The Medulli ( Gaulish : Medulloi ) were a Gallic tribe dwelling in the upper valley of Maurienne , around present-day Modane ( Savoie ), during the Iron Age and Roman period .
87-567: They are mentioned as Medullorum by Vitruvius (late 1st c. BC), Méd(o)ulloi (Μέδ<ο>υλλοι) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), Medulli by Pliny (1st c. AD), and as Medoúllous (Μεδούλλους) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD). The ethnonym Medulli is a latinized form of Gaulish Medulloi . It is generally derived from the Celtic root medu -, meaning ' mead , alcoholic drink' (cf. Olr. mid , MW . medd , OBret. medot ), and thus may be translated as 'those who drink mead '. This interpretation
174-586: A praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group (a branch of the Roman civil service). He is mentioned in Pliny the Elder 's table of contents for Naturalis Historia (Natural History), in the heading for mosaic techniques. Frontinus refers to "Vitruvius the architect" in his late 1st-century work De aquaeductu . Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account Vitruvius served in
261-432: A Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra have been suggested as evidence that Vitruvius and Mamurra (who was a military praefectus fabrum under Julius Caesar ) were from the same family; or were even the same individual. Neither association, however, is borne out by De Architectura (which Vitruvius dedicated to Augustus ), nor by the little that is known of Mamurra. Vitruvius was a military engineer ( praefectus fabrum ), or
348-411: A circle be described, it will touch his fingers and toes. It is not alone by a circle, that the human body is thus circumscribed, as may be seen by placing it within a square. For measuring from the feet to the crown of the head, and then across the arms fully extended, we find the latter measure equal to the former; so that lines at right angles to each other, enclosing the figure, will form a square. It
435-531: A fight the construction of what were afterwards called "crows". Corvus means "crow" or "raven" in Latin and was the name given to a Roman boarding device first documented during the First Punic War against Carthage . Polybius goes on to describe this siege engine as a bridge used to span the distance between two ships in battle. The device was a plank, 4 ft wide and 36 ft long, affixed to
522-469: A flammable substance and set alight. In the Middle Ages (recorded from around 1200 A.D.) a less powerful version of the onager was used that employed a fixed bowl rather than a sling, so that many small projectiles could be thrown, as opposed to a single large one. This engine was sometimes called the mangonel , although the same name may have been used for a variety of siege engines. The scorpio
609-460: A military advisor on the personal staff of a commanding officer. There were legion architects (whose rank is yet unknown) who were responsible for the construction of war machines who would also assure that all artillery constructions in the field were level. Ensuring that constructions were level was the job of the libratores , who would also launch missiles and other projectiles (on occasion) during battle (Le Bohec 1994: 52). The engineering corps
696-461: A pile of 'trophy' weapons in relief on a balustrade. The torsion ballista , developed by Alexander, was a far more complicated weapon than its predecessor, and the Romans developed it even further. Vitruvius , in his De Architectura book X, describes the construction and tuning of ballistae . Every century (group of 60-100 men) in the Roman army had a ballista by the 1st century AD. It
783-403: A rectangular frame structure making up the head or principal part of the weapon. The arms were drawn rearward with a winch lever to further twist the skeins and thus gain the torsion power to cast a projectile. It has been said that the whirring sound of a ballista projected stone struck fear and dread into the hearts of those inside the walls of besieged cities. The stones chosen to be used in
870-427: A site will be high, neither misty nor frosty, and in a climate neither hot nor cold, but temperate; further, without marshes in the neighbourhood. For when the morning breezes blow toward the town at sunrise, if they bring with them mists from marshes and, mingled with the mist, the poisonous breath of the creatures of the marshes to be wafted into the bodies of the inhabitants, they will make the site unhealthy. Again, if
957-514: A wide variety of disciplines; in modern terms they would also be described as landscape architects, civil engineers, military engineers, structural engineers, surveyors, artists, and craftsmen combined. Etymologically the word architect derives from Greek words meaning 'master' and 'builder'. The first of the Ten Books deals with many subjects which are now within the scope of landscape architecture . In Book I, Chapter 1, titled The Education of
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#17327765267011044-552: Is a matter of conjecture, although various attempts have been made to visualise it. The early Christian practice of converting Roman basilicae (public buildings) into cathedrals implies the basilica may be incorporated into the Romanesque Fano Cathedral . In later years the emperor Augustus, through his sister Octavia Minor , sponsored Vitruvius, entitling him with what may have been a pension to guarantee financial independence. Whether De architectura
