Meng Huo ( fl. 210s–220s) was a local leader in the Nanzhong region in the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was popularly depicted as a local leader representing the gentries of the Nanzhong region, but some historians doubt his historical existence.
91-551: Meng Huo's popular image comes from the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , which romanticises the events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. The novel portrays Meng Huo as a southern barbarian tribal leader. He also marries the fictional Lady Zhurong , who claims descent from the fire deity Zhurong . In the Beijing Opera " Dragon and Phoenix Headgear" Zhurong and Meng Huo has
182-530: A brain tumour in Luoyang. His son and successor, Cao Pi , forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne to him and established the state of Cao Wei to replace the Han dynasty. About a year later, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and founded the state of Shu Han as a continuation of the Han dynasty. While Liu Bei was planning to avenge Guan Yu, Zhang Fei was assassinated in his sleep by his subordinates. As Liu Bei led
273-588: A calamitous defeat on Liu Bei at the Battle of Yiling . Lu Xun initially pursued Liu Bei during his retreat, but gave up after getting trapped inside and barely escaping from Zhuge Liang's Stone Sentinel Maze . Liu Bei died in Baidicheng from illness a few months later. On his deathbed, Liu Bei granted Zhuge Liang permission to take the throne if his son and successor, Liu Shan , proved to be an inept ruler. Zhuge Liang firmly refused and swore to remain faithful to
364-405: A campaign against Sun Quan to retake Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu , culminating in the Battle of Xiaoting . However, due to grave tactical mistakes, Liu Bei suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Sun Quan's general, Lu Xun , and lost the bulk of his army. He survived the battle and retreated to Baidicheng , where he died from illness a year later. Before Liu Bei's death, he appointed
455-728: A capable and charismatic ruler. With assistance from Zhou Yu , Zhang Zhao and others, Sun Quan found hidden talents such as Lu Su to serve him, built up his military forces, and maintained stability in Jiangdong. Liu Bei and his oath brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei swore allegiance to the Han Empire in the Oath of the Peach Garden and pledged to do their best for the people. However, their ambitions were not realised as they did not receive due recognition for helping to suppress
546-473: A coalition and launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo . After Dong Zhuo lost the battles of Sishui Pass and Hulao Pass , he forced the citizens of Luoyang to relocate to Chang'an with him and burnt down Luoyang. The coalition ultimately broke up due to indecisive leadership and conflicting interests among its members. Meanwhile, in Chang'an, Dong Zhuo was betrayed and murdered by his foster son Lü Bu in
637-605: A daughter named Huaman . Meng Huo and the record of his captures appeared in both the Han Jin Chunqiu , written by Xi Zuochi in the Eastern Jin dynasty and also in the near-contemporary Chronicles of Huayang written between 348 and 354 by Chang Qu . Therefore, two historical documents of different origin and known for reliability, record of Meng Huo history and authenticity. The Liu Song dynasty historian Pei Songzhi , when compiling his annotated version of
728-447: A diplomatic mission to Jiangdong to meet Sun Quan and discuss forming a Sun–Liu alliance to counter Cao Cao. Although Sun Quan was initially hesitant due to many of his followers advising him to surrender to Cao Cao, he ultimately made up his mind to ally with Liu Bei, placing Zhou Yu in command of his forces to prepare for the upcoming war. Zhuge Liang temporarily remained in Jiangdong to assist Zhou Yu, who sensed that Zhuge Liang posed
819-524: A dispute over the maiden Diaochan as part of a plot orchestrated by the minister Wang Yun . In the meantime, the Han Empire was already disintegrating into civil war as warlords fought for territories and power. Sun Jian found the Imperial Seal in the ruins of Luoyang and secretly kept it for himself. When Yuan Shao confronted him, he refused to hand over the Imperial Seal and left, but
910-497: A future threat to his lord. Zhou Yu attempted to outwit and kill Zhuge Liang, but failed and had no choice but to cooperate with the latter. The Sun–Liu forces scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs . Sun Quan and Liu Bei started vying for control of southern Jing Province after their victory, but Liu Bei won and took over the territories from Cao Cao's general Cao Ren . Sun Quan, unhappy over having gained nothing, sent messengers to ask Liu Bei to "return"
1001-491: A group of influential court eunuchs, feared that He Jin was growing too powerful, so they lured him into the palace and assassinated him. In revenge, He Jin's followers broke into the palace and indiscriminately slaughtered any person who looked like a eunuch. In the ensuing chaos, Emperor Shao and his younger half-brother, the Prince of Chenliu , disappeared from the palace. The missing emperor and prince were found by soldiers of
SECTION 10
