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86-638: The name "Constitution of Medina" is misleading as the text did not establish a state. The name was coined by modern historians, whereas source texts just describe it as a document ( kitāb , ṣaḥīfah ). The text was recorded by Ibn Ishaq and Abu 'Ubayd al-Qasim ibn Sallam , though how they encountered the text is unclear. Nevertheless, it is widely accepted as authentic. It may have been preserved due to interest in its manner of administration. According to traditional Islamic belief, in Muhammad's last years in Mecca,

172-575: A Lakhmid caravan to the Hejaz. The attack took place during the holy season when fighting was typically forbidden. The Kinani tribesman's patron was Harb ibn Umayya , a Qurayshi chief. This patron and other chiefs were ambushed by the Hawazin at Nakhla, but were able to escape. In the battles that occurred in the following two years, the Qays were victorious, but in the fourth year, the tide turned in favor of

258-523: A caravan at Nakhla , Muhammad learned of a larger Quraysh caravan returning from Gaza . He attempted to intercept it, but the caravan rerouted. Instead, Muhammad encountered Quraysh troops led by Amr ibn Hisham , and despite being outnumbered, won the Battle of Badr , gaining prestige and followers. The Quraysh defeat at Badr was significant, causing them to lose many of their influential or experienced men and their prestige. Seeking to restore their honor,

344-609: A class of men with well-developed managerial and organizational skills. It was a development unheralded, and almost unique, in central Arabia. The Banu Makhzum and Banu Umayya , in particular, acquired vast wealth from trade and held the most influence among the Quraysh in Meccan politics. The Banu Umayya and the Banu Nawfal , another clan descending from Abd Manaf that had become wealthy from their commercial enterprise, split from

430-500: A delegation from Medina from its twelve important clans invited him as a neutral outsider to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire community. There had been fighting in Medina involving mainly its pagan and Jewish inhabitants for around 100 years before 620. The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all the clans had been involved, made it obvious to them that

516-493: A few remain skeptical however, including Robert Hoyland, and some others think that the Constitution existed but its wording or content is no longer accessible. In the case of some historians, skepticism is constrained to particular aspects of the Constitution as well as the context of its emergence; disagreements persist on whether the documents resulted from negotiated settlements or were merely unilateral edicts by Muhammad,

602-530: A key component in the Muslim elite. Many leading Qurayshi tribesmen were installed in key government positions and in Muhammad's policy-making circle. According to Donner, the inclusion of Quraysh "in the ruling elite of the Islamic state was very probably responsible for what appears to be the more carefully organized and systematic approach to statesmanship practiced by Muhammad in the closing years of his life, as

688-508: A kind of alliance or federation" of the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca and specifying the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina, including that of the Muslim community to other communities: the Jews and the other " Peoples of the Book ". According to chroniclers such as Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (785-845 CE), the composition of

774-438: A number of expressions to convey his skepticism or caution. Beside a frequent note that only God knows whether a particular statement is true or not (p. xix), Guillaume suggests that Ibn Isḥāq deliberately substitutes the ordinary term "ḥaddathanī" (he narrated to me) by a word of suspicion "zaʿama" ("he alleged") to show his skepticism about certain traditions (p. xx). Michael Cook laments that comparing Ibn Ishaq with

860-690: A peaceful resolution, Muhammad decided to confront the Quraysh through armed conflict, beginning with raids on Meccan caravans. This led to several major battles, including those at Badr , Uhud , and the Trench . After these conflicts and following changes in Medina's political landscape, including the expulsion of three major Jewish tribes, Muhammad reportedly shifted his focus from Quraysh caravans to northern tribes such as Banu Lahyan and Banu Mustaliq . As Muhammad's position in Medina became more established, attitudes towards him in his hometown became more approving. The Treaty of al-Hudaybiya , establishing

946-532: A precedent for Muslims later on towards Jews and Christians, namely jizya . He did not slaughter those who surrendered but let them stay and tend their fields, with half the produce going to him and his followers. The Jewish colony of Wadi al-Qura also came into his possession with this expedition, making the Muslim community rich. In early 627, Muhammad undertook the Umrah known as the 'fulfilled pilgrimage' in Mecca, during which time he reconciled with his family,