1131-436: Is cited as one of the earliest sources to connect lead mining and manufacture, its use in drinking water pipes, and its adverse effects on health. For this reason, he recommended the use of clay pipes and masonry channels in the provision of piped drinking-water. Roman siege engines Roman siege engines were, for the most part, adapted from Hellenistic siege technology. Relatively small efforts were made to develop
1218-480: Is drawn back by a huge number of men who then push it forward in unison with all their might so that it hits the wall with its iron head. There is no tower strong enough nor any wall thick enough to withstand repeated blows of this kind, and many cannot resist the first shock. Vitruvius in De Architectura Book X describes the construction and use of battering rams. For protection, a battering ram
1305-561: Is encouraged by the mention, in Vitruvius ' De architetura , of a "kind of water" ( genus aquae ) drunk by the Medulli. Alternatively, Javier de Hoz has proposed to glose the name as 'those who lived in the middle', or 'in the border woods', by connecting it to the root * medhi/u - ('middle'). The Medulli dwelled in the upper Maurienne valley, along the upper course of the Arc river, near
1392-410: Is established. The topics range across many fields of expertise reflecting that in Roman times as today construction is a diverse field. Vitruvius is clearly a well-read man. In addition to providing his qualification, Vitruvius summarizes a recurring theme throughout the 10 books, a non-trivial and core contribution of his treatise beyond simply being a construction book. Vitruvius makes the point that
1479-571: Is famous for asserting in his book De architectura that a structure must exhibit the three qualities of firmitatis, utilitatis, venustatis – that is, stability, utility, and beauty. These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or the Vitruvian Triad . According to Vitruvius, architecture is an imitation of nature. As birds and bees built their nests, so humans constructed housing from natural materials, that gave them shelter against
1566-430: Is often credited as father of architectural acoustics for describing the technique of echeas placement in theaters. The only building, however, that we know Vitruvius to have worked on is one he tells us about, a basilica completed in 19 BC. It was built at Fanum Fortunae, now the modern town of Fano . The Basilica di Fano (to give the building its Italian name) has disappeared so completely that its very site
1653-520: Is sometimes given as "Marcus Vitruvius Pollio", but both the first and last names are uncertain. Marcus Cetius Faventinus writes of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores"; this can be read as "Vitruvius Polio, and others" or, less likely, as "Vitruvius, Polio, and others". An inscription in Verona, which names a Lucius Vitruvius Cordo , and an inscription from Thilbilis in North Africa, which names
1740-437: Is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus . The locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various "foreign tribes". Although he describes places throughout De Architectura , he does not say he was present. His service likely included north Africa , Hispania , Gaul (including Aquitaine ), and Pontus . To place
1827-507: Is the Naturalis Historia compiled by Pliny the Elder much later in c. 75 AD . The work is important for its descriptions of the many different machines used for engineering structures such as hoists , cranes and pulleys , as well as war machines such as catapults , ballistae , and siege engines . As a practising engineer, Vitruvius must be speaking from personal experience rather than simply describing
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#17327765267011914-653: Is the only source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC. Of the battlegrounds of the Gallic War there are references to: These are all sieges of large Gallic oppida . Of the sites involved in Caesar's civil war , we find the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC (modern France), the Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC (Hellas – Greece), the Battle of Zela of 47 BC (modern Turkey), and
2001-723: The Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's African campaign. A legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata , of which ballista would be an auxiliary unit. Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect. In Roman times architecture was a broader subject than at present including the modern fields of architecture, construction management , construction engineering , chemical engineering , civil engineering, materials engineering , mechanical engineering, military engineering and urban planning ; architectural engineers consider him
2088-491: The Pont du Gard . The use of the inverted siphon is described in detail, together with the problems of high pressures developed in the pipe at the base of the siphon, a practical problem with which he seems to be acquainted. He describes many different construction materials used for a wide variety of different structures, as well as such details as stucco painting. Concrete and lime receive in-depth descriptions. Vitruvius