#17327647567291092-455: A large army to avenge Guan Yu and retake Jing Province, Sun Quan attempted to appease him by offering to return him the territories in southern Jing Province. Liu Bei's subjects urged him to accept Sun Quan's offer but Liu Bei insisted on avenging his oath brother. After initial victories against Sun Quan's forces, a series of strategic mistakes resulted in Sun Quan's general Lu Xun inflicting
1183-496: A rebellion by former Yellow Turbans, and consolidating power in the central government, Cao Cao turned his attention north to Yuan Shao, who had recently eliminated Gongsun Zan and now controlled most of northern China. Yuan Shao amassed a large army and camped along the northern bank of the Yellow River. In the summer of 200, after months of preparations, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the Battle of Guandu . Although Cao Cao
1274-674: A rich tapestry of personalities. Luo Guanzhong's version in 24 volumes, known as the Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi , is now held in the Shanghai Library in China, Tenri Central Library in Japan, and several other major libraries. Various 10-volume, 12-volume and 20-volume recensions of Luo's text, made between 1522 and 1690, are also held at libraries around the world. However, the standard text familiar to general readers
1365-465: A small city, and Guan Yu temporarily served under Cao Cao and helped him slay two of Yuan Shao's generals in battle. The three oath brothers were eventually reunited and managed to establish a new base in Runan , but they were defeated by Cao Cao's forces again so they retreated south to Jing Province , where they took shelter under the governor Liu Biao . After pacifying the nearby provinces, suppressing
1456-694: A southern campaign against the Nanman, defeated them seven times, and won the allegiance of the Nanman king Meng Huo . After pacifying the south, Zhuge Liang led the Shu army on five military expeditions to attack Wei as part of his mission to restore the Han dynasty. Each time, as Zhuge Liang was on the verge of success, he was recalled due to various unfortunate circumstances, such as Liu Shan listening to rumours spread by eunuchs. Moreover, his days were numbered because he had been suffering from chronic illness and his condition worsened under stress. He died of illness at
1547-438: A southern campaign to eliminate Liu Bei and Sun Quan. By then, Liu Biao had died and his younger son Liu Cong decided to surrender control of Jing Province to Cao Cao. In 208, although Liu Bei managed to repel two attacks by Cao Cao at Xinye, he was eventually forced to flee due to the overwhelming strength of the enemy forces. Cao Cao and his cavalry caught up with Liu Bei and his forces at Changban and defeated them. During
1638-426: Is "the nature of human ambition", to which Moody adds the relationship between politics and morality, specifically the conflict between the idealism of Confucian political thought and the harsh realism of Legalism , as a related theme. Other dominant themes of the novel include: the rise and fall of the ideal liege (Liu Bei); finding the ideal minister (Zhuge Liang); the conflict between the ideal liege (Liu Bei) and
1729-709: Is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong . It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history , starting in 184 AD and ending with the reunification of the land in 280 by the Western Jin . The novel is based primarily on the Records of the Three Kingdoms , written by Chen Shou in the 3rd century. The story – part historical and part fictional – romanticises and dramatises
1820-513: Is a recension by Mao Lun and his son Mao Zonggang . In the 1660s, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing dynasty , Mao Lun and Mao Zonggang significantly edited the text, fitting it into 120 chapters, and abbreviating the title to Sanguozhi Yanyi . The text was reduced from 900,000 to 750,000 characters; significant editing was done for narrative flow; use of third-party poems
1911-625: Is arguably the most widely read historical novel in late imperial and modern China. Herbert Giles stated that among the Chinese themselves, this is regarded as the greatest of all their novels. Stories about the heroes of the Three Kingdoms were the basis of entertainment dating back to the Sui and Tang dynasty (6th–10th centuries). By the Song dynasty (10th–13th centuries), there were several records of professional oral storytellers who specialized in
SECTION 20
#17327647567292002-609: Is featured as a playable character in Koei 's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series. He also appears as a playable general in The Furious Wild DLC for Total War: Three Kingdoms strategy video game. Romance of the Three Kingdoms Romance of the Three Kingdoms ( traditional Chinese : 三國演義 ; simplified Chinese : 三国演义 ; pinyin : Sānguó Yǎnyì )
2093-545: Is unclear if Meng Huo was of Chinese ascendent or from the foreign tribe. If it was the latter, then It may have sounded similar as "Huo" (獲) therefore was transcribed as such. Huang Chengzhong (黃承宗) of the Liangshan Yi Slave Society Museum believes Meng to be a real historical figure, though he is certain that the "seven times freed" story is fiction. Sichuan University professor Miao Yue (繆鉞) contended Zhuge Liang would not be able to release
