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121-584: Little is known about the founder Mengüjek Ghazi. He was probably one of the commanders of the Great Seljuk , and his principality seems to have been founded in the years following the battle. The beylik was split into the Erzincan and Divriği branches after the death of Emir İshak in 1142. By 1178, Behramşah, of the Erzincan branch, had proved their allegiance to the Rum Seljuks through marriage. While

242-733: A Friday mosque with a newly constructed quarter in Baghdad which was surrounded by a wall. The new quarter separated the Shia community from the Sunnis, since there had been frequent outbreaks of violence. Through the influence of Tughril's vizier, al-Kunduri, a Hanafi Sunni, the Ash'ari and Ismaili Shi'ites were exiled from Khurasan and cursed at Friday sermons in Seljuk mosques. Al-Kunduri's vizierate persecuted Ash'aris and Sharifis, although this ended with

363-544: A Persian bureaucracy to administer their new polity with Tughril as its nominal overlord. By 1046, Abbasid caliph al-Qa'im had sent Tughril a diploma recognizing Seljuk rule over Khurasan . In 1048–1049, the Seljuk Turks, commanded by Ibrahim Yinal , uterine brother of Tughril, made their first incursion into the Byzantine frontier region of Iberia and clashed with a combined Byzantine-Georgian army of 50,000 at

484-453: A brave knight, though often described as indecisive in moments of crisis. Louis VII was a devout Christian with a sensitive side who was often attacked by contemporaries like Bernard of Clairvaux for being more in love with his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine , than being interested in war or politics. Stephen, King of England did not participate in the second crusade due to internal conflicts in his kingdom. Meanwhile, King David I of Scotland

605-655: A certain number of troops in every district. In the event of war, the ahdath militias, based in the cities under the command of the ra’is (chief), and who were usually ethnic Arabs , were called upon to increase the number of troops. The ahdath militia, though less well trained than the Turkish professional troops, were often very strongly motivated by religion, especially the concept of jihad . Further support came from Turkoman and Kurdish auxiliaries, who could be called upon in times of war, though these forces were prone to indiscipline. The principal Islamic commander

726-560: A citadel and a castle near Dizkuh. Following Malik-Shah's death, the familial civil war drew attention away from religious patronage, slowing the building of madrasas and mosques. Although, in 1130, the Seljuk sultan Sanjar ordered the construction of the Quthamiyya madrasa in Samarkand. While the Seljuk sultans were prodigious builders of religious buildings, Seljuk viziers were no different. The Seljuk vizier, Nazim al-Mulk, founded

847-544: A civil war for the Seljuk throne. Branch of Erzincan Branch of Divriği Great Seljuk Empire The Seljuk Empire , or the Great Seljuk Empire , was a high medieval , culturally Turco-Persian , Sunni Muslim empire, established and ruled by the Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks . The empire spanned a total area of 3.9 million square kilometres (1.5 million square miles) from Anatolia and

968-474: A claim to the throne but was killed in battle against Barkiyaruq in February 1096. Upon his death, his sons Radwan and Duqaq inherited Aleppo and Damascus respectively and contested with each other as well, further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other. In 1118, the third son Ahmad Sanjar took over the empire. His nephew, the son of Muhammad I, did not recognize his claim to

1089-573: A failed Hungarian usurper, Boris Kalamanos , to join his army. Relations within Byzantine territory were also grim, and the Lorrainers, who had marched ahead of the rest of the French, also came into conflict with the slower Germans whom they met on the way. Since the original negotiations between Louis and Manuel I, Manuel had broken off his military campaign against Rûm, signing a truce with his enemy Sultan Mesud I . Manuel did this to give himself

1210-671: A free hand to concentrate on defending his empire from the Crusaders, who had gained a reputation for theft and treachery since the First Crusade and were widely suspected of harbouring sinister designs on Constantinople . Nevertheless, Manuel's relations with the French army were somewhat better than with the Germans, and Louis was entertained lavishly in Constantinople. Some of the French were outraged by Manuel's truce with

1331-693: A persecutor. As in the First Crusade, the preaching inadvertently led to attacks on Jews; a fanatical French monk named Rudolf was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland , Cologne , Mainz , Worms and Speyer , with Rudolf claiming Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land. Bernard; Arnold I , the Archbishop of Cologne ; and Henry I , the Archbishop of Mainz , were vehemently opposed to these attacks, and so Bernard traveled from Flanders to Germany to deal with

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1452-502: A professional army; however, warfare was a way of life for nearly all of adult male Turkmens. According to a Seljuk vizier , Nizam al-Mulk , by the reign of Malik-Shah I , the sovereign had a large army at his disposal. There were Turkmens , mamluks , a standing army, infantry and the sultan's personal guard. Nizam al-Mulk also estimated Malik-Shah's forces at 400,000 men, and often opposed cost-cutting plans (instituted by Taj al-Mulk ) to bring these to 70,000. Vizier Nizam al-Mulk,

1573-638: A re-establishment of Sunni Islam in Iraq and western Persia since the 10th century. In 1046, Tughril built the madrasa, al-Sultaniya in Nishapur, while Chaghri Beg founded a madrasa in Merv. Tughril and Alp Arslan chose Hanafi qadis and preachers for these madrasas. By 1063, there were twenty-five madrasas scattered throughout Persia and Khorasan, founded by Seljuk princes. In the 12th century there were over thirty madrasas in Baghdad. In 1056, Tughril built

1694-911: A second time in 1122, and although Edessa recovered somewhat after the Battle of Azaz in 1125, Joscelin was killed in battle in 1131. His successor Joscelin II was forced into an alliance with the Byzantine Empire , but in 1143 both the Byzantine emperor John II Comnenus and the King of Jerusalem Fulk of Anjou died. Joscelin had also quarreled with the Count of Tripoli and the Prince of Antioch, leaving Edessa with no powerful allies. Meanwhile, Zengi , atabeg of Mosul , had added Aleppo to his rule in 1128,