2175-530: The Roman Forum , temples, theatres, triumphal arches and their reliefs and statues offered visual examples of the descriptions in the Vitruvian text. Printed and illustrated editions of De Architectura inspired Renaissance , Baroque and Neoclassical architecture . Filippo Brunelleschi , for example, invented a new type of hoist to lift the large stones for the dome of the cathedral in Florence and
2262-601: The Roman army under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius, and Gnaeus Cornelius. These names vary depending on the edition of De architectura . Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, speculated as the same Publius Numisius inscribed on the Roman Theatre at Heraclea . As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges . It
2349-418: The Roman vessel around a pole. This construction allowed the bridge to be swung port to starboard and therefore used on either side of the ship. A pulley at the top of the pole allowed the planks to be raised and lowered on command. At the end of the bridge there was a heavy metal spike that when dropped on the deck of an enemy ship would, with the aid of gravity, become imbedded in the deck. By connecting
2436-462: The Siege of Amida , a scorpio arrow killed the son of Grumbates , king of the Chionitae , when he was approaching the city to surrender. There has been some research done into the existence of the self-loading, serial repeating scorpio or polybolos . Legionaries on either side would continuously keep turning cranks which turned a chain, which operated the various mechanisms to load and shoot
2523-427: The ballista had to be a particular sort. According to Vegetius , river stones were best, since they are round, smooth, and dense. Ballista stones found at the site of Masada were chiseled to make them as round as possible. The early Roman ballistae were made of wood, and held together with iron plates around the frames and iron nails in the stand. The main stand had a slider on the top, into which were loaded
2610-456: The Architect, Vitruvius instructs... 1. Architecture is a science arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning; by the help of which a judgment is formed of those works which are the result of other arts. Practice and theory are its parents. Practice is the frequent and continued contemplation of the mode of executing any given work, or of the mere operation of
2697-476: The British shore, only to be driven back by the many British warriors assembled along the shoreline. The ships had to unload their troops on the beach, as it was the only one suitable for many kilometers, yet the massed ranks of British charioteers and javeliners were making it impossible. Seeing this, Caesar ordered the warships – which were swifter and easier to handle than the transports, and likely to impress
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2784-949: The Elder as one of the Alpine tribes conquered by Rome in 16–15 BC, and whose name was engraved on the Tropaeum Alpium . They also appear on the Arch of Susa , erected by Cottius in 9–8 BC. According to Vitruvius , they were particularly prone to suffer from goitre . Among the Aquiculi in Italy and among the tribe of the Medulli in the Alps, there is a kind of water which causes goitre among those who drink it. Vitruvius Vitruvius ( / v ɪ ˈ t r uː v i ə s / vi- TROO -vee-əs , Latin: [wɪˈtruːwi.ʊs] ; c. 80 –70 BC – after c. 15 BC )
2871-607: The Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey . Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria ( c. 1450 ). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though any original illustrations have been lost,
2958-459: The Jewish resistance tunneled underneath the tower leading it to collapse. Following a basic design, details of tower construction varied from siege to siege and there is no known treatise which specifies at which level siege equipment should be placed. Vegetius noted that, “besiegers sometimes built a tower with another turret inside it that could suddenly be raised by ropes and pulleys to over-top
3045-409: The bolts or stone 'shot'. Attached to this, at the back, was a pair of winches and a claw, used to ratchet the bowstring back to the armed firing position. A slider passed through the field frames of the weapon, in which were located the torsion springs (rope made of animal sinew ), which were twisted around the bow arms, which in turn were attached to the bowstring. Drawing the bowstring back with
3132-454: The care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, onagri , balistae and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself. At various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and sieges occurred. He
3219-412: The catapult. All that was needed was for another soldier to keep feeding in more arrows. Roman battering rams, or aries , were an effective weapon for breaking down an enemy's walls, as well as their morale. Under Roman law , any defenders who failed to surrender before the first ram touched their wall were denied any rights. The moment they heard the ram hit the wall, those inside the city knew that
3306-482: The construction of sundials and water clocks ; and the design and use of machines in construction and warfare. He further divides building into public and private. Public building includes city planning, public security structures such as walls, gates and towers; the convenient placing of public facilities such as theatres, forums and markets, baths, roads and pavings; and the construction and position of shrines and temples for religious use. Later books are devoted to
