremony. Carbon dating of textiles found with
10788-505: The remoteness from human habitation and its arid environment, the site remained largely untouched by humans or nature for two millennia. Many of the ancient buildings have been restored from their remains, as have the wall paintings of Herod's two main palaces, and the Roman-style bathhouses that he built. The synagogue , storehouses, and houses of the Jewish rebels have also been identified and restored. Water cisterns two-thirds of
10904-554: The sanctity of the Second Temple by employing priests as artisans in its construction. Along with holding some respect for the Jewish culture in his public life, there is also evidence of Herod's sensitivity toward Jewish traditions in his private life: around 40 ritual baths or mikvehs were found in several of his palaces. These mikvehs were known for being used during this time in Jewish purity rituals in which Jewish people could submerge themselves and purify their bodies without
11020-589: The site, in which archeological findings are displayed in a theatrical setting. Many of the artifacts exhibited were unearthed by Yadin and his archaeological team from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem during the 1960s. The archaeological site is situated in the Masada National Park , and the park requires an entrance fee (even if by hiking). There are two hiking paths, both very steep: Hikers frequently start an hour before sunrise, when
11136-503: The story of the siege was revived as the Masada myth , a selectively constructed narrative based on Josephus's account. The mythical narrative became a national symbol in the early years of Israel 's nationhood. Masada is one of Israel's most popular tourist attractions . During 2005 to 2007 and 2009 to 2012, it was the second-most popular, behind the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo . The site attracts around 750,000 visitors
11252-537: The story's absence from the Gospel of Luke and the accounts of Josephus "work[s] against the account's accuracy". Richardson suggests that the event in Matthew's gospel was inspired by Herod's murder of his own sons. Jodi Magness has said that "many scholars believe that the massacre of the innocents never occurred, but instead was inspired by Herod's reputation". Others, such as Paul Maier, suggest that since Bethlehem
11368-511: The support of the Jews and improve his reputation as a leader. Herod also built Sebaste and other pagan cities because he wanted to appeal to the country's substantial pagan population. In order to fund these projects, Herod utilized a Hasmonean taxation system that heavily burdened the Judean people. Nevertheless, these enterprises brought employment and opportunities for the people's provision. In some instances, Herod took it upon himself to provide for his people in times of need, such as during
11484-438: The taxes of that region for the Roman Senate , and he met with success in ridding that region of bandits. Antipater's elder son, Phasael , served in the same capacity as governor of Jerusalem . During this time the young Herod cultivated a good relationship with Sextus Caesar , the acting Roman governor of Syria, who appointed Herod as general of Coelesyria and Samaria , greatly expanding his realm of influence. He enjoyed
11600-567: The top of the mesa. A visitors' center and the museum are at the base of the cable car. A light-and-sound show is presented on some summer nights on the western side of the mountain (access by car from the Arad road or by foot, down the mountain via the Roman Ramp path). In May 2015, 20-year old American tourist Briana McHam fell 25 feet on Masada's Snake Path, after she became separated from her Florida State University tour group and went off
11716-461: The tyrannical authority that many scholars have come to associate with Herod's reign. Herod's despotic rule has been demonstrated by many of his security measures aimed at suppressing the contempt his people, especially Jews, had towards him. For instance, it has been suggested that Herod used secret police to monitor and report the feelings of the general populace toward him. He sought to prohibit protests, and had opponents removed by force. He had
11832-431: The way up the cliff drain the nearby wadis by an elaborate system of channels, which explains how the rebels managed to conserve enough water for such a long time. The Roman attack ramp still stands on the western side and can be climbed on foot. The meter-high circumvallation wall that the Romans built around Masada can be seen, together with eight Roman siege camps just outside this wall. The Roman siege installations as
11948-441: The wild variety, proof for an already advanced process of domestication, but very similar to the types of barley still cultivated in the region—an indication for remarkable constancy. Considering the difficulty in reaching the cave, whose mouth opens some 4 m above the exposed access path, the researchers have speculated that it was a place of short-term refuge for Chalcolithic people fleeing an unknown catastrophe. The site of Masada
12064-458: The year of the consulship of Calvinus and Pollio (40 BCE), but Appian places it in 39 BCE. Herod went back to Judea to win his kingdom from Antigonus. Toward the end of the campaign against Antigonus, Herod married the granddaughter of Hyrcanus II, Mariamne (known as Mariamne I), who was also a niece of Antigonus. Herod did this in an attempt to secure his claim to the throne and gain some Jewish favor. However, Herod already had