1815-458: A situation later exploited by the victorious Turkmens, whose hordes would overrun Khorasan unopposed, wreaking colossal damage on the province and prestige of Sanjar. Sanjar eventually escaped from captivity in the fall of 1156, but soon died in Merv in 1157. After his death, Turkic rulers, Turkmen tribal forces, and other secondary powers competed for Khorasan. In 1181, Sultan Shah , a pretendent to

1936-1358: A skirmish with them. The other division of the German force, led by the King's half-brother, Bishop Otto of Freising , had marched south to the Mediterranean coast and was similarly defeated early in 1148. The force led by Otto ran out of food while crossing inhospitable countryside and was ambushed by the Seljuq Turks near Laodicea on 16 November 1147. The majority of Otto's force were either killed in battle or captured and sold into slavery. The French crusaders had departed from Metz in June 1147, led by Louis, Thierry of Alsace , Renaut I of Bar , Amadeus III of Savoy and his half-brother William V of Montferrat , William VII of Auvergne , and others, along with armies from Lorraine , Brittany , Burgundy and Aquitaine . A force from Provence , led by Alphonse of Toulouse, chose to wait until August, and to cross by sea. At Worms , Louis joined with crusaders from Normandy and England. They followed Conrad's route fairly peacefully, although Louis came into conflict with king Géza of Hungary when Géza discovered that Louis had allowed

2057-424: A vow made by his dead brother Philip to go to the Holy Land. It is probable that Louis had made this decision independently of hearing about Quantum Praedecessores . In any case, Abbot Suger and other nobles were not in favour of Louis's plans, as he would be gone from the kingdom for several years. Louis consulted Bernard of Clairvaux , who referred him back to Eugene. By now Louis would have definitely heard about

2178-704: The Artuqids against him. This event triggered the launch of the Second Crusade. Nur ad-Din , one of Zengi's sons who succeeded him as atabeg of Aleppo , created an alliance in the region to oppose the Second Crusade, which landed in 1147. Ahmad Sanjar fought to contain the revolts by the Kara-Khanids in Transoxiana , Ghurids in Afghanistan and Qarluks in modern Kyrgyzstan , as well as

2299-686: The Battle of Didgori on August 12, 1121, the Seljuks were routed, being run down by pursuing Georgian cavalry for several days afterward. The battle helped the Crusader states, which had been under pressure from Ilghazi's armies. The weakening of the main enemy of the Latin principalities also benefitted the Kingdom of Jerusalem under King Baldwin II . During this time conflict with the Crusader states

2420-465: The Battle of Kapetrou on 10 September 1048. The devastation left behind by the Seljuk raid was so fearful that the Byzantine magnate Eustathios Boilas described, in 1051–1052, those lands as "foul and unmanageable... inhabited by snakes, scorpions, and wild beasts." The Arab chronicler Ibn al-Athir reports that Ibrahim brought back 100,000 captives and a vast booty loaded on the backs of ten thousand camels. In 1055, Tughril entered Baghdad and removed

2541-517: The Battle of Qatwan . He suffered his first defeat in his long career, and as a result lost all Seljuk territory east of the Syr Darya . Sanjar's as well as the Seljuks' rule collapsed as a consequence of yet another unexpected defeat, this time at the hands of the Seljuks' own tribe, in 1153. Sanjar was captured during the battle and held in captivity until 1156. It brought chaos to the Empire –

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2662-631: The Karakum Desert . First, they made their way to the important city of Merv, but perhaps due to its strong fortification, they changed their route westwards to take refuge in Nasa. Finally, the Seljuks arrived on the edges of Khorasan , the province considered a jewel in the Ghaznavid crown. After moving into Khorasan, Seljuks under Tughril wrested an empire from the Ghaznavids . Initially

2783-726: The Kingdom of Georgia began to become a regional power and extended its borders at the expense of the Great Seljuk Empire. The same was true during the revival of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia , under Leo II of Armenia , in Anatolia. The Abbasid caliph An-Nasir also began to reassert the authority of the caliph and allied himself with the Khwarezmshah Takash . For a brief period, Toghrul III

2904-637: The Levant in the west to the Hindu Kush in the east, and from Central Asia in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south, and it spanned the time period 1037–1308, though Seljuk rule beyond the Anatolian peninsula ended in 1194. The Seljuk Empire was founded in 1037 by Tughril (990–1063) and his brother Chaghri (989–1060), both of whom co-ruled over its territories; there are indications that

3025-836: The Ma'munids , was under the nominal control of the Samanid Empire . By 999, the Samanids had fallen to the Kara-Khanid Khanate in Transoxiana , while the Ghaznavids occupied the lands south of the Amu Darya . The Seljuks supported the last Samanid emir against the Kara-Khanids before establishing an independent base. Oghuz Turks (also known as Turkmens at the time), led by Seljuk's son, Musa and his two nephews, Tughril and Chaghri, were one of several groups of

3146-570: The Mirrors for princes genre, such as the prominent Siyasatnama (Book of Politics) composed by Nizam al-Mulk . During this period, these type of books consciously made use of Islamic and Iranian traditions, such as an ideal government based on the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his successors, or the Sasanian King of Kings Khosrow I ( r.  531–579 ). In most of their coins,

3267-584: The Oghuz Yabghu Ali Tegin and his allies, forcing them to escape from Transoxiana . Initially, the Seljuks took refuge in Khwarazm , which served as one of their traditional pastures, but they were also encouraged by the local Ghaznavid governor, Harun, who hoped to utilise Seljuks for his efforts to seize Khorasan from his sovereign. When Harun was assassinated by Ghaznavid agents in 1035, they again had to flee, this time heading south across

3388-494: The Peloponnese . Both the Germans and French therefore entered Asia without any Byzantine assistance, unlike the armies of the First Crusade. Following the example set by his grandfather Alexios I , Manuel had the French swear to return to the Empire any territory they captured. The French met the remnants of Conrad's army at Lopadion , and Conrad joined Louis's force. They followed Otto of Freising's route, moving closer to