3393-426: The cosmic order). In this book series, Vitruvius also wrote about climate in relation to housing architecture and how to choose locations for cities. Vitruvius is the first Roman architect to have written surviving records of his field. He himself cites older but less complete works. He was less an original thinker or creative intellect than a codifier of existing architectural practice. Roman architects practised
3480-495: The elements. When perfecting this art of building, the Greeks invented the architectural orders: Doric , Ionic and Corinthian . It gave them a sense of proportion, culminating in understanding the proportions of the greatest work of art: the human body. This led Vitruvius in defining his Vitruvian Man , as drawn later by Leonardo da Vinci : the human body inscribed in the circle and the square (the fundamental geometric patterns of
3567-513: The engine useless. It is somewhat difficult to clearly define and describe Roman artillery, as names are easily confused and historians still do not agree on all definitions. Perhaps best known are the ballista , the onager , and the scorpio . After the absorption of the ancient Greek city states into the Roman Republic in 146 BC, some advanced Greek technologies began to spread across many areas of Roman influence. This included
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3654-558: The extremity of the spoke was a sling used to launch a projectile. In action the spoke was forced down, against the tension of twisted ropes or other springs , by a windlass , and then suddenly released. The spoke thus kicked the crosspiece of the vertical frame, and the projectile at its extreme end was shot forward. The onagers of the Roman Empire were mainly used for besieging forts or settlements. They would often be loaded with large stones or rocks that could be covered with
3741-575: The first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo , with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Bramante , Michelangelo , Palladio , Vignola and earlier architects are known to have studied the work of Vitruvius, and consequently it has had a significant impact on the architecture of many European countries. Little is known about Vitruvius' life. Most inferences about him are extracted from his only surviving work De Architectura . His full name
3828-426: The first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo , with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Later in the 16th-century Andrea Palladio provided illustrations for Daniele Barbaro 's commentary on Vitruvius, published in Italian and Latin versions. The most famous illustration is probably Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man . The surviving ruins of Roman antiquity,
3915-406: The first of their discipline, a specialization previously known as technical architecture. In his work describing the construction of military installations, he also commented on the miasma theory – the idea that unhealthy air from wetlands was the cause of illness, saying: For fortified towns the following general principles are to be observed. First comes the choice of a very healthy site. Such
4002-405: The hands, for the conversion of the material in the best and readiest way. Theory is the result of that reasoning which demonstrates and explains that the material wrought has been so converted as to answer the end proposed. 2. Wherefore the mere practical architect is not able to assign sufficient reasons for the forms he adopts; and the theoretic architect also fails, grasping the shadow instead of
4089-476: The hugely advantageous military advances the Greeks had made (most notably by Dionysus of Syracuse), as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments. The Romans 'inherited' the torsion powered ballistae which had by now spread to several cities around the Mediterranean, all of which became Roman spoils of war in time, including one from Pergamum , which was depicted among
4176-465: The human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci . Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum (artillery experts) and libratores who actually operated
4263-409: The human body, and by extension, of the universe as a whole. In the introduction to book seven, Vitruvius goes to great lengths to present why he is qualified to write De Architectura . This is the only location in the work where Vitruvius specifically addresses his personal breadth of knowledge. Similar to a modern reference section, the author's position as one who is knowledgeable and educated
4350-400: The kicking action of the machine, similar to that of an onager (wild ass). It is a type of catapult that uses torsional pressure, generally from twisted rope, to store energy for the shot. The onager consisted of a frame placed on the ground to whose front end a vertical frame of solid timber was rigidly fixed; through the vertical frame ran an axle , which had a single stout spoke . On
4437-410: The late 1st century AD to administer the many aqueducts of Rome), writing a century later, gives much more detail of the practical problems involved in their construction and maintenance. Surely Vitruvius' book would have been of great assistance in this. Vitruvius was writing in the 1st century BC when many of the finest Roman aqueducts were built, and survive to this day, such as those at Segovia and