2184-477: Is widely seen as the founder of Shu Han, he never claimed to be the founder of a new dynasty; rather, he viewed Shu Han as a continuation of the Han dynasty. To distinguish the state from other historical Chinese states of the same name, historians have added a relevant character to the state's original name: the state that called itself "Han" (漢) is also known as "Shu Han" (蜀漢) or just "Shu" (蜀). Liu Bei ruled as emperor for less than three years. In 222, he launched
2275-465: The Records of the Three Kingdoms found Xi Zuochi's account reliable and annotated him to Chen Shou 's work with no further comment. The historian Sima Guang when he compiled the Zizhi Tongjian also recorded Meng Huo's history. However due to Pei Songzhi criticism of Xi Zuochi on other part of his work. The historian Fang Guoyu (方國瑜) used Pei's doubts on Xi's unreliability to challenge
2366-820: The Battle of Wuzhang Plains while leading a stalemate battle against the Wei general Sima Yi . The long years of battle between Shu and Wei saw many changes in the ruling Cao family in Wei. The influence of the Caos weakened after Cao Rui 's death and state power eventually fell into the hands of the regent Sima Yi and subsequently to his sons, Sima Shi and Sima Zhao . In Shu, Jiang Wei inherited Zhuge Liang's legacy and continued to lead another nine campaigns against Wei for three decades, but ultimately failed to achieve any significant success. The Shu emperor Liu Shan also turned out to be an incompetent ruler who trusted corrupt officials. Shu gradually declined under Liu Shan's rule and
2457-584: The Hanzhong Campaign and capturing Hanzhong Commandery. At the same time, Emperor Xian awarded Cao Cao the title of a vassal king – King of Wei – while Sun Quan was known as the Duke of Wu. In eastern China, Sun Quan and Cao Cao's forces fought in various battles along the Yangtze River , including the battles of Hefei and Ruxu , but neither side managed to gain a significant advantage over
2548-456: The Romance that could be dated with certainty in any language. Shu Han Han ( 漢 ; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( 蜀漢 [ʂù xân] ) or Ji Han ( 季漢 "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu ( Chinese : 蜀 ; pinyin : Shǔ ; Sichuanese Pinyin : Su < Middle Chinese : * źjowk < Eastern Han Chinese : * dźok ),
2639-509: The Romance of the Three Kingdoms has been retold in numerous forms including television series, manga and video games. The Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci was an avid reader of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin , learning all he knew about Chinese military and political strategies from them. Thus, when his descendants founded the Qing dynasty and became the rulers of China,
2730-496: The Yellow Turban Rebellion and participating in the campaign against Dong Zhuo . After Liu Bei succeeded Tao Qian as the governor of Xu Province , he offered shelter to Lü Bu , who had just been defeated by Cao Cao. However, Lü Bu betrayed his host, seized control of the province and attacked Liu Bei. After combining forces with Cao Cao to defeat Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi , Liu Bei followed Cao Cao back to
2821-539: The chancellor Zhuge Liang and the general Li Yan as regents to his son, Liu Shan . The young Liu Shan was only 16 years old, making him the youngest of the rulers of the Three Kingdom states, and Liu Bei expected the two regents to assist Liu Shan in managing state affairs. Zhuge Liang was the de facto head of the Shu government throughout Liu Shan's reign, and was responsible for most of Shu's policies during his regency. When Liu Shan succeeded his father, Shu
Meng Huo - Misplaced Pages Continue
2912-434: The "breakdown of order" at the end of the Han dynasty to "the improper exercise of imperial authority, the destabilisation influence of special-interest groups (eunuchs, imperial clansmen), the problem of factional and individual idealism carried to the point of civil strife-all of which eventually surface in the body of the narrative." He goes on to say, the "overlapping claims to legitimacy and multiple spheres of power," give
3003-540: The "scourge of Heaven" and never again would the people of the south dare to revolt. After the rebellion, many talented people of the south joined the Shu Han government. Meng Huo was one of them and became a subordinate of Zhuge Liang. His highest office was Assistant to the Imperial Counsellor (御史中丞). The Yi considered Meng Huo one of their rulers and called him Mot Hop ( Yi language : ꂽꉼ). Meng Huo
3094-493: The 3rd century. The Records of the Three Kingdoms covered events ranging from the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 to the unification of the Three Kingdoms under the Jin dynasty in 280. The novel also includes material from Tang dynasty poetic works, Yuan dynasty operas and his own personal interpretation of elements such as virtue and legitimacy. The author combined this historical knowledge with his own storytelling skills to create
3185-688: The Jin dynasty . The fall of Wu marked the end of the near century-long era of civil strife historically known as the Three Kingdoms period. The novel draws from Chen Shou 's Records of the Three Kingdoms as the main historical source. Other major influences include Liu Yiqing's A New Account of the Tales of the World ( Shishuo Xinyu ), published in 430, and the Sanguozhi Pinghua , a chronological collection of eighty fictional sketches starting with