3509-568: The Qarakhanids and Ghaznavids had to acknowledge the overlordship of the Seljuks. Seljuk dominion was established over the ancient Sasanian domains, in Iran and Iraq , and included Anatolia , Syria , as well as parts of Central Asia and modern Afghanistan . Their rule was modelled after the tribal organization common among Turkic and Mongol nomadic cultures, resembling a 'family federation' or ' appanage state'. Under this organization,

3630-826: The Seljuk Turks . The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil , and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders' progress, particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. However, this alleged sabotage of the Crusade by the Byzantines was likely fabricated by Odo, who saw the Empire as an obstacle, and moreover Emperor Manuel had no political reason to do so. Louis and Conrad and

3751-849: The Shah-Armens and the Mengujekids in Eastern Anatolia, Artuqids in Southeastern Anatolia, Danishmendis in Central Anatolia, Rum Seljuks (Beylik of Suleyman , which later moved to Central Anatolia) in Western Anatolia, and the Beylik of Tzachas of Smyrna in İzmir ( Smyrna ). Under Alp Arslan 's successor, Malik Shah , and his two Persian viziers , Nizām al-Mulk and Tāj al-Mulk,

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3872-623: The Siege of Baghdad (1136) , forcing Caliph Al-Rashid Billah to abdicate, but the next Caliph Al-Muqtafi (1136–1160) managed to restore a high degree of independence and successfully resisted the Seljuk Siege of Baghdad (1157) . The army of the earliest Seljuks was not similar to the renowned Turkic military of the classical 'Abbasid era. Their first invasions were more of a great nomadic migration accompanied by their families and livestock rather than planned military conquests. They were not

3993-577: The Sultanate of Rum , and Kerbogha exercised independence as the atabeg of Mosul . During the First Crusade , the fractured states of the Seljuks were generally more concerned with consolidating their own territories and gaining control of their neighbours than with cooperating against the crusaders . The Seljuks easily defeated the People's Crusade arriving in 1096, but they could not stop

4114-451: The second battle of Dorylaeum . In battle, the Turks used their typical tactic of pretending to retreat, and then returning to attack the small force of German cavalry which had separated from the main army to chase them. Conrad began a slow retreat back to Constantinople, his army harassed daily by the Turks, who attacked stragglers and defeated the rearguard. Conrad himself was wounded in

4235-544: The tughra . The populace of the Seljuk Empire would have considered this Perso-Islamic tradition more significant than that of steppe customs. Highly Persianized in culture and language, the Seljuks also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition , even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia. Under the Seljuks, Persian was also used for books lecturing about politics in

4356-416: The 'Lesser Seljuks'. Much of the ideological character of the Seljuk Empire was derived from the earlier Samanid and Ghaznavid kingdoms, which had in turn emerged from the Perso-Islamic imperial system of the Abbasid caliphate. This Perso-Islamic tradition was based on pre-Islamic Iranian ideas of kingship molded into an Islamic framework. Little of the public symbolism used by the Seljuks was Turkic, namely

4477-399: The Atabegs effectively independent. The breakaway states and dynasties included: After the Second Crusade, Nur ad-Din's general Shirkuh , who had established himself in Egypt on Fatimid land, was succeeded by Saladin . In time, Saladin rebelled against Nur ad-Din ; upon his death, Saladin married his widow, captured most of Syria and created the Ayyubid dynasty. On other fronts,

4598-401: The Byzantine resistance to the Turkish invasion of Anatolia, although the Georgians were able to recover from Alp Arslan's invasion by securing the theme of Iberia . The Byzantine withdrawal from Anatolia brought Georgia in more direct contact with the Seljuks. In 1073 the Seljuk Amirs of Ganja, Dvin and Dmanisi invaded Georgia and were defeated by George II of Georgia , who successfully took

4719-418: The Crusader states in the Levant The Second Crusade (1147–1150) was the second major crusade launched from Europe. The Second Crusade was started in response to the fall of the County of Edessa in 1144 to the forces of Zengi . The county had been founded during the First Crusade (1096–1099) by the future King Baldwin I of Jerusalem in 1098. While it was the first Crusader state to be founded, it

4840-440: The Divriği branch under Şahinşah, recognized the Sultanate of Rum as their overlords by declaring it on their copper coins. The Erzincan branch was subjugated by the Sultanate of Rum in 1228, and the Divriği branch was ended by the Ilkhanate in 1277. The Mengüjek dynasty is remembered primarily for its monuments in Divriği. The Divriği Great Mosque was built in 1228 by Ahmed Shah. The adjoining medical center, or Darüşşifa ,

4961-433: The German army of 20,000 men arrived in Byzantine territory, Emperor Manuel I Komnenos feared they were going to attack him, and had Byzantine troops posted to ensure against trouble. A brief skirmish with some of the more unruly Germans occurred near Philippopolis and in Adrianople , where the Byzantine general Prosouch fought with Conrad's nephew, the future emperor Frederick I Barbarossa . To make matters worse, some of

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5082-399: The German knights liked to fight on foot. The Byzantine Greek chronicler John Kinnamos wrote "the French are particularly capable of riding horseback in good order and attacking with the spear, and their cavalry surpasses that of the Germans in speed. The Germans, however, are able to fight on foot better than the French and excel in using the great sword". Conrad III was considered to be

5203-447: The German soldiers were killed in a flood at the beginning of September. On 10 September, however, they arrived at Constantinople, where relations with Manuel were poor, resulting in the Battle of Constantinople , after which the Germans became convinced that they should cross into Asia Minor as quickly as possible. Manuel wanted Conrad to leave some of his troops behind, to assist in defending against attacks from Roger II, who had taken

5324-421: The Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) Period post-First Crusade Second Crusade Period post-Second Crusade Third Crusade Period post-Third Crusade Fourth Crusade Fifth Crusade Sixth Crusade and aftermath Seventh Crusade End of

5445-400: The Holy Land, crusaders did see victories elsewhere. The most significant of these came to a combined force of 13,000 Flemish, Frisian, Norman, English, Scottish, and German crusaders in 1147. Travelling from England, by ship, to the Holy Land , the army stopped and helped the smaller (7,000) Portuguese army in the capture of Lisbon , expelling its Moorish occupants. The initial response to