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#17327765267014524-496: The later onagers , trebuchets , or mangonels ; these could be as heavy as 90–135 kg (198–298 lb). The Romans continued the development of the ballista , and it became a highly prized and valued weapon in the army of the Roman Empire . It was used, just before the start of the empire, by Julius Caesar during his conquest of Gaul and on both of his expeditions to Britain. Both attempted invasions of Britain and
4611-477: The machines. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges . It is possible that Vitruvius served with Julius Caesar 's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus . Vitruvius' De architectura was well-known and widely copied in the Middle Ages and survives in many dozens of manuscripts, though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by
4698-507: The men leaped on board anywhere along the side, but if they were prow to prow, they used the "crow" itself for boarding, and advanced over it two abreast. The first two protected their front by holding up before them their shields, while those who came after them secured their sides by placing the rims of their shields upon the top of the railing. Such were the preparations which they made; and having completed them they watched an opportunity of engaging at sea. Based on this historical description
4785-826: The modern town of Modane (Amonada). Their territory was located east of the Graioceli (themselves east of the Vocontii ), north of the Brigianii and Quariates , west of the Segusini , and south of the Ceutrones (themselves south of the Allobroges ). They belonged to the tribes governed by Cottius in Alpes Taurinae and were later integrated into the province of Alpes Cottiae . They are mentioned by Pliny
4872-428: The natives halted and then retreated a little. (Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul , p. 99) In Gaul, the stronghold of Alesia was under a Roman siege in 52 BC, and surrounded by Roman fortifications. As was standard siege technique at the time, ballistae were placed up in the towers with other soldiers armed with either bows or slings . The onager was a post-classical Roman siege engine, which derived its name from
4959-401: The natives more by their unfamiliar appearance – to be removed a short distance from the others, and then be rowed hard and run ashore on the enemy’s right flank, from which position the slings, bows and artillery could be used by men on deck to drive them back. This manoeuvre was highly successful. Scared by the strange shape of the warships, the motion of the oars, and the unfamiliar machines,
5046-399: The opposing army, and loss of enemy morale. It would also provide cover fire for troops building siege ramps or those in siege towers. There were machines called tormenta , which would launch (sometimes incendiary) projectiles such as javelins, arrows, rocks, or beams. These devices were on wheeled platforms to follow the line's advance. All were "predicated on a principle of physics: a lever
5133-704: The preface of Book I, Vitruvius dedicates his writings to giving personal knowledge of the quality of buildings to the emperor. Likely Vitruvius is referring to Marcus Agrippa 's campaign of public repairs and improvements. This work is the only surviving major book on architecture from classical antiquity . According to Petri Liukkonen, this text "influenced deeply from the Early Renaissance onwards artists, thinkers, and architects, among them Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), and Michelangelo (1475–1564)." The next major book on architecture, Alberti's reformulation of Ten Books ,
5220-452: The republic, and were used sparingly. Julius Caesar took great interest in the integration of advanced siege engines, organizing their use for optimal battlefield efficiency. To facilitate this organization and the army's self-sufficiency, an engineering corps was developed. An officer of engineers, or praefectus fabrum , is referenced in armies of the late Republic , but this post is not verifiable in all accounts and may have simply been
5307-477: The role of Vitruvius the military engineer in context, a description of "The Prefect of the camp" or army engineer is quoted here as given by Flavius Vegetius Renatus in The Military Institutions of the Romans : The Prefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the [Prefect], had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of
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#17327765267015394-581: The sides. The entire shelter would then be covered with a fireproof material such as uncured hides. According to Apollodorus of Damascus , the shelter should be fixed to the ground while the ram was being used to both prevent skidding and strain on the axles from the weight of the moving apparatus. This would also increase the strength of the impact on the walls. According to Josephus , the Roman siege towers at Jotapata were 50 ft (15 m) high and iron-plated to protect them from fire; those at Masada were reported to be 75 ft (23 m) high. It