12180-454: Was a Roman Jewish client king of the Herodian kingdom of Judea. He is known for his colossal building projects throughout Judea . Among these works are the rebuilding of the Second Temple in Jerusalem and the expansion of its base —the Western Wall being part of it. Vital details of his life are recorded in the works of the 1st century CE Roman–Jewish historian Josephus . Despite Herod's successes, including single-handedly forging
12296-436: Was a descendant of Eleazar Maccabeus (Auran) of the Hasmoneans. Herod rose to power largely through his father's good relations with the Roman general and dictator Julius Caesar , who entrusted Antipater with the public affairs of Judea. Herod was appointed provincial governor of Galilee in c. 47 BCE , when he was about either 25 or 28 years old ( Greek original : "15 years of age"). There he faithfully farmed
12412-421: Was a reference of how Herod, as a Jew, would not kill pigs, but had three of his sons, and many others, killed. According to contemporary historians, Herod the Great "is perhaps the only figure in ancient Jewish history who has been loathed equally by Jewish and Christian posterity", depicted both by Jews and Christians as a tyrant and bloodthirsty ruler. The study of Herod's reign includes polarizing opinions on
12528-491: Was a smaller town, the slaughter of about a half dozen children would not have warranted a mention from Josephus. Herod died in Jericho , after an unidentified but excruciatingly painful, putrefying illness, known to posterity as "Herod's Evil". Josephus states that the pain of his illness led Herod to attempt suicide by stabbing, and that the attempt was thwarted by his cousin. In some much later narratives and depictions,
12644-408: Was designed to break open the masonry walls of fortifications or splinter their wooden gates. In its simplest form, a battering ram is just a large, heavy log carried by several people and propelled with force against an obstacle; the ram would be sufficient to damage the target if the log were massive enough and/or it were moved quickly enough (that is, if it had enough momentum ). Later rams encased
12760-549: Was identified in 1838 by Americans Edward Robinson and Eli Smith, and in 1842, American missionary Samuel W. Wolcott and the English painter W. Tipping were the first moderns to climb it. After visiting the site several times in the 1930s and 1940s, Shmarya Guttman conducted an initial probe excavation of the site in 1959. Masada was extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archaeologist and former military Chief-of-Staff Yigael Yadin . Due to
12876-404: Was one that maintained the normal shape and structure, but the support beams were instead made of saplings that were lashed together. The frame was then covered in hides as normal to defend from fire. The only solid beam present was the ram that was hung from the frame. The frame itself was so light that it could be carried on the shoulders of the men transporting the ram, and the same men could beat
12992-521: Was questioned by some elements of Jewish society. When John Hyrcanus conquered the region of Idumaea (the Edom of the Hebrew Bible ) in 140–130 BCE, he required all Idumaeans to obey Jewish law or to leave; most Idumaeans thus converted to Judaism, which meant that they had to be circumcised , and many intermarried with the Jews and adopted their customs. While Herod publicly identified himself as
13108-520: Was raised as a Jew. Strabo , a contemporary of Herod, held that the Idumaeans, whom he identified as of Nabataean origin, constituted the majority of the population of western Judea, where they commingled with the Judaeans and adopted their customs. This is a view shared also by some modern scholarly works which consider Idumaeans as of Arab or Nabataean origins. According to Josephus, Herod
13224-420: Was recovered. A 2,000-year-old Judean date palm seed discovered during archaeological excavations in the early 1960s was successfully germinated into a date plant , popularly known as " Methuselah " after the longest-living figure in the Hebrew Bible . At the time, it was the oldest known germination, remaining so until a new record was set in 2012. As of February 2024, it remains the oldest germination from
13340-639: Was the inspiration for the "Masada plan" devised by the British during the Mandate era. The plan was to man defensive positions on Mount Carmel with Palmach fighters, to stop Erwin Rommel 's expected drive through the region in 1942. The plan was abandoned following Rommel's defeat at El Alamein . Herod the Great Herod I or Herod the Great ( c. 72 – c. 4 BCE )
13456-456: Was to keep his throne. At Rhodes in 31 BCE, Herod, through his ability to keep Judea open to Rome as a link to the wealth of Syria and Egypt, and ability to defend the frontier, convinced Octavian that he would be loyal to him. Herod continued to rule his subjects as he saw fit. Despite the autonomy afforded to Herod in his internal reign over Judea, restrictions were placed upon him in his relations with other kingdoms. Herod's support from
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