5566-443: The Iberian peninsula, almost at the same time, King Alfonso VII of León , Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona , and others led a mixed army of Catalan, Leonese, Castilian and French crusaders against the rich port city of Almería . With support from a Genoese – Pisan navy, the city was occupied in October 1147. Ramon Berenguer then invaded the lands of the Almoravid taifa kingdom of Valencia and Murcia . The fraction of

5687-447: The Khwarezmian throne, managed to take control of Khorasan, until 1192 when he was defeated near Merv by the Ghurids , who captured his territories. The Ghurids then took control of all Khorasan following the death of his successor Tekish in 1200, as far as Besṭām in the ancient region of Qūmes. The province was finally conquered by Khwarazmians after the Ghurid defeat at the Battle of Andkhud (1204). The Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar

5808-457: The Mediterranean coast, and arrived at Ephesus in December, where they learned that the Turks were preparing to attack them. Manuel also sent ambassadors complaining about the pillaging and plundering that Louis had done along the way, and there was no guarantee that the Byzantines would assist them against the Turks. Meanwhile, Conrad fell sick and returned to Constantinople, where Manuel attended to him personally, and Louis, paying no attention to

5929-487: The Muslim city that functioned as the gateway to Edessa, but Louis refused, preferring instead to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem rather than focus on the military aspect of the crusade. Eleanor enjoyed her stay, but her uncle implored her to remain to enlarge family lands and divorce Louis if the king refused to help what was assuredly the military cause of the Crusade. During this period, there were rumours of an affair between Raymond and Eleanor, which caused tensions in

6050-407: The Oghuz who made their way to Iran between about 1020 and 1040, first moving south to Transoxiana , and then to Khorasan , initially at the invitation of the local rulers, then under alliances and conflicts. Contemporary sources mention places such as Dahistan , Farawa and Nasa , as well as Sarakhs , all in present-day Turkmenistan. Around 1034, Tughril and Chaghri were soundly defeated by

6171-406: The Ortoqids and marched out of Edessa with almost his entire army to support the Ortoqid army against Aleppo. Zengi, already seeking to take advantage of Fulk's death in 1143, hurried north to besiege Edessa , which fell to him after a month on 24 December 1144. Manasses of Hierges , Philip of Milly and others were sent from Jerusalem to assist, but arrived too late. Joscelin II continued to rule

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6292-495: The Pope of an eastern Christian king, who, it was hoped, would bring relief to the crusader states: this is the first documented mention of Prester John . Eugene did not control Rome and lived instead at Viterbo , but nevertheless the Second Crusade was meant to be more organized and centrally controlled than the First: the armies would be led by the strongest kings of Europe and a route would be planned beforehand. The Pope commissioned French abbot Bernard of Clairvaux to preach

6413-523: The Pope) to act as one of the regents during the king's absence on crusade. In Germany, further preaching was done by Adam of Ebrach , and Otto of Freising also took the cross. The Germans planned to set out at Easter , but did not leave until May. The German crusaders, accompanied by the papal legate and cardinal Theodwin , intended to meet the French in Constantinople . Ottokar III of Styria joined Conrad at Vienna , and Conrad's enemy Géza II of Hungary allowed them to pass through unharmed. When

6534-482: The Second Crusade has been largely erased with historians and chroniclers loyal to the Zengids giving the credit to Anur's rival, Nur ad-Din Zengi , the amir of Aleppo. The German contingent comprised about 20,000 knights; the French contingent had about 700 knights from the king's lands while the nobility raised smaller numbers of knights; and the Kingdom of Jerusalem had about 950 knights and 6,000 infantrymen. The French knights preferred to fight on horseback, while

6655-441: The Second Crusade, and granted the same indulgences for it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Crusade. A parliament was convoked at Vezelay in Burgundy in 1146, and Bernard preached before the assembly on 31 March. Louis VII of France , his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine , and the princes and lords present prostrated themselves at the feet of Bernard to receive the pilgrims' cross. Bernard then passed into Germany, and

6776-411: The Seljuk Empire. While the Maliknama was compiled from Turkic oral accounts, it was written in Persian and Arabic languages. Steppe traditions influenced Seljuk marriages, with Tughril marrying his brother Chaghri 's widow, a practice despised in Islam . Seljuk ceremonies were based on the Abbasid model, but sometimes ancient Iranian ceremonies were observed. During a night in 1091, all of Baghdad

6897-426: The Seljuk leadership otherwise functioned as a triumvirate and thus included Musa Yabghu , the uncle of the aforementioned two. During the formative phase of the empire, the Seljuks first advanced from their original homelands near the Aral Sea into Khorasan and then into the Iranian mainland , where they would become largely based as a Persianate society . They then moved west to conquer Baghdad , filling up

7018-443: The Seljuk state expanded in various directions, to the former Iranian border of the days before the Arab invasion, so that it soon bordered China in the east and the Byzantines in the west. Malik Shah's brother Tutush defended Seljuk' interests in Syria in the battle of Ain Salm against Suleiman ibn Qutalmish who had started to carve out an independent state in Anatolia. Nevertheless, despite various attempts to bring afterwards

7139-461: The Seljuk sultans used the Sasanian title of shahanshah (King of Kings), and even used the old Buyid title of "Shahanshah of Islam." The title of malik was used by lesser princes of the Seljuk family. Like the caliphate, the Seljuks relied on a refined Persian bureaucracy. The settlement of Turkic tribes in the northwestern peripheral parts of the empire, for the strategic military purpose of fending off invasions from neighboring states, led to

7260-462: The Seljuks were repulsed by Mahmud and retired to Khwarezm , but Tughril and Chaghri led them to capture Merv and Nishapur (1037–1038). Later they repeatedly raided and traded territory with Mahmud's successor, Mas'ud, across Khorasan and Balkh . In 1040, at the Battle of Dandanaqan , Seljuks decisively defeated Mas'ud I of Ghazni , forcing him to abandon most of his western territories. Afterwards, Turkmens employed Khorasanians and set up