5481-516: The siege of Alesia are recorded in his own commentarii (journal), The Gallic Wars ( De Bello Gallico ). The first invasion of Britain took place in 55 BC, after a rapid and successful initial conquest of Gaul, in part as an exploratory expedition, and more practically to try to put an end to the re-enforcements sent by the native Britons to fight the Romans in Gaul. A total of eighty transports, carrying two legions, attempted to land on
5568-409: The siege proper had begun and there was no turning back. Josephus describes the battering ram used at Jotapata thus: It is an immense beam, similar to a ship’s mast, with one end covered with iron shaped into a ram’s head; hence its name. It is suspended from another beam like a balance arm by cables around its middle, and this in turn is supported at both ends by posts fixed in the ground. It
5655-461: The substance. He who is theoretic as well as practical, is therefore doubly armed; able not only to prove the propriety of his design, but equally so to carry it into execution. He goes on to say that the architect should be versed in drawing, geometry, optics (lighting), history, philosophy, music, theatre, medicine, and law. In Book I, Chapter 3 ( The Departments of Architecture ), Vitruvius divides architecture into three branches, namely; building;
5742-453: The technology; however, the Romans brought an unrelentingly aggressive style to siege warfare that brought them repeated success. Up to the first century BC, the Romans utilized siege weapons only as required and relied for the most part on ladders, towers and rams to assault a fortified town. Ballistae were also employed, but held no permanent place within a legion's roster, until later in
5829-418: The tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had
5916-414: The town is on the coast with southern or western exposure, it will not be healthy, because in summer the southern sky grows hot at sunrise and is fiery at noon, while a western exposure grows warm after sunrise, is hot at noon, and at evening all aglow. Frontinus mentions Vitruvius in connection with the standard sizes of pipes : probably the role for which he was most widely respected in Roman times. He
6003-423: The two ships in such a way, Roman soldiers could gain access to the deck of the enemy ship and engage in hand-to-hand combat instead of depending on ship-to-ship combat. Polybius also includes an insight on how these siege engines would have practically functioned in battle: And as soon as the "crows" were fixed in the planks of the decks and grappled the ships together, if the ships were alongside of each other,
6090-406: The understanding, design and construction of each of these. In Book III, Chapter 1, Paragraph 3, Vitruvius writes about the proportions of man: 3. Just so the parts of Temples should correspond with each other, and with the whole. The navel is naturally placed in the centre of the human body, and, if in a man lying with his face upward, and his hands and feet extended, from his navel as the centre,
6177-538: The wall”. Mines could be dug under city walls as a means of entering a city secretly and capturing it but were more frequently constructed to weaken city walls. Once dug, sappers would underpin the walls with wood and cause the walls to collapse by firing the supports with resin, sulfur and other incendiary materials. In chapter 1.22 "The Victory of Mylae" of his History, Polybius writes: Now their ships were badly fitted out and not easy to manage, and so some one suggested to them as likely to serve their turn in
6264-429: The winches twisted the already taut springs, storing the energy to fire the projectiles. The ballista was a highly accurate weapon (there are many accounts right from its early history of single soldiers being picked off by the operators), but some design aspects meant it could compromise its accuracy for range. The lightweight bolts could not gain the high momentum of the stones over the same distance as those thrown by
6351-698: The work of some of the most talented is unknown, while many of those of lesser talent but greater political position are famous. This theme runs through Vitruvius's ten books repeatedly – echoing an implicit prediction that he and his works will also be forgotten. Vitruvius illustrates this point by naming what he considers the most talented individuals in history. Implicitly challenging the reader that they have never heard of some of these people, Vitruvius goes on and predicts that some of these individuals will be forgotten and their works lost , while other, less deserving political characters of history will be forever remembered with pageantry. Vitruvius' De architectura
6438-404: The works of others. He also describes the construction of sundials and water clocks , and the use of an aeolipile (the first steam engine ) as an experiment to demonstrate the nature of atmospheric air movements (wind). His description of aqueduct construction includes the way they are surveyed, and the careful choice of materials needed, although Frontinus (a general who was appointed in
6525-555: Was "rediscovered" in 1414 by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey . Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) publicised it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria ( c. 1450 ). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome, 1486. Translations followed in Italian ( Cesare Cesariano , 1521), French (Jean Martin, 1547 ), English, German ( Walther H. Ryff , 1543) and Spanish and several other languages. The original illustrations had been lost and