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1032-517: A source. Thus can be reconstructed an 'improved' " edited " text, i.e., by distinguishing or removing Ibn Hisham's additions, and by adding from al-Tabari passages attributed to Ibn Ishaq. Yet the result's degree of approximation to Ibn Ishaq's original text can only be conjectured. Such a reconstruction is available, e.g., in Guillaume's translation. Here, Ibn Ishaq's introductory chapters describe pre-Islamic Arabia , before he then commences with

1118-565: A ten-year truce with the Meccans, allowed Muhammad to perform Umrah in Mecca the following year. During this pilgrimage, Muhammad reconciled with his family, the Hashim clan, which was symbolized by his marriage to Maymuna bint al-Harith . Several prominent Meccans, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As , recognized Muhammad's increasing influence in Arabia and converted to Islam. At

1204-645: A trench to be dug around Medina. This led to the Battle of the Trench . The trench hampered the Quraysh advance, and Muhammad conducted secret negotiations with the Ghatafan to induce distrust among his enemies. Unfavorable weather eventually caused the besiegers to lose morale and retire. Afterwards, Muhammad turned his attention to the Banu Qurayza , who were accused of betraying the Muslims by conspiring with

1290-538: A violation of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, Muhammad then set out with his army to Mecca. With those willing to fight from the Mecca side becoming fewer and fewer, Abu Sufyan set out with several others, including Muhammad's friend, Budayl ibn Warqa al-Khuza’i, to ask for amnesty for all the Quraysh who abandoned armed resistance. Muhammad thus managed to enter Mecca unopposed, and almost all the inhabitants adopted Islam. In 630, Muhammad entered Mecca victoriously , prompting

1376-639: Is Qurashī , though in the early centuries of the Islamic Ummah , most Qurayshi tribesmen were denoted by their specific clan instead of the tribe. Later, particularly after the 13th century, claimants of Qurayshi descent used the Qurashī surname. The Quraysh's progenitor was Fihr ibn Malik , whose full genealogy, according to traditional Arab sources, was the following: Fihr ibn Malik ibn al-Nadr ibn Kinana ibn Khuzayma ibn Mudrika ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'add ibn Adnan. Thus, Fihr belonged to

1462-520: Is al-Mubtadaʾ wa al-Baʿth wa al-Maghāzī —the Kitab al-Mubtada and Kitab al-Mab'ath both survive in part, particularly al-Mab'ath , and al-Mubtada otherwise in substantial fragments. He is also credited with the lost works Kitāb al-kh̲ulafāʾ , which al-Umawwī related to him (Fihrist, 92; Udabāʾ, VI, 401) and a book of Sunan (Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲ī Ḵh̲alīfa, II, 1008). In hadith studies , ibn Isḥaq's hadith (considered separately from his prophetic biography)

1548-624: Is a suggestion, however, that if this constitution really existed, it was probably created after the elimination of the three major Jewish clans in Medina by Muhammad and his troops. Another question raised about the constitution is that though it gives a list of Jewish tribes/clans of Medina involved, not among them are three famous in traditional Islamic history for being driven into exile (the Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Nadir tribes) or "massacred and dumped into pits" (the Banu Qurayza tribe), after conspiring and rising up against Muhammad. One of

1634-424: Is an important event in the development of the small group of Muslims in Medina to the larger Muslim community and empire. Ibn Ishaq Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Yasar al-Muttalibi ( Arabic : أَبُو عَبْدُ ٱلله مُحَمَّد ٱبْن إِسْحَاق ٱبْن يَسَار ٱلْمُطَّلِبيّ , romanized :  Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʾIsḥāq ibn Yasār al-Muṭṭalibī ; c.  704 –767), known simply as Ibn Ishaq ,

1720-456: Is based on its inclusion of non-Muslims and its portrayal of the Quraysh as enemies of God, a view inconsistent with later Islamic periods. Other factors include the perceived archaic style of the text, its abundance of unexplained allusions that were considered to be likely understood only by contemporaries, and its apparent inclination towards tribal law over developed Islamic norms. At least

1806-561: Is based on the version of the document found in Ibn Hisham's recension of the Seerah of Ibn Ishaq , Abu Ubaid's Kitab-al-Amwal , and Ibn Kathir's al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya . The translation was aimed at being clear, with clauses numbered in line with international standards for ease of future reference. There is general agreement on the authenticity of the text. The Constitution is only known from excerpts in early Muslim sources , primarily