3276-673: The Maos in their substantially revised edition of 1679. None of the earlier editions contained this phrase. In addition, Mao also added Yang Shen 's The Immortals by the River as the famous introductory poem (which began with "The gushing waters of the Yangzi River pour and disappear into the East", 滾滾長江東逝水 ) to the novel. The earlier editions, moreover, spend less time on the process of division, which they found painful, and far more time on
3367-523: The Shu Han state's authority in the remote southern region of Nanzhong , Zhuge Liang also launched an expeditionary force there in 225 to quell local rebellions, and the growing influence of the Nanman (literal: southern barbarians) in the region. Zhuge Liang advocated an aggressive foreign policy towards Wei, because he strongly believed it was critical to the survival of Shu and its sovereignty. Between
3458-821: The Sou (叟) and other tribes. Meng Huo proclaimed to all of them that the government was making excessive demands of rare resources that is difficult to acquire in large numbers. The tribe people believed him and so they rejoined Yong Kai back. After Yong Kai's death, Meng Huo replaced him as the leader of the rebellion. During the summer, Zhuge Liang led his army and crossed the Lu River and advanced toward Yizhou Commandery (益州). He captured Meng Huo then had him brought into his camp and asked him what did he think of his army. Meng Huo answered to him "I have regrets for if I knew this earlier, I would have easily defeated you." Zhuge Liang thought that if he wanted to concentrate all his efforts in
3549-548: The Three Kingdoms is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature ; it has a total of 800,000 words and nearly a thousand dramatic characters (mostly historical) in 120 chapters. The novel is among the most beloved works of literature in East Asia , and its literary influence in the region has been compared to that of the works of Shakespeare on English literature . It
3640-421: The Three Kingdoms hero cycles. The earliest written work to combine these stories was a pinghua named Sanguozhi Pinghua published sometime between 1321 and 1323. Romance of the Three Kingdoms is traditionally attributed to Luo Guanzhong , a playwright who lived sometime between 1315 and 1400 (late Yuan to early Ming period) known for compiling historical plays in styles which were prevalent during
3731-427: The Three Kingdoms period, creating "believable" situations and characters, even if they are not historically accurate. Romance of the Three Kingdoms , like the dramas and folk stories of its day, features Liu Bei and his associates as the protagonists; hence the depiction of the people in Shu Han was glorified. The antagonists, Cao Cao, Sun Quan and their followers, on the other hand, were often denigrated. This suited
Meng Huo - Misplaced Pages Continue
3822-400: The Wei generals Deng Ai and Zhong Hui attacked Shu, and conquered its capital, Chengdu , without much struggle — the state having been exhausted by Jiang Wei's ill-fated campaigns. In the same year, Liu Shan surrendered to Deng Ai outside Chengdu, marking the end of Shu. In spite of this, Jiang Wei attempted to incite conflict between Deng Ai and Zhong Hui, in the hope of taking advantage of
3913-433: The Wei regent, Cao Shuang , launched an invasion of Hanzhong. Despite being outnumbered 2-to-1, the Shu forces defeated the invading combatants at the Battle of Xingshi , with the humiliated Wei forces fleeing. Between 247 and 262, the Shu general, Jiang Wei , resumed Zhuge Liang's legacy by leading a series of military campaigns against Wei, but also failed to make any significant territorial gains. In 263, armies led by
4004-482: The Yuan period. It was first printed in 1522 as Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi ( 三國志通俗演義 ; 三国志通俗演义 ) in an edition which bore a preface dated 1494. The text may well have circulated before either date in handwritten manuscripts. Regardless of when it was written or whether Luo was the writer, the author made use of several available historical records, primarily the Records of the Three Kingdoms compiled by Chen Shou in
4095-514: The battle, Liu Bei's generals Zhao Yun and Zhang Fei displayed heroics: the former fought his way through enemy lines to rescue Liu Bei's infant son Liu Shan and deliver him safely back to his father; the latter single-handedly held off enemy forces at a bridge by intimidating and staring them down. Liu Bei and his forces managed to rendezvous with Guan Yu , who had left earlier to seek help from Liu Biao's elder son Liu Qi , and they retreated to Xiakou . In 208, Liu Bei dispatched Zhuge Liang on
4186-524: The book was one of the first Chinese books to be translated into their Manchu language along with military manuals. Indeed, it is one of only two Chinese novels that had a Manchu translation put into print during the Qing dynasty (the other being Jin Ping Mei ). A Manchu translation of the Romance , known in Manchu as Ilan gurun-i bithe ( ᡳᠯᠠᠨ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ᡳ ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ ), was first attempted in 1631 by