7381-588: The Seljuqs and called for an alliance with Roger II and an attack on Constantinople, but Louis restrained them. When the armies from Savoy, Auvergne and Montferrat joined Louis in Constantinople, having taken the land route through Italy and crossing from Brindisi to Durazzo , the entire army took ship across the Bosporus to Asia Minor . The Greeks were encouraged by rumours that the Germans had captured Iconium (Konya), but Manuel refused to give Louis any Byzantine troops. Roger II of Sicily had just invaded Byzantine territory, and Manuel needed all his army in

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7502-405: The Turks, who had also burned the land to prevent the French from replenishing their food, both for themselves and their horses. Louis no longer wanted to continue by land, and it was decided to gather a fleet at Attalia and to sail for Antioch. After being delayed for a month by storms, most of the promised ships did not arrive at all. Louis and his associates claimed the ships for themselves, while

7623-409: The city. Most of the crusaders settled in the newly captured city, but some of them set sail and continued to the Holy Land. Some of them, who had departed earlier, helped capture Santarém earlier in the same year. Later they also helped to conquer Sintra , Almada , Palmela and Setúbal , and they were allowed to stay in the conquered lands, where they settled down and had offspring. Elsewhere on

7744-442: The command of Alfonso Jordan , Count of Toulouse . Alfonso himself did not reach Jerusalem; he died at Caesarea , supposedly poisoned by Raymond II of Tripoli , the nephew who feared his political aspirations in the county. The claim that Raymond had poisoned Alfonso caused much of the Provençal force to turn back and return home. The original focus of the crusade was Edessa , but the preferred target of King Baldwin III and of

7865-505: The crusaders. After pillaging the County of Edessa , Seljuk commander Ilghazi made peace with the Crusaders. In 1121 he went north towards Georgia and with supposedly up to 250,000 – 350,000 troops, including men led by his son-in-law Sadaqah and Sultan Malik of Ganja , he invaded the Kingdom of Georgia . David IV of Georgia gathered 40,000 Georgian warriors, including 5,000 monaspa guards, 15,000 Kipchaks , 300 Alans and 100 French Crusaders to fight against Ilghazi 's vast army. At

7986-452: The crusading forces which had aided the Portuguese in the capture of Lisbon were encouraged to participate in the proposed siege of Tortosa (1148) by the Count of Barcelona and the English Papal envoy Nicholas Breakspear . In December 1148, he captured Tortosa after a five-month siege again with the help of French, Rhenish, Flemish, Anglo-Normans and Genoese crusaders. A large number of crusader forces were rewarded with lands inside and in

8107-440: The dominant power in the region, but the Mongol invasion in 1219–1220 soon destroyed it. The Sultanate of Rum, the last remnants of the Seljuks in Anatolia, ended too with the Mongol invasions of Anatolia through the 1260s, and was divided into small emirates called ' beyliks '. One of these, the Ottomans , would eventually rise to power and conquer the rest. Seljuk power was indeed at its zenith under Malikshāh I, and both

8228-430: The east by the Khwarazmian Empire in 1194 and the Zengids and Ayyubids in the west. The last surviving Seljuk sultanate to fall was the Sultanate of Rum , which fell in 1308. The founder of the dynasty was Seljuk, a warlord, who belonged to the Qiniq tribe of Oghuz Turks . He led his clan to the banks of the Syr Darya river, near city of Jend , where they converted to Islam in 985. Khwarezm, administered by

8349-408: The first contingents of crusaders left from Dartmouth in England for the Holy Land . Bad weather forced the ships to stop on the Portuguese coast, at the northern city of Porto on 16 June 1147. There they were convinced to meet with King Afonso I of Portugal . The crusaders agreed to help the King attack Lisbon , with a solemn agreement that offered to them the pillage of the city's goods and

8470-452: The first madrasa in Baghdad, in 1063, called the Nizamiya . In the madrasas he built, he patronized Shafi'is. The vizier Taj al-Mulk and Malik-shah's widow, Terken Khatun, patronized the building of a madrasa to compete with Nazim's Nizamiya . The region of Iraq was under the control of the Seljuk Empire from 1055 to 1135, since the Oghuz Turk Tughril Beg had expelled the Shiite Buyid dynasty . Tughril Beg entered Baghdad in 1055 and

8591-407: The fortress of Kars . A retaliatory strike by the Seljuk Amir Ahmad defeated the Georgians at Kvelistsikhe . Alp Arslan authorized his Turkoman generals to carve their own principalities out of formerly Byzantine Anatolia, as atabegs loyal to him. Within two years the Turkmens had established control as far as the Aegean Sea under numerous beyliks : the Saltukids in Northeastern Anatolia,

8712-634: The greatest advocate of Iranian orientation for the Seljuk empire, admitted the debt dynasty owed to the Turkmens. After the establishment of the Seljuk state, Turkmens continued to be the driving force behind the Seljuk expansion in Anatolia . After the rule of Malik-Shah I, however, there are very few mentions of Turkmens in the Jibali region of the state, especially in their traditional axis of Rayy , Hamadhan and Hulwan . Second Crusade In

8833-480: The host of Yelu Dashi at the Battle of Qatwan on September 9, 1141. While Sanjar managed to escape with his life, many of his close kin including his wife were taken captive in the battle's aftermath. As a result of Sanjar's failure to deal with the encroaching threat from the east, the Seljuk Empire lost all its eastern provinces up to the river Syr Darya , and vassalage of the Western Kara-Khanids

8954-623: The influence of the Buyid dynasty , under a commission from the Abbasid caliph. Iraq would remain under the control of the Seljuk Turks until 1135. Alp Arslan, the son of Chaghri Beg, expanded significantly upon Tughril's holdings by adding Armenia and Georgia in 1064 and invading the Byzantine Empire in 1068, from which he annexed almost all of Anatolia. Arslan's decisive victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 effectively neutralized