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1892-530: Is generally thought to be "good" ( ḥasan ) (assuming an accurate and trustworthy isnad , or chain of transmission) and himself having a reputation of being "sincere" or "trustworthy" ( ṣadūq ). However, a general analysis of his isnads has given him the negative distinction of being a mudallis , meaning one who did not name his teacher, claiming instead to narrate directly from his teacher's teacher. Others, like Ahmad ibn Hanbal , rejected his narrations on all matters related to fiqh . Al-Dhahabī concluded that

1978-422: Is uncertain." The Quraysh, the dominant tribe of Mecca , initially showed little concern when Muhammad began preaching his new faith in the city. However, as Muhammad's message increasingly challenged traditional Meccan religious and social practices, tensions gradually arose. As relations with the Quraysh deteriorated, Muhammad coordinated the gradual emigration of his followers to Medina , eventually making

2064-618: The al-Muṭayyabūn faction in 605 and engaged in business with the al-Aḥlāf . Their financial fortunes had enabled them to become a force of their own. During a commercial incident where a Yemenite merchant was robbed of his trade by al-As ibn Wa'il al-Sahmi, the al-Muṭayyabūn reformed in the Hilf al-Fudul , which consisted of the Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib , which, like the Banu Umayya, were descendants of Abd Manaf, and

2150-475: The Al-Sīrah Al-Nabawiyyah of Ibn Hisham (early 800s CE), a recension of the Al-Sīrah Al-Nabawiyyah of Ibn Ishaq , though transmitted without a chain of narration, a crucial criterion for hadith scholars. Other important sources for the Constitution includes those of Sayyid al-Nas and the Kitab al-Amwal of Abu 'Ubayd al-Qasim ibn Sallam . According to L. Ali Khan, scholars do not agree on whether

2236-482: The Banu Hashim , which was sealed by marrying Maymuna bint al-Harith . Some important people of Mecca, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As , recognized Muhammad as a man of the future in Arabia and converted to Islam. In December 629, after the belligerent party in Mecca, against the advice of Abu Sufyan, decided to support one of their client clans against the Khuzaa, who were allied with Muhammad, resulting in

2322-593: The Banu Mustaliq were defeated in battle, with many captives later freed. Over time, tensions between Muhammad and the people of Mecca eased, leading to the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya , a ten-year armistice. Muhammad and his followers were then allowed to perform Umrah next year in Mecca. A short time later, Muhammad attacked the Jewish-inhabited Khaybar, where he instituted a practice that set

2408-565: The Banu Nadir , driving them to Khaybar and other settlements, and seizing their property. The Quraysh, with their caravans still under attack and urged by the Jews in Khaybar, recognized the importance of occupying Medina. They negotiated with various Bedouin tribes and managed to raise 10,000 troops. To defend against the Quraysh troops, Muhammad, advised by one of his followers, ordered

2494-701: The Banu Taym , Banu Asad , Banu Zuhra and Banu al-Harith ibn Fihr , were known as al-Muṭayyabūn ('the Perfumed'). Toward the end of the 6th century, the Fijar War broke out between the Quraysh and the Kinana on one side and various Qaysi tribes on the other, including the Hawazin , Banu Thaqif , Banu Amir and Banu Sulaym . The war broke out when a Kinani tribesman killed an Amiri tribesman escorting

2580-527: The Hejaz (western Arabia). In the words of Fred Donner : [By the end of the 6th century,] Meccan commerce was flourishing as never before, and the leaders in this trade [the Quraysh] had developed from mere merchants into true financiers. They were no longer interested in "buying cheap and selling dear," but also with organizing money and men to realize their commercial objectives. There was emerging, in short,

2666-591: The Isrā'īlīyāt . Furthermore, early literary critics, like ibn Sallām al-Jumaḥī and ibn al-Nadīm , censured ibn Isḥāq for knowingly including forged poems in his biography, and for attributing poems to persons not known to have written any poetry. The 14th-century historian al-Dhahabī , using hadith terminology , noted that in addition to the forged ( makdhūb ) poetry, Ibn Isḥāq filled his sīra with munqaṭiʿ (broken chain of narration ) and munkar (suspect narrator) reports. Guillaume notices that Ibn Isḥāq frequently uses

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2752-769: The Kaaba . Comprising ten main clans, it includes the Hashim clan into which the Islamic prophet Muhammad was born. By 600 CE , the Quraysh had become wealthy merchants, dominating trade between the Indian Ocean , East Africa , and the Mediterranean . They ran caravans to Gaza and Damascus in summer, and Yemen in winter. They also mined and pursued other enterprises on these routes, placing business interests first. When Muhammad began spreading Islam in Mecca,