4277-611: The campaigns to the north, he would have to find tricks and ways to subdue the tribes of Nanzhong since they were often in rebellion and causing chaos. So he forgave Meng Huo and had him sent back to his army. After this, the two armies fought each other seven times, Meng Huo was always captured by Zhuge Liang and he was always forgiven and released. All of this caused Meng Huo along with the tribal people and Han citizens to reconsider their rebellion and to sincerely submit. When Zhuge Liang saw Meng Huo arrived, he asked him what were his intentions. Meng Huo replied that he considered Zhuge Liang as
4368-481: The common people for his personal gain. During this time, there were two attempts on his life: the first was by a military officer Wu Fu ( 伍孚 ), who failed and died a gruesome death; the second was by Cao Cao , who was also unsuccessful but managed to escape. Cao Cao fled from Luoyang, returned to his home commandery , and sent out a fake imperial edict to various warlords, calling them to rise up against Dong Zhuo. Under Yuan Shao 's leadership, eighteen warlords formed
4459-403: The consummate villain (Cao Cao); and the cruelties and injustice of feudal or dynastic government. The opening lines of the novel, "The empire, long divided, must unite; long united, must divide. Thus it has ever been", added by Mao Lun and Mao Zonggang in their recension, epitomise the tragic theme of the novel. One recent critic notes that the novel takes political and moral stands and lets
4550-459: The emergence of written vernacular during the Ming period, as part of the so-called "Four Masterworks" ( si da qishu ). Romance of the Three Kingdoms recorded stories of a Buddhist monk called Pujing (普净), who was a friend of Guan Yu . Pujing made his first appearance during Guan's arduous journey of crossing five passes and slaying six generals, in which he warned Guan of an assassination plot. As
4641-399: The eminent scholar Dahai ( 達海 ; 1595–1632), but he died the following year before it could be finished. A complete translation based on the 1522 edition of the novel was done in 1647 and published in 1650 by a team of high-ranking officials including Kicungge ( 祁充格 ; d. 1651) and Fan Wencheng (1597–1666), commissioned by the prince-regent Dorgon . This is the first translation of
SECTION 50
#17327647567294732-801: The end of 207, after a victorious campaign beyond the frontier against the Wuhuan , Cao Cao achieved complete dominance of northern China. The territories in central and northern China which came under Cao Cao's control became the foundation of the state of Cao Wei , which would later be established by Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi . In the meantime, Liu Biao had put Liu Bei in charge of Xinye . During this time, Liu Bei visited Zhuge Liang thrice and recruited him. Acting on Zhuge Liang's advice, Liu Bei built up his forces in preparation for war against Cao Cao. Following his unification of central and northern China under his control, Cao Cao, having been appointed Imperial Chancellor by Emperor Xian, led his forces on
4823-400: The five expeditions. During his final campaign where he fought against the Wei general, Sima Yi , an already taxed and ill Zhuge Liang died under the strain of the long stalemate with the Wei forces at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains . After Zhuge Liang's death, the Shu government was then headed by Jiang Wan , Fei Yi , and others, and Shu temporarily ceased its aggression towards Wei. In 244,
4914-518: The general guarding Liu Bei's assets in Jing Province, was captured and subsequently executed by Sun Quan's forces. Cao Cao died in 220, and was succeeded by his son, Cao Pi , who forced the last Han ruler, Emperor Xian , to abdicate the throne in his favour. Cao Pi then established the state of Cao Wei , and declared himself emperor. Liu Bei contested Cao Pi's claim to the throne, and proclaimed himself "Emperor of Han" in 221. Although Liu Bei
5005-707: The historian, Chen Shou , also used the prefix "Shu" to describe Liu Bei's state of Han as a historiographical prefix to differentiate it from the many other states officially named " Han " throughout Chinese history. Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty , Liu Bei , a warlord and distant relative of the Han imperial clan, rallied the support of many capable followers. Following the counsel of his advisor, Zhuge Liang , and Zhuge's Longzhong Plan , Liu Bei conquered parts of Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan ) in 208 and 209, took over Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing ) from
5096-495: The imperial capital, Xu, where Emperor Xian honoured him as his "Imperial Uncle" upon learning that he was also a descendant of the imperial clan. When Cao Cao showed signs that he wanted to usurp the throne, Emperor Xian wrote a secret decree in blood to his father-in-law, Dong Cheng , and ordered him to get rid of Cao Cao. Dong Cheng secretly contacted Liu Bei, Ma Teng and others, and they planned to assassinate Cao Cao. However, their plans were leaked, and Cao Cao had Dong Cheng and