9075-530: The key to power in Syria, contested between Mosul and Damascus . Both Zengi and Baldwin II of Jerusalem turned their attention towards Damascus; Baldwin was defeated outside the great city in 1129. Damascus, ruled by the Burid dynasty , later allied with King Fulk when Zengi besieged the city in 1139 and 1140; the alliance was negotiated by the chronicler Usamah ibn Munqidh . In late 1144, Joscelin II allied with

9196-462: The leading member of the paramount family assigned to family members portions of his domains as autonomous appanages. Seljuks exercised full control over Islamic Central Asia and the Middle East between 1040 and 1157. For most of its history, the empire was split into a western and eastern half and did not have a single capital or political center. In the east, the chief seat of Seljuk rule

9317-659: The marriage between Louis and Eleanor. Louis quickly left Antioch for Tripoli with Eleanor under arrest. Meanwhile, Otto of Freising and the remnant of his troops arrived in Jerusalem early in April, and Conrad soon after. Fulk , the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem , was sent to invite Louis to join them. The fleet that had stopped at Lisbon arrived around this time, as well as the Provençals who had left Europe under

9438-558: The most prominent development of Malik Shah's rule was the continuous increase in the power of the Nizām al-Mulk. Some contemporary chroniclers refer to the period as "al-dawla al-Nizamiyya", the Nizam's state, while modern scholars have mentioned him as "the real ruler of the Seljuq empire". The 14-century biographer Subki claimed that Nizām al-Mulk's vizierate was "not just a vizierate, it was above

9559-457: The new crusade bull was poor, and it in fact had to be reissued when it was clear that Louis VII of France would be taking part in the expedition. Louis VII had also been considering a new expedition independently of the Pope, which he announced to his Christmas court at Bourges in 1145. It is debatable whether Louis was planning a crusade of his own or in fact a pilgrimage, as he wanted to fulfill

9680-613: The nomadic invasion of the Kara-Khitais in the east. The advancing Kara-Khitais first defeated the Eastern Kara-Khanids, then followed up by crushing the Western Kara-Khanids, who were vassals of the Seljuks at Khujand . The Kara-Khanids turned to their Seljuk overlords for assistance, to which Sanjar responded by personally leading an army against the Kara-Khitai. However, Sanjar's army was decisively defeated by

9801-482: The opportunity to plunder the cities of Greece, but Conrad did not agree, despite being a fellow enemy of Roger. In Asia Minor, Conrad decided not to wait for the French, but marched towards Iconium , capital of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm . Conrad split his army into two divisions. Much of the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the western provinces of Asia Minor was more nominal than real, with much of

9922-533: The papal bull, and Eugene enthusiastically supported Louis's crusade. The bull was reissued on 1 March 1146, and Eugene authorized Bernard to preach the news throughout France. After the First Crusade and the minor Crusade of 1101 , there were three crusader states established in the east: the Kingdom of Jerusalem , the Principality of Antioch and the County of Edessa . A fourth, the County of Tripoli ,

10043-644: The power vacuum that had been caused by struggles between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Iranian Buyid Empire . The subsequent Seljuk expansion into eastern Anatolia triggered the Byzantine–Seljuk wars , with the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 marking a decisive turning point in the conflict in favour of the Seljuks, undermining the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the remaining parts of Anatolia and gradually enabling

10164-645: The problem and quiet the mobs. Bernard then found Rudolf in Mainz and was able to silence him, returning him to his monastery. In the spring of 1147, the Pope authorized the expansion of the crusade into the Iberian Peninsula , in the context of the Reconquista . He also authorized Alfonso VII of León and Castile to equate his campaigns against the Moors with the rest of the Second Crusade. In May 1147,

10285-572: The progress of the army of the subsequent Princes' Crusade (First Crusade), which took important cities such as Nicaea ( İznik ), Iconium (Konya) , Caesarea Mazaca ( Kayseri ), and Antioch ( Antakya ) on its march to Jerusalem ( Al-Quds ). In 1099 the crusaders finally captured the Holy Land and set up the first Crusader states . The Seljuks had already lost Jerusalem to the Fatimids , who had recaptured it in 1098 just before its capture by

10406-519: The progressive Turkicization of those areas. According to the 12th-century poet Nizami Aruzi , all of the Seljuk sultans had a liking for poetry, which is also demonstrated by the large compilation of Persian verses written under their patronage. This had already started under Tughril, who was praised in Arabic and Persian by poets such as Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani and Bakharzi, albeit he could not understand

10527-476: The provinces being a no-man's land controlled by Turkish nomads. Conrad underestimated the length of the march against Anatolia, and anyhow assumed that the authority of Emperor Manuel was greater in Anatolia than was in fact the case. Conrad took the knights and the best troops with himself to march overland while sending the camp followers with Otto of Freising to follow the coastal road. The Seljuqs almost totally destroyed King Conrad's party on 25 October 1147 at

10648-459: The ransom money for expected prisoners. However, some of the crusader forces were hesitant to help, remembering a previous failed attempt on the city by a combined force of Portuguese and northern crusaders during the Siege of Lisbon (1142) . The siege of Lisbon of 1147 lasted from 1 July to 25 October when, after four months, the Moorish rulers agreed to surrender, primarily due to hunger within

10769-522: The region's Turkification . The Seljuk Empire united the fractured political landscape in the non-Arab eastern parts of the Muslim world and played a key role in both the First and Second Crusades ; it also bore witness to in the creation and expansion of multiple artistic movements during this period By the 1140s, the Seljuk Empire began to decline in power and influence, and was eventually supplanted in

10890-591: The remnants of the county from Turbessel , but little by little the rest of the territory was captured by Muslims or sold to the Byzantines. Zengi himself was praised throughout Islam as "defender of the faith" and al-Malik al-Mansur , "the victorious king". He did not pursue an attack on the remaining territory of Edessa, or the Principality of Antioch, as was feared. Events in Mosul compelled him to return home, and he once again set his sights on Damascus. However, he

11011-554: The remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill-advised attack on Damascus , which ended in their retreat. In the end, the crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century. While the Second Crusade failed to achieve its goals in