2838-514: The Kinana tribe and his descent is traced to Adnan the Ishmaelite , the semi-legendary father of the " northern Arabs ". According to the traditional sources, Fihr led the warriors of Kinana and Khuzayma in defense of the Kaaba, at the time a major pagan sanctuary in Mecca, against tribes from Yemen ; however, the sanctuary and the privileges associated with it continued to be in the hands of

2924-659: The Sîrah or biography of the Prophet, the rest was once considered a lost work , but substantial fragments of it survive. He died in Baghdad in A.H. 150. Ibn Isḥaq collected oral traditions about the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. These traditions, which he orally dictated to his pupils, are now known collectively as Sīratu Rasūli l-Lāh ( Arabic : سيرة رسول الله "Life of the Messenger of God") and survive mainly in

3010-606: The Umayyad caliphs remembered their prophet". In 1864 the Heidelberg professor Gustav Weil published an annotated German translation in two volumes. Several decades later the Hungarian scholar Edward Rehatsek prepared an English translation, but it was not published until over a half-century later. The best-known translation in a Western language is Alfred Guillaume 's 1955 English translation, but some have questioned

3096-459: The early Medinan period (i.e., in 622 CE or shortly thereafter), because if the document had been drafted any later, then it would have both had a positive attitude towards the Quraysh and given Muhammad a more prominent place. Malay scholars, Fadzilah Din and Mohamed Noh Abdul Jalil, as well as the noted Pakistani scholar, Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri , cite the 622 CE drafting. Others, such as Hubert Grimme, suggested that it must have been drafted after

3182-471: The "main binding tie" for the newly created ummah is religion. That contrasts with the norms of pre-Islamic Arabia, which was a thoroughly tribal society, but Serjeant postulates the existence of earlier theocratic communities. According to Denny, "Watt has likened the Ummah as it is described in the document to a tribe, but with the important difference that it was to be based on religion and not on kinship". That

3268-429: The 624 CE Battle of Badr . Still others, such as Leone Caetani , suggested that the document was written before that battle. Portions of the constitution are corroborated by multiple sound hadith reports. Its validity in its stated single form, however, has been called into question, as there is no single sound chain of authorities ( isnad ) supporting it. There are differences of opinion as well as to how many documents

3354-568: The 6th century. The issue of succession between Qusayy's natural successor, Abd al-Dar, and his chosen successor, Abd Manaf, led to the division of Quraysh into two factions; those who backed the Abd al-Dar clan , including the clans of Banu Sahm , Banu Adi , Banu Makhzum and Banu Jumah , became known as al-Aḥlāf ('the Confederates'), while those who backed the Abd Manaf clan , including

3440-721: The Ansar were concerned about their political stake. The Quraysh apparently held real power during this period marked by the Muslim conquests . During the First Fitna , the Ansar, who backed Caliph Ali of the Banu Hashim against two factions representing rival Qurayshi clans, were defeated. They were subsequently left out of the political elite, while the Thaqif maintained a measure of influence by dint of their long relationship with

3526-691: The Banu Asad and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah of the Banu Taym. Later, during the Second Fitna , these same factions again fought for control of the caliphate , with the Umayyads victorious at the war's conclusion in 692/693. In 750, the issue of which Qurayshi clan would hold the reins of power was again raised but this time, the Abbasids , a branch of the Banu Hashim, were victorious and slew much of

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3612-536: The Kaaba were known Quraysh al-Biṭāḥ ('Quraysh of the Hollow'), and included all of the descendants of Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy and others. The clans settled in the outskirts of the sanctuary were known as Quraysh al-Ẓawāhir ('Quraysh of the Outskirts'). According to historian Ibn Ishaq , Qusayy's younger son, Abd Manaf , had grown prominent during his father's lifetime and was chosen by Qusayy to be his successor as

3698-523: The Muslim community traditionally passed to a member of the Quraysh, as was the case with the Rashidun , Umayyad , and Abbasid Caliphates , and purportedly the Fatimids . Sources differ as to the etymology of Quraysh, with one theory holding that it was the diminutive form of qirsh (shark). The Arab genealogist Hisham ibn al-Kalbi asserted that there was no eponymous founder of Quraysh; rather,