5187-564: The leader if the latter was indeed captured. Tan Liangxiao (譚良嘯), director of the Zhuge Liang Memorial Temple in Chengdu , also stated the "seven times freed" story to be "strange and unbelievable", but like Fang and Huang, he believes Meng Huo did exist in history. When the Shu Han emperor Liu Bei died in 223 CE, the local people of Nanzhong rebelled against Shu Han, stating that there were three lords claiming to be
5278-477: The legitimate ruler of China and they no longer knew whom they should pledge allegiance to. In retaliation, the Shu Han chancellor Zhuge Liang launched an invasion on the Nanzhong region and successfully quelled the uprising. At the beginning of the rebellion, when Yong Kai (雍闓) saw that many people were still indecisive about this course of action. He had Meng Huo from Jianning Commandery (建寧) sent to persuade
5369-502: The lives of feudal lords and their retainers, who tried to supplant the dwindling Han dynasty or restore it. While the novel follows hundreds of characters, the focus is mainly on the three power blocs that emerged from the remnants of the Han dynasty, and would eventually form the three states of Cao Wei , Shu Han , and Eastern Wu . The novel deals with the plots, personal and military battles, intrigues, and struggles of these states to achieve dominance for almost 100 years. Romance of
5460-421: The meantime, the common people suffered, and the Yellow Turban Rebellion (led by Zhang Jiao and his brothers) eventually broke out during the reign of Emperor Ling . The rebellion was barely suppressed by imperial forces commanded by the general He Jin . Shortly after Emperor Ling's death, He Jin installed the young Emperor Shao on the throne and took control of the central government. The Ten Attendants ,
5551-534: The name "Huo" (獲), which means "captured" in Chinese, is too coincidental considering Meng's fate on being captured – a view shared by many academics. A contrary example of this argument could be made with the given name of Liu Bei and Liu Shan . Bei (備) which means "to prepare" and Shan (禪) which means "to give" in Chinese. Just as with Meng Huo, those indicate what happened. Liu Bei prepared his kingdom and Liu Shan gave it just as Qiao Zhou noted it. Yet, those individuals are definitely not fictional. Furthermore, it
SECTION 60
#17327647567295642-460: The new imperial capital in Xu , and became the new head of the central government. He also defeated rival warlords such as Lü Bu , Yuan Shu and Zhang Xiu in a series of wars and gained control over much of central China. Meanwhile, Sun Jian was killed in an ambush by Liu Biao's forces. His eldest son, Sun Ce , delivered the Imperial Seal as a tribute to the warlord Yuan Shu , a rising pretender to
5733-408: The novel a "sense of epic greatness" with its "combination of grandeur and futility." Besides the famous Peach Garden Oath, many Chinese proverbs in use today are derived from the novel: It means that wives and children, like clothing, are replaceable if lost but the same does not hold true for one's brothers (or friends). The writing style adopted by Romance of the Three Kingdoms was part of
5824-505: The novel was written in the Ming dynasty , more than 1,000 years after the era, these stories showed that Buddhism had long been a significant ingredient of the mainstream culture and may not be historically accurate. Luo Guanzhong preserved these descriptions from earlier versions of the novel to support his portrait of Guan as a faithful man of virtue. Guan has since then been respectfully addressed as "Lord Guan" or Guan Gong . The story of
5915-425: The other. Meanwhile, Sun Quan plotted to take Jing Province after growing tired of Liu Bei's repeated refusals to hand over the territories. He secretly made peace and allied with Cao Cao against Liu Bei. While Guan Yu, who guarded Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province, was away attacking Cao Ren at the Battle of Fancheng , Sun Quan sent his general Lü Meng to launch a stealth invasion on Jing Province . Guan Yu
6006-442: The others arrested and executed along with their families . Liu Bei had already left the imperial capital when the plot was exposed, and he moved on to seize control of Xu Province from Che Zhou , the new governor appointed by Cao Cao. In retaliation, Cao Cao attacked Xu Province and defeated Liu Bei, causing him to be separated from his oath brothers. While Liu Bei briefly joined Yuan Shao after his defeat, Zhang Fei took control of
6097-472: The peach garden oath and ending with Zhuge Liang's death. Some 50 or 60 Yuan and early Ming plays about the Three Kingdoms are known to have existed, and their material is almost entirely fictional, based on thin threads of actual history. The novel is thus a return to greater emphasis on history, compared to these dramas. The novel also shifted towards better acknowledgement of southern China's historical importance, while still portraying some prejudice against
6188-421: The point of war. Following Zhuge Liang's Longzhong Plan , Liu Bei led his forces westward into Yi Province and seized control of the territories from the governor Liu Zhang . By then, Liu Bei ruled over a vast stretch of land from Yi Province to southern Jing Province; these territories served as the foundation of the state of Shu Han later. Liu Bei declared himself King of Hanzhong after defeating Cao Cao in