11132-407: The reported miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubtedly contributed to the success of his mission. At Speyer, Conrad III of Germany and his nephew, later Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa , received the cross from the hand of Bernard. Pope Eugene came in person to France to encourage the enterprise. For all his overmastering zeal, Bernard was by nature neither a bigot nor

11253-546: The rest of the army had to resume the long march to Antioch. The army was almost entirely destroyed, either by the Turks or by sickness. Though delayed by storms, Louis eventually arrived in Antioch on 19 March; Amadeus of Savoy had died in Cyprus along the way. Louis was welcomed by Eleanor's uncle Raymond of Poitiers . Raymond expected him to help defend against the Turks and to accompany him on an expedition against Aleppo,

11374-472: The reverse and Kilij Arslan II 's name and title on the obverse. This coin was most likely indicates a numismatic symbol of servitude to Kilij Arslan II , during the time Şahinşah seized control in Divrigi. Although it is not dated, a second type of Şahinşah coin lacks the name of the Seljuk sultan. This type likely refers to the time just after Kilij Arslan II's death in 1192, when the sultan's sons engaged in

11495-456: The same area. Resuming the march, the vanguard under Amadeus of Savoy became separated from the rest of the army at the Battle of Mount Cadmus , where Louis's troops suffered heavy losses from the Turks (6 January 1148). Louis himself, according to Odo of Deuil , climbed a rock and was ignored by the Turks, who did not recognize him. The Turks did not bother to attack further and the French marched on to Attalia , continually harassed from afar by

11616-580: The same time, the son of Suleiman ibn Qutalmish , Kilij Arslan I , escaped Malikshāh's imprisonment and claimed authority in the former lands of his father . In Persia , Malikshāh's four year old son Mahmud I was proclaimed sultan but his reign was contested by his three brothers Barkiyaruq in Iraq , Muhammad I in Baghdad , and Ahmad Sanjar in Khorasan . Additionally, Malikshāh's brother Tutush I made

11737-453: The sultanate". The Assassins ( Hashshashin ) of Hassan-i Sabāh started to become a force during his era, however, and they assassinated many leading figures in his administration; according to many sources these victims included Nizām al-Mulk. Ahmad was the son of Malik Shah I and initially took part in wars of succession against his three brothers and a nephew: Mahmud I , Barkiyaruq , Malik Shah II and Muhammad I Tapar . In 1096, he

11858-412: The throne, and Mahmud II proclaimed himself Sultan and established a capital in Baghdad, until 1131 when he was finally officially deposed by Ahmad Sanjar. Elsewhere in nominal Seljuk territory were the Artuqids in northeastern Syria and northern Mesopotamia ; they controlled Jerusalem until 1098. The Dānišmand dynasty founded a state in eastern Anatolia and northern Syria and contested land with

11979-549: The various Turkish warlords in Anatolia under control, they largerly maintained their independence. Malikshāh was the one who moved the capital from Ray to Isfahan . The Iqta military system and the Nizāmīyyah University at Baghdad were established by Nizām al-Mulk, and the reign of Malikshāh was reckoned the golden age of "Great Seljuk". The Abbasid caliph titled him "The Sultan of the East and West" in 1087. Internally,

12100-511: The verses. The last Seljuk sultan Tughril III was well known for his Persian poetry. The Saljuq-nama of Zahir al-Din Nishapuri , which was most likely dedicated to Tughril III, indicates that the Seljuk family now used Persian to communicate, and even were taught about the achievements of their forefathers in that language. Tughril relied on his vizier to translate from Arabic and Persian into Turkic for him, and Oghuz songs were sung at

12221-578: The vicinity of the newly captured city. The next year, Fraga , Lleida and Mequinenza in the confluence of the Segre and Ebro rivers fell to his army . The professional soldiers of the Muslim states, who were usually ethnic Turks , tended to be very well-trained and equipped. The basis of the military system in the Islamic Middle East was the iqta' system of fiefs, which supported

12342-456: The vizierate of Nizam al-Mulk. It was under the vizierate of al-Kunduri that the Islamic scholar, Al-Juwayni was forced to flee to Mecca and Medina. In 1065, Alp Arslan campaigned against the Kingdom of Georgia , subjugated Tbilisi , and built a mosque in the city. In 1092, Malik-shah built the Jami al-Sultan Mosque in Baghdad . At the capital, Isfahan, Malik-shah had constructed a madrasa,

12463-599: The warnings of a Turkish attack, marched out from Ephesus with the French and German survivors. The Turks were indeed waiting to attack, but in at the Battle of Ephesus on 24 December 1147, the French proved victorious. The French fended off another Turkish ambush at the Battle of the Meander in the same month. They reached Laodicea on the Lycus early in January 1148, just after Otto of Freising's army had been destroyed in

12584-615: The wedding of Tughril to the caliph's daughter. Later sultans, like Mahmud , could speak Arabic alongside Persian, however, they still used Turkic among themselves. The most significant evidence of the importance of Turkic language is the extensive Turkic–Arabic dictionary, or the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk , assembled in Baghdad for Caliph al-Muqtadi by Mahmud al-Kashgari . However, besides the Diwan, no works written in Turkic language survive from

12705-613: Was Marv in present-day Turkmenistan . In the west, various cities, where the Seljuk rulers lived periodically, served as capitals: Rayy , Isfahan , Baghdad , and, later, Hamadan . These western lands were known as the Sultanate of Iraq. After 1118, the Seljuk rulers of Iraq recognized the suzerainty of the Seljuk sultan Sanjar , who mostly ruled from Marv, and was known by the title of al-sultān al-a'zam, 'the Greatest Sultan'. The Seljuk rulers of Iraq were often mentioned as

12826-572: Was Mu'in al-Din Anur , the atabeg of Damascus from 1138 to 1149. Damascus was supposedly ruled by the Burid amirs of Damascus, but Anur, who commanded the military, was the real ruler of the city. The historian David Nicolle described Anur as an able general and diplomat, also well known as a patron of the arts. Because the Burid dynasty was displaced in 1154 by the Zengid dynasty , Anur's role in repulsing