3784-689: The Quraysh and Kinana. After a few more clashes, peace was reestablished. According to Watt, the actual aim in the Fijar War was control of the trade routes of Najd . Despite particularly tough resistance by the Quraysh's main trade rivals, the Thaqif of Ta'if , and the Banu Nasr clan of Hawazin, the Quraysh ultimately held sway over western Arabian trade. The Quraysh gained control over Ta'if's trade, and many Qurayshi individuals purchased estates in Ta'if, where

3870-490: The Quraysh initially showed little concern. However, opposition grew as he challenged the existence of gods other than Allah (an Arabic name for God or the god of Abraham). As relations deteriorated, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina (the Hijrah ) after negotiating with Banu Aws and Khazraj to mediate their conflict. The Quraysh had prevented Muslims from performing the pilgrimage to Mecca . Unable to reach

3956-548: The Quraysh, led by Abu Sufyan , mobilized 3,000 troops to confront Muhammad, resulting in the Battle of Uhud . Initially, Muhammad's forced had the upper hand, but a setback occurred when his archers abandoned their positions and pursued the fleeing Meccan soldiers. The Meccan military strategist Khalid ibn al-Walid exploited this and Muhammad's forces retreated. The Quraysh did not pursue further, considering their objective achieved. In Medina, some Jewish tribes expressed satisfaction at Muhammad's defeat, prompting him to target

4042-542: The Quraysh. A hadith holding that the caliph must be from Quraysh became almost universally accepted by the Muslims, with the exception of the Kharijites . Indeed, control of the Islamic state essentially devolved into a struggle between various factions of the Quraysh. In the first civil war, these factions included the Banu Umayya represented by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan , the Banu Hashim represented by Ali, and other Qurayshi leaders such as al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam of

4128-469: The Quraysh. Following a siege, their men were judged to be executed, while the women and children were taken captive. This event marked a significant turning point, with Muhammad consolidating his control in Medina. Muhammad's focus then shifted to other tribes, such as the Banu Lahyan and Banu Mustaliq . The Banu Nadir were expelled from Medina after being accused of plotting against Muhammad, and

4214-453: The Taym, Asad, Zuhra and al-Harith ibn Fihr clans. The Banu Hashim held the hereditary rights surrounding the pilgrimage to the Kaaba, though the Banu Umayya were ultimately the strongest Qurayshi clan. According to Watt, "In all the stories of the pre-Islamic period there is admittedly a legendary element, but the main outline of events appears to be roughly correct, even if most of the dating

4300-587: The Yemeni Khuza'a tribe. The Quraysh gained their name when Qusayy ibn Kilab , a sixth-generation descendant of Fihr ibn Malik, gathered together his kinsmen and took control of the Kaaba. Prior to this, Fihr's offspring lived in scattered, nomadic groups among their Kinana relatives. All medieval Muslim sources agree that Qusayy unified Fihr's descendants, and established the Quraysh as the dominant power in Mecca. After conquering Mecca, Qusayy assigned quarters to different Qurayshi clans. Those settled around

4386-486: The agreement). This constitution gave the Islamic prophet Muhammad , who had just escaped persecution in Mecca , a leading role in the community of Medina. By dating this treaty at the outset of his arrival, it credited Muhammad with honor and power earlier than he would later gain, but more importantly, it gives the justification for Muhammad's subsequent attacks on the Jews as retaliation for their opposition to him. There

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4472-540: The capital and found patrons in the new regime. He became a tutor employed by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur , who commissioned him to write an all-encompassing history book starting from the creation of Adam to the present day, known as "al-Mubtadaʾ wa al-Baʿth wa al-Maghāzī" (lit. "In the Beginning, the mission [of Muhammad], and the expeditions"). It was kept in the court library of Baghdad. Part of this work contains

4558-400: The century before Ibn Ishaq is something we can only guess at." Cook's fellow revisionist Patricia Crone complains that Sīrat is full of "contradictions, confusions, inconsistencies and anomalies," written "not by a grandchild, but a great grandchild of the Prophet's generation", that it is written from the point of view of the ulama and Abbasid , so that "we shall never know ... how

4644-592: The climate was cooler. The sanctuary village of Mecca developed into a major Arabian trade hub. According to Watt, by 600 CE, the leaders of Quraysh "were prosperous merchants who had obtained something like a monopoly of the trade between the Indian Ocean and East Africa on the one hand and the Mediterranean on the other". Furthermore, the Quraysh commissioned trade caravans to Yemen in the winter and caravans to Gaza , Bosra , Damascus and al-Arish in