6279-466: The political climate in the Ming dynasty, unlike in the Jin dynasty when Cao Wei was considered the legitimate successor to the Han dynasty. Some non-historical scenes in the novel have become well-known and subsequently became a part of traditional Chinese culture. In the introduction to the 1959 reprint of the Brewitt-Taylor translation, Roy Andrew Miller argues that the novel's chief theme
6370-512: The precursor of the Han dynasty . Shu Han's founder, Liu Bei (Emperor Zhaolie), had named his dynasty "Han", as he considered it a rump state of the Han dynasty and thus the legitimate successor to the Han throne, while the prefix "Shu" was first used by the rival state of Cao Wei to delegitimize the orthodoxy claims of the Shu Han state. Later on when writing the Records of the Three Kingdoms ,
6461-585: The process of reunification and the struggles of the heroes who sacrificed for it. The following is a summary of the central plot and some well-known highlights in the novel. In the late second century, towards the end of the Han dynasty in China, corruption was rampant on all levels throughout the government, with treacherous eunuchs and villainous officials deceiving the emperor and persecuting those who stood up to them. The Han Empire gradually deteriorated and became increasingly fragmented, with many regional officials being warlords with their own armies. In
6552-431: The reader know which of the characters are heroes and which villains, yet the heroes are forced to make a tragic choice between equal values, not merely between good and evil. The heroes know that the end of the empire is ordained by this cosmic cycle of division and unity, yet their choices are moral, based on loyalty, not political. Plaks states the novel deals with the "cyclical theories of dynastic decline," and relates
6643-417: The situation to revive Shu. Zhong Hui captured Deng Ai, and openly rebelled against the Wei regent, Sima Zhao , but the revolt was suppressed by Wei forces. Jiang Wei, Zhong Hui, and Deng Ai were killed in the struggle. Liu Shan was brought to Luoyang , where he met with Sima Zhao, and was awarded the title of "Duke of Anle." He lived a comfortable and peaceful life in Luoyang until the end of his days. Shu
6734-407: The south. The Qing dynasty historian Zhang Xuecheng famously wrote that the novel was "seven-parts fact and three-parts fiction." The fictional parts are culled from different sources, including unofficial histories, folk stories, the Sanguozhi Pinghua , and also the author's own imagination. Nonetheless, the description of the social conditions and the logic that the characters use is accurate to
6825-472: The state of Cao Wei. In Wu, there had been internal conflict among the nobles since Sun Quan's death. The regents Zhuge Ke and Sun Chen consecutively attempted to usurp the throne but were eventually ousted from power and eliminated in coups. Although stability was temporarily restored in Wu, the last Wu emperor, Sun Hao , turned out to be a tyrant. Wu, the last of the Three Kingdoms, was eventually conquered by
6916-416: The story of Meng Huo's seven captures. However, Fang did not go as far as to doubt Meng Huo's existence. The absurdity of Meng Huo being captured and released seven times led many to doubt the story, and even of Meng Huo's existence. The Republican-era historian Zhang Hualan (張華爛) wrote in his article "Discussion on Meng Huo" (孟獲辯) that Meng was a fictional character invented by later historians, noting that
7007-584: The territories to him, but Liu Bei dismissed the messenger each time with a different excuse. Sun Quan was unwilling to give up, so he followed Zhou Yu's plan to trick Liu Bei to come to Jiangdong to marry his sister Lady Sun and then hold Liu Bei hostage in exchange for Jing Province. However, Zhuge Liang foiled Zhou Yu's plot, and the newlywed couple returned to Jing Province safely. Zhou Yu later died in frustration after Zhuge Liang repeatedly thwarted his moves to take Jing Province. Relations between Liu Bei and Sun Quan deteriorated after Zhou Yu's death, but not to
7098-472: The throne, in exchange for troops and horses. Sun Ce then secured himself a power base in the rich riverlands of Jiangdong ( Wu ), on which the state of Eastern Wu was founded later. Tragically, Sun Ce also died at the pinnacle of his career from illness under stress of his terrifying encounter with the ghost of Yu Ji , a venerable magician whom he had falsely accused of heresy and executed in jealousy. Sun Quan , his younger brother and successor, proved to be
7189-440: The trust Liu Bei had placed in him. After Liu Bei's death, Cao Pi induced several forces, including Sun Quan, a turncoat Shu general Meng Da , the Nanman and Qiang tribes, to attack Shu, in coordination with a Wei army. However, Zhuge Liang managed to make the five armies retreat without any bloodshed. He also sent Deng Zhi to make peace with Sun Quan and restore the alliance between Shu and Wu. Zhuge Liang then personally led
7280-468: The warlord Dong Zhuo , who escorted them back to the palace and used the opportunity to seize control of the imperial capital, Luoyang , under the pretext of protecting the emperor. Dong Zhuo later deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with the Prince of Chenliu ( Emperor Xian ), who was merely a figurehead under his control. Dong Zhuo monopolised state power, persecuted his political opponents, and oppressed