12947-483: Was assassinated by a slave in 1146 and was succeeded in Aleppo by his son Nur ad-Din . The news of the fall of Edessa was brought back to Europe first by pilgrims early in 1145, and then by embassies from Antioch, Jerusalem and Armenia. Bishop Hugh of Jabala reported the news to Pope Eugene III , who issued the bull Quantum praedecessores on 1 December of that year, calling for a second crusade. Hugh also told

13068-401: Was also intermittent, and after the First Crusade increasingly independent atabegs would frequently ally with the Crusader states against other atabegs as they vied with each other for territory. At Mosul, Zengi succeeded Kerbogha as atabeg and successfully began the process of consolidating the atabegs of Syria. In 1144 Zengi captured Edessa , as the County of Edessa had allied itself with

13189-411: Was also the first to fall. The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III , and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany , with help from a number of other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia , both armies were separately defeated by

13310-500: Was an enemy of Conrad. Many of the French nobles distrusted the land route, which would take them through the Byzantine Empire, the reputation of which still suffered from the accounts of the First Crusaders. Nevertheless, the French decided to follow Conrad, and to set out on 15 June. Roger II took offence and refused to participate any longer. In France, Abbot Suger was elected by a great council at Étampes (and appointed by

13431-547: Was built in the same year by Turan Melik, daughter of the Mengüjek ruler of Erzincan, Fahreddin Behram Shah. Both buildings are on UNESCO 's World Heritage List . Sayf al-Din Şahinşah's coinage, of which there are three known varieties in copper, captures the essence of Seljuk dominance as it was felt in Divrigi in late twelfth-century Anatolia. The earliest type, which dates to 1171-2, is inscribed with Şahinşah's name on

13552-460: Was destroyed by the Mongols led by Tolui , who sacked the city of Merv in 1221, killing 700,000 people according to contemporary sources during their catastrophic invasion of Khwarazm ; however, modern scholarship holds such figures to be exaggerated. When Malikshāh I died in 1092, the empire split as his brother and four sons quarrelled over the apportioning of the empire among themselves. At

13673-493: Was dissuaded by his subjects from joining the crusade himself. Joscelin II retook the town of Edessa and besieged the citadel following Zengi's murder, but Nur ad-Din defeated him in November 1146. On 16 February 1147, the French crusaders met at Étampes to discuss their route. The Germans had already decided to travel overland through Hungary; they regarded the sea route as politically impractical because Roger II of Sicily

13794-490: Was established in 1109. Edessa was the most northerly of these, and also the weakest and least populated; as such, it was subject to frequent attacks from the surrounding Muslim states ruled by the Ortoqids , Danishmends and Seljuq Turks . Baldwin II , then count of Edessa, and future count Joscelin of Courtenay were taken captive after their defeat at the Battle of Harran in 1104. Baldwin and Joscelin were both captured

13915-486: Was lit with candles under the orders of Malik-Shah I, which resembled the Zoroastrian ritual of sadhak . In 985, the Seljuks migrated to the city of Jend where they converted to Islam. The arrival of the Seljuk Turks into Persia, and their patronage of constructing madrasas, allowed for Sunni Islam to become the dominant sect of Islam. Until the death of Sultan Sanjar, the Seljuks were pious Sunnis, and represented

14036-700: Was named Governor of Mosul, where the Atabegdom of Mosul was formed. The Seljuk control of the Abassids ended in 1135, with direct military confrontation between the Abassids and the Seljuks: after rebuilding the walls of Baghdad and recreating a Caliphal after many centuries, Al-Mustarshid confronted the subordinate Seljuk Sultan of Iraq Mas'ud in battle. The caliph lost and was taken prisoner, and died in captivity in 1135, but conflicts continued with Al-Mustarshid's successors. Mas'ud briefly recaptured Baghdad in

14157-559: Was restricted to the only rule of Iraq, while Sanjar took control of the rest of the Empire. In order to counter the ambitions of Abbasid Caliph al-Mustarshid (1118–1135), who wanted to acquire world dominance, in 1124 Mahmūd granted the city of Wasit to Imad al-Din Zengi as an ıqta , and conferred him the Military Governorship of Basra together with Baghdad and the whole of Iraq in 1126. In 1127, Imad al-Din Zengi

14278-420: Was tasked to govern the province of Khorasan by his brother Muhammad I. Over the next several years, Ahmad Sanjar became the ruler of most of Iran (Persia), and eventually in 1118, the sole ruler of the Great Seljuk Empire, but with a subordinate Sultan in Iraq in the person of Mahmud II . In 1141, Ahmad marched to eliminate the threat posed by Kara Khitans and faced them in the vicinity of Samarkand at

14399-560: Was the Sultan of all Seljuk lands except for Anatolia. He spent his reign conquering cities, destroying the citadel of Ray in the process, but was unable to hold any cities long enough to rebuild them. Toghrul III, however, was defeated by Ala al-Din Tekish , Shah of Khwarazmian Empire , and the Seljuk Empire finally collapsed in 1194. Of the former Empire, only the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia remained. The Khwarazmian Empire took over as

14520-690: Was the first Seljuk ruler to style himself Sultan and Protector of the Abbasid Caliphate. From that time, the Abassids were only "puppets" in the hands of the Seljuks. In 1058, the Abassid Caliph granted to Tughril the title of "King of East and West", officially becoming the temporal protector of Abassid Caliph Qa'im . Iraq remained under the control of the Great Seljuks during the reign of Muhammad I Tapar (1082–1118 CE), but from 1119, his 14 years old son Mahmud II (1118–1131)

14641-722: Was usurped by the Kara-Khitai, otherwise known as the Western Liao in Chinese historiography. In 1153, the Oghuz Turks rebelled and captured Sanjar. He managed to escape after three years but died a year later. The Atabegs, such as the Zengids and Artuqids , were only nominally under the Seljuk Sultan, and generally controlled Syria independently. When Sanjar died in 1157, the empire fractured even further and rendered

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