4730-556: The constitution comprises—from one to eight. It is also unclear with which Jews this agreement was made, whether it was only with some of the smaller Jewish social units that had lost their tribal structure and affiliated with the Arabs , with the Judaized Arabs, or also included what later sources described as the three major Jewish clans in the city, namely Banu Qaynuqa , Banu Nadir , and Banu Qurayza , (who are not mentioned in

4816-410: The constitution was a single document or "a compilation of multiple agreements reached at different times". According to mid-20th century scholar, Robert Bertram Serjeant , the 'Constitution of Medina' consists of "eight distinct documents ... issued on various occasions over the first seven years or so of Muhammad's Medinan period". In its first recension , Serjeant hypothesizes that the text sanctioned

4902-408: The constitution's more interesting aspects was the inclusion of the Jewish tribes in the ummah because although the Jewish tribes were "one community with the believers", they also "have their religion and the Muslims have theirs". L. Ali Khan says that it was a social contract derived from a treaty and not from any fictional state of nature or from behind the Rawlsian veil of ignorance . It

4988-592: The end of 629 CE, a belligerent party within the Quraysh, against the advice of their chief Abu Sufyan , supported one of their client clans in a conflict against the Khuza'a , allies of Muhammad. This act was seen as a violation of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya. As Muhammad advanced with his army to besiege Mecca, Abu Sufyan, along with others, including Muhammad's ally Khuza'i Budayl ibn Warqa, met with Muhammad to request amnesty for all Quraysh who did not resist. Thus Muhammad entered Mecca unopposed, and almost all of its inhabitants converted to Islam. Afterwards, leadership of

5074-480: The establishment of a confederation; in its second, it admonished the Aws and Khazraj to abide by their treaty; in its third, in conjunction with the proceeding verses, it encouraged of Muhammad's adherents to face the Meccan forces they eventually fought at Uhud . He also suggests that 3:101–104 of the Qur'an may refer to the constitution. The Constitution has been highly influential among contemporary Muslims, celebrated for its religious pluralism, unique character and

5160-407: The first "Constitution" and belief that God is its ultimate source. On the other hand, historians have variously characterized it as a "municipal charter” ( Gemeindeordnung ); or as a "unilateral proclamation" by Muhammad, whose "purpose was purely practical and administrative", rather than a treaty in the modern sense. Most historians have accepted the authenticity of the Constitution of Medina. This

5246-482: The following sources: According to Donner, the material in ibn Hisham and al-Tabari is "virtually the same". However, there is some material to be found in al-Tabari that was not preserved by ibn Hisham. For example, al-Tabari includes the controversial episode of the Satanic Verses , while ibn Hisham does not. Following the publication of previously unknown fragments of ibn Isḥaq's traditions, recent scholarship suggests that ibn Isḥaq did not commit to writing any of

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5332-490: The guardian of the Kaaba. He also gave other responsibilities related to the Kaaba to his other sons Abd al-Uzza and Abd, while ensuring that all decisions by the Quraysh had to be made in the presence of his eldest son Abd al-Dar ; the latter was also designated ceremonial privileges such as keeper of the Qurayshi war banner and supervisor of water and provisions to the pilgrims visiting the Kaaba. According to historian F. E. Peters , Ibn Ishaq's account reveals that Mecca in

5418-492: The ideal that he cherished of an ummah (community) based clearly on a religious outlook to sink temporarily into the background and is shaped essentially by practical considerations." Another important feature of the Constitution of Medina is the redefinition of ties between "Believers" (as they are described in the document). It sets faith relationships above blood-ties and emphasizes individual responsibility. Tribal identities are still important to refer to different groups, but

5504-450: The identity of participants (including uncertainty about the inclusion of the three major Jewish tribes of Medina— Banu Qaynuqa , Banu Nadir , and Banu Qurayza ), the quantity of documents, the precise timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), and the appropriate approach to its translation, among other issues. One 20th-century scholar, W. Montgomery Watt , suggested that the Constitution of Medina must have been written in

5590-576: The journey himself, after negotiations with various factions in Medina had established a base of support there. This event, known as the Hijra , followed complex negotiations with different groups in Medina, where Muhammad was seen as a potential mediator for ongoing tribal conflicts, though his role was likely more multifaceted than just mediation. In Medina, Muhammad received a divine revelation allowing Muslims to defend themselves, which included targeting Quraysh trade caravans in response to their ongoing hostility and persecution. After obtaining spoils from