7371-520: The warlord Liu Zhang between 212 and 214, and wrestled control of Hanzhong from his rival, Cao Cao , in 219. Afterwards, Liu Bei proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong . From the territories he gained, Liu Bei established a position for himself in China during the final years of the Han dynasty. However, in 219, the alliance between Liu Bei and his ally, Sun Quan , was broken when Sun sent his general, Lü Meng , to invade Jing Province . Liu Bei lost his territories in Jing Province to Sun Quan. Guan Yu ,
7462-409: The years of 228 and 234, he launched a series of five military campaigns against Wei, with the aim of conquering Chang'an , a strategic city located on the road to the Wei capital, Luoyang . Most of the battles were fought around present-day Gansu and Shaanxi provinces. However, aside from gaining Jiang Wei as an officer in 228, Shu failed to achieve any significant victories or lasting gains in
7553-489: Was a dynastic state of China and one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the Three Kingdoms period. The state was based in the area around present-day Hanzhong , Sichuan , Chongqing , Yunnan , Guizhou , and north Guangxi , an area historically referred to as "Shu" based on the name of the past ancient kingdom of Shu , which also occupied this approximate geographical area. Its core territory also coincided with Liu Bang's Kingdom of Han ,
7644-457: Was attacked by Liu Biao (acting on Yuan Shao's instruction) on the way back to his base. At the same time, Yuan Shao waged war against Gongsun Zan to consolidate his power in northern China. Other warlords such as Cao Cao and Liu Bei , who initially had no titles or land, were also gradually forming their own armies and taking control of territories. During those times of upheaval, Cao Cao saved Emperor Xian from Dong Zhuo's followers, established
7735-425: Was eventually conquered by Wei forces . Jiang Wei attempted to restore Shu with the help of Zhong Hui , a disgruntled Wei general, but their plan failed and Zhong Hui was killed by Wei troops while Jiang Wei died by suicide. Shortly after the fall of Shu, Sima Zhao died and his son, Sima Yan , forced the last Wei emperor, Cao Huan , to abdicate the throne to him. Sima Yan then established the Jin dynasty to replace
7826-484: Was heavily outnumbered by Yuan Shao, he secured a decisive victory over his rival after launching a surprise raid on Yuan Shao's supply train and throwing the enemy into disarray. Yuan Shao retreated north after his defeat, fell ill and died about two years later. Cao Cao took advantage of Yuan Shao's death, which had resulted in internal conflict among his sons who were fighting over their father's territories, and advanced north to attack and seize all of Yuan Shao's lands. By
7917-487: Was not large enough to stand against the rival state of Wei. This greatly limited Shu in terms of resources and manpower; although the country could efficiently defend itself, Shu could not easily launch successful campaigns. As such, Zhuge Liang parleyed for peace with Wu, and reaffirmed the alliance between Sun Quan and Shu — with the former even recognising Sun Quan's legitimacy when the latter broke with Wei, and declared himself "Emperor of Wu" in 229. In order to strengthen
8008-574: Was not merely a nation at war. During peacetime, the Shu state began many irrigation and road-building projects designed to improve the economy. Many of these public works still exist and are widely used. For example, the Zipingpu Dam is still present near Chengdu , Sichuan . These works helped improve the economy of southwestern China, and can be seen as the beginning of economic activity in Sichuan. It also promoted trade with southern China, which
8099-520: Was reduced and shifted from conventional verse to finer pieces; and most passages praising Cao Cao 's advisers and generals were removed. Scholars have long debated whether the Maos' viewpoint was anti-Qing (identifying Southern Ming remnants with Shu-Han ) or pro-Qing. The famous opening lines of the novel, " The empire , long divided, must unite; long united, must divide. Thus it has ever been" ( 話說天下大勢．分久必合，合久必分 ), long understood to be Luo's introduction and cyclical philosophy, were actually added by
8190-403: Was the weakest of the three major powers. Following his father's defeat in 221, the portion of Jing Province previously held by Shu was now firmly under the control of Wu. Shu only included the western lands of Yi Province , while Wei controlled all of the northern lands, and Wu controlled all the lands from the east of Yi Province to the southern and eastern coastlines. Meanwhile, Shu's population
8281-513: Was unable to capture Fancheng so he retreated, but was caught off guard by Lü Meng and had already lost Jing Province before he knew it. With his army's morale falling and the troops gradually deserting, Guan Yu and his remaining men withdrew to Maicheng, where they were surrounded by Sun Quan's forces. In desperation, Guan Yu attempted to break out of the siege but failed and was captured in an ambush. Sun Quan had him executed after he refused to surrender. Shortly after Guan Yu's death, Cao Cao died of
#728271