6612-403: Was a crossbow -like device that shot smaller arrows with deadly accuracy used both in the field and in sieges. They were so-named for their deadly, armor-piercing sting and could be operated by just one or two men. Scorpios were meant to kill and injure enemy troops, rather than break down enemy fortifications. Thanks to their smaller size, they could be mounted on or in siege towers . During
6699-766: Was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work titled De architectura . As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory , as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture . It is not clear to what extent his contemporaries regarded his book as original or important. He states that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas , utilitas , and venustas ("strength", "utility", and "beauty"), principles reflected in much Ancient Roman architecture . His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and
6786-588: Was clear that he had set down his own discoveries. James Anderson's "The Constitutions of the Free-Masons" (1734), reprinted by Benjamin Franklin, describes Vitruvius as "the Father of all true Architects to this Day." Vitruvius is the author of De architectura, libri decem , known today as The Ten Books on Architecture , a treatise written in Latin on architecture, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. In
6873-440: Was in charge of massive production, frequently prefabricating artillery and siege equipment to facilitate its transportation. Roman artillery was very efficient at that time, and during a siege the Romans would attack the weakest area of their enemy's defenses and attempt to breach the walls at that point. To support this effort, artillery attacks commence, with three main objectives: to cause damage to defenses, casualties among
6960-431: Was inserted into a skein of twisted horsehair to increase torsion, and when the arm was released, a considerable amount of energy was thus freed". It was later stated that sinew, instead of twisted hair, provided a better “spring.” These weapons were high-maintenance devices and vulnerable to having their leather, sinew, or hemp skeins affected by wet or even damp, which would cause them to slacken and lose tension, rendering
7047-650: Was inspired by De Architectura as well as surviving Roman monuments such as the Pantheon and the Baths of Diocletian . Latin Italian French English Books VIII, IX and X form the basis of much of what we know about Roman technology, now augmented by archaeological studies of extant remains, such as the water mills at Barbegal in France. The other major source of information
7134-532: Was not written until 1452. However, we know there was a significant body of writing about architecture in Greek, where "architects habitually wrote books about their work", including two we know of about the Parthenon alone. To A. W. Lawrence , Vitruvius "has recorded a most elaborate set of rules taken from Greek authors, who must have compiled them gradually in the course of the preceding centuries". Vitruvius
7221-469: Was possible to have many different devices on siege towers, such as artillery, draw bridges and rams. Those at the top of the tower were to keep defenders off the walls while those below them attempted to breach the wall using ramps. In the battle of Jerusalem in 70 AD the Romans began assault on the third defensive wall within Jerusalem, the tower stood 75 ft (23 m) tall and was compromised when
7308-402: Was suspended in a mobile shelter called a tortoise, or testudo . According to Vegetius , it was given this name because the ram would swing out of the shelter much like a tortoise's head comes out of its shell. Such shelters would provide the men within protection against missiles and incendiary devices. They were constructed from a framework of strong timbers with planks and wicker hurdles on
7395-455: Was the command of the chief of the ballistae , under whom were the artillery experts, or doctores ballistarum and finally, the artillerymen, or ballistarii . Ballistae were heavy missile weapons, hurling large rocks great distances to damage rampart walls. They resembled large crossbows , rather than catapults . They were powered by two horizontal like arms, which were inserted into two vertical and tightly wound "skein" springs contained in
7482-417: Was upon these writings that Renaissance engineers, architects and artists like Mariano di Jacopo Taccola , Pellegrino Prisciani and Francesco di Giorgio Martini and finally Leonardo da Vinci based the illustration of the Vitruvian Man . Vitruvius described the human figure as being the principal source of proportion. The drawing itself is often used as an implied symbol of the essential symmetry of
7569-463: Was written by one author or is a compilation completed by subsequent librarians and copyists, remains an open question. The date of his death is unknown, which suggests that he had enjoyed only a little popularity during his lifetime. Gerolamo Cardano , in his 1552 book De subtilitate rerum , ranks Vitruvius as one of the 12 persons whom he supposes to have excelled all men in the force of genius and invention; and might have given him first place if it
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