5676-433: The later commentator Al-Waqidi — who based his writing on Ibn Ishaq but added much colorful but made-up detail — reveals how oral history can be contaminated by the fiction of storytellers ( qussa ). "We have seen what half a century of story-telling could achieve between Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi, at a time when we know that much material had already been committed to writing. What the same processes may have brought about in

5762-408: The name stemmed from taqarrush , an Arabic word meaning "a coming together" or "association". The Quraysh gained their name when Qusayy ibn Kilab , a sixth-generation descendant of Fihr ibn Malik, gathered together his kinsmen and took control of the Kaaba . Prior to this, Fihr's offspring lived in scattered, nomadic groups among their Kinana relatives. The nisba or surname of the Quraysh

5848-524: The narratives surrounding the life of Muhammad (in Guillaume at pp. 109–690). Notable scholars like the jurist Ahmad ibn Hanbal appreciated his efforts in collecting sīra narratives and accepted him on maghāzī , despite having reservations on his methods on matters of fiqh . Ibn Ishaq also influenced later sīra writers like Ibn Hishām and Ibn Sayyid al-Nās . Other scholars, like Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya , made use of his chronological ordering of events. The most widely discussed criticism of his sīra

5934-481: The organizational skills of the Quraysh were put to use in the service of Islam". With Muhammad's death in 632, rivalry emerged between the Quraysh and the two other components of the Muslim elite, the Ansar and the Thaqif, over influence in state matters. The Ansar wanted one of their own to succeed the prophet as caliph , but were persuaded by Umar to agree to Abu Bakr. During the reigns of Abu Bakr ( r.  632–634 ) and Umar ( r.  634–644 ), some of

6020-426: The population of Medina at that time consisted of two supergroup local Arab tribes, the Aus and the Khazraj, with eight clans and 33 other smaller groups under them. Meanwhile, the Jewish tribes at least consisted of around 20 groups, with the most well-known tribes Qaynuqa, Nadhir, and Qurayza among them, (who are not mentioned in the agreement). The following English translation is that of Michael Lecker from 2004. It

6106-433: The reliability of this translation. In it Guillaume combined ibn Hisham and those materials in al-Tabari cited as ibn Isḥaq's whenever they differed or added to ibn Hisham, believing that in so doing he was restoring a lost work. The extracts from al-Tabari are clearly marked, although sometimes it is difficult to distinguish them from the main text (only a capital "T" is used). Ibn Isḥaq wrote several works. His major work

6192-400: The rest of Quraysh to embrace Islam. Muhammad sought to consolidate the unity of his expanding Muslim community by "winning over this powerful group [the Quraysh]", according to Donner; to that end he guaranteed Qurayshi participation and influence in the nascent Islamic state. Thus, despite their long enmity with Muhammad, the Quraysh were brought in as political and economic partners and became

6278-426: The soundness of his narrations regarding ahadith is hasan , except in hadith where he is the sole transmitter which should probably be considered as munkar . He added that some Imams mentioned him, including Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj , who cited five of Ibn Ishaq's ahadith in his Sahih . Quraysh The Quraysh or Qureshi ( Arabic : قُرَيْشٍ ) is an Arab tribe that inhabited and used to control Mecca and

6364-403: The strongman of Quraysh, he was not officially a king of the tribe, but one of many leading shaykhs (tribal chieftains). According to historian Gerald R. Hawting , if the traditional sources are to be believed, Qusayy's children, "must have lived in the second half of the fifth century". However, historian W. Montgomery Watt asserts that Qusayy himself likely died in the second half of

6450-504: The summer. The Quraysh established networks with merchants in these Syrian cities. They also formed political or economic alliances with many of the Bedouin (nomadic Arab) tribes in the northern and central Arabian deserts to ensure the safety of their trade caravans. The Quraysh invested their revenues in building their trading ventures, and shared profits with tribal allies to translate financial fortune into significant political power in

6536-443: The surname, or " nisbat ", al-Muṭṭalibī . His three sons, Mūsā, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, and Isḥāq, were transmitters of "akhbār", i.e. they collected and recounted written and oral testaments of the past. Isḥāq married the daughter of another mawlā and from this marriage Ibn Isḥāq was born. No facts of Ibn Isḥāq's early life are known, but it is likely that he followed in the family tradition of transmission of early akhbār and hadith . He

6622-480: The text of Ibn Ishaq, according to Guillaume (at p. xvii). Interpolations made by Ibn Hisham are said to be recognizable and can be deleted, leaving as a remainder, a so-called " edited " version of Ibn Ishaq's original text (otherwise lost). In addition, Guillaume (at p. xxxi) points out that Ibn Hisham's version omits various narratives in the text which were given by al-Tabari in his History . In these passages al-Tabari expressly cites Ibn Ishaq as

6708-531: The time of Qusayy and his immediate offspring was not yet a commercial center; rather, the city's economy was based on pilgrimage to the Kaaba, and "what pass[ed] for municipal offices [designated by Qusayy] have to do only with military operations and with control of the shrine". During that time, the tribesmen of Quraysh were not traders; instead, they were entrusted with religious services, from which they significantly profited. They also profited from taxes collected from incoming pilgrims. Though Qusayy appeared to be

6794-577: The traditions now extant, but they were narrated orally to his transmitters. These new texts, found in accounts by Salama al-Ḥarranī and Yūnus ibn Bukayr, were hitherto unknown and contain versions different from those found in other works. The original text of the Sīrat Rasūl Allāh by Ibn Ishaq did not survive. However, much of the original text was copied over into a work of his own by Ibn Hisham ( Basra ; Fustat , died 833 AD, 218 AH). Ibn Hisham also "abbreviated, annotated, and sometimes altered"

6880-408: The tribal conceptions of blood feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with the authority to adjudicate in disputed cases. The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and to protect him physically as if he was one of them. After emigration to Medina, Muhammad drafted the constitution, "establishing

6966-572: The young Malik ibn Anas , famous for the Maliki School of Fiqh . Leaving Medina (or forced to leave), he traveled eastwards towards " al-Irāq ", stopping in Kufa , also al-Jazīra , and into Iran as far as Ray , before returning west. Eventually he settled in Baghdad . There, the new Abbasid dynasty , having overthrown the Umayyad dynasty , was establishing a new capital. Ibn Isḥaq moved to

7052-418: Was Yasār ibn Khiyar (according to some ibn Khabbar, Kuman or Kutan), one of forty Christian or Jewish boys who had been held captive in a monastery at Ayn al-Tamr . After being found in one of Khalid ibn al-Walid 's campaigns, Yasār was taken to Medina and enslaved to Qays ibn Makhrama ibn al-Muṭṭalib ibn ʿAbd Manāf ibn Quṣayy. On his conversion to Islam, he was manumitted as " mawlā " (client), thus acquiring

7138-540: Was an 8th-century Muslim historian and hagiographer . Ibn Ishaq, also known by the title ṣāḥib al-sīra , collected oral traditions that formed the basis of an important biography of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . His biography is known as the Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah , and it has mainly survived through the recension of the work by Ibn Hisham . Born in Medina circa A.H. 85 (A.D. 704), ibn Isḥaq's grandfather

7224-459: Was built upon the concept of one community of diverse tribes living under the sovereignty of one God . It also instituted peaceful methods of dispute resolution among diverse groups living as one people but without assimilating into one religion, language or culture. Welch in Encyclopedia of Islam states: "The constitution reveals Muhammad 's great diplomatic skills, for it allows

7310-630: Was influenced by the work of ibn Shihab al-Zuhri , who praised the young ibn Ishaq for his knowledge of "maghāzī" (stories of military expeditions). Around the age of 30, ibn Isḥaq arrived in Alexandria and studied under Yazīd ibn Abī Ḥabīb. After his return to Medina, based on one account, he was ordered out of Medina for attributing a hadith to a woman he had not met, Fāṭima bint al-Mundhir, the wife of Hishām ibn ʿUrwa . But those who defended him, like Sufyan ibn ʽUyaynah , stated that Ibn Ishaq told them that he did meet her. Also ibn Ishaq disputed with

7396-522: Was that of his contemporary Mālik ibn Anas . Mālik rejected the stories of Muhammad and the Jews of Medina on the ground that they were taken solely based on accounts by sons of Jewish converts. These same stories have also been denounced as "odd tales" (gharāʾib) later by ibn Hajar al-Asqalani . Mālik and others also thought that ibn Isḥāq exhibited Qadari tendencies, had a preference for Ali (Guillaume also found evidence of this, pp. xxii &xxiv), and relied too heavily on what were later called

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