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65-652: The Migratory Birds Convention Act (also MBCA ) is a Canadian law established in 1917 and significantly updated in June 1994 which contains regulations to protect migratory birds , their eggs, and their nests from destruction by hunting , trafficking and commercialization. A permit is required to engage in any of these activities. In 1909, the federal government established the Advisory Board on Wildlife Protection, which notably included C.G. Hewitt and James Harkin as prominent members. This board would go on to sign

130-1284: A barrier, and detours avoiding such barriers are observed. For example, brent geese Branta bernicla bernicla migrating between the Taymyr Peninsula and the Wadden Sea travel via low-lying coastal feeding-areas on the White Sea and the Baltic Sea rather than directly across the Arctic Ocean and the Scandinavian mainland. Great snipes make non-stop flights of 4,000–7,000 km, lasting 60–90 h, during which they change their average cruising heights from 2,000 m (above sea level) at night to around 4,000 m during daytime. A similar situation occurs with waders (called shorebirds in North America). Many species, such as dunlin Calidris alpina and western sandpiper Calidris mauri , undertake long movements from their Arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in

195-556: A chalk cliff collapse "while he was a schoolboy at Brighthelmstone", though the man denied being an eyewitness. However, he writes that "as to swallows being found in a torpid state during the winter in the Isle of Wight or any part of this country, I never heard any such account worth attending to", and that if early swallows "happen to find frost and snow they immediately withdraw for a time—a circumstance this much more in favour of hiding than migration", since he doubts they would "return for

260-642: A chick on the Farne Islands in Northumberland off the British east coast, reached Melbourne , Australia in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (12,000 nmi), while another also from the Farne Islands with a light level geolocator tag 'G82' covered a staggering 96,000 km (52,000 nmi) in just 10 months from the end of one breeding season to

325-550: A founding member. He edited its journal, The Auk , and several other ornithological periodicals. His work was instrumental in establishing the currently accepted standards of trinomial nomenclature  – the taxonomic classification of subspecies – in ornithology, and ultimately the whole of zoology. During 1873–1876 Coues was attached as surgeon and naturalist to the United States Northern Boundary Commission, and from 1876 to 1880 he

390-491: A specified set of birds in that area, but does not protect the land or water features. To establish complete habitat protection , the more stringent requirements of the Canada Wildlife Act are necessary. Bird migration Bird migration is a seasonal movement of birds between breeding and wintering grounds that occurs twice a year. It is typically from north to south or from south to north. Migration

455-778: A theory to explain the phenomenon, publishing an article about his telekinetic theory of levitation in the first issue of The Metaphysical Magazine (1895). Coues joined the Theosophical Society in July, 1884. He visited Helena Blavatsky in Europe. He founded the Gnostic Theosophical Society of Washington, and in 1890 became the president of the Theosophical Society. He later became highly critical of Blavatsky and lost interest in

520-468: A timing mechanism, instead moving in response to local weather conditions. Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria and white-throated dipper Cinclus cinclus , may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as merlin Falco columbarius and Eurasian skylark Alauda arvensis move further, to the coast or towards the south. Species like

585-426: A week or two to warmer latitudes". Only at the end of the eighteenth century was migration accepted as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes. Thomas Bewick 's A History of British Birds (Volume 1, 1797) mentions a report from "a very intelligent master of a vessel" who, "between the islands of Menorca and Majorca , saw great numbers of Swallows flying northward", and states

650-627: Is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning. The primary physiological cue for migration is the changes in the day length. These changes are related to hormonal changes in the birds. In the period before migration, many birds display higher activity or Zugunruhe ( German : migratory restlessness ), first described by Johann Friedrich Naumann in 1795, as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition. The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage-raised birds with no environmental cues (e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature) has pointed to

715-483: Is alterable with selective breeding. Many migration routes of long-distance migratory birds are circuitous due to evolutionary history: the breeding range of Northern wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe has expanded to cover the entire Northern Hemisphere, but the species still migrates up to 14,500 km to reach ancestral wintering grounds in sub-Saharan Africa rather than establish new wintering grounds closer to breeding areas. A migration route often does not follow

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780-576: Is an example of leap-frog migration . Many fully migratory species show leap-frog migration (birds that nest at higher latitudes spend the winter at lower latitudes), and many show the alternative, chain migration, where populations 'slide' more evenly north and south without reversing the order. Within a population, it is common for different ages and/or sexes to have different patterns of timing and distance. Female chaffinches Fringilla coelebs in Eastern Fennoscandia migrate earlier in

845-695: Is clockwise migration, where birds flying North tend to be further West, and flying South tend to shift Eastwards. Many, if not most, birds migrate in flocks. For larger birds, flying in flocks reduces the energy cost. Geese in a V formation may conserve 12–20% of the energy they would need to fly alone. Red knots Calidris canutus and dunlins Calidris alpina were found in radar studies to fly 5 km/h (2.5 kn) faster in flocks than when they were flying alone. Birds fly at varying altitudes during migration. An expedition to Mt. Everest found skeletons of northern pintail Anas acuta and black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa at 5,000 m (16,000 ft) on

910-665: Is evidence that this enables the migrants to obtain more of their preferred foods such as fruits. Altitudinal migration is common on mountains worldwide, such as in the Himalayas and the Andes . Dusky grouse in Colorado migrate less than a kilometer away from their summer grounds to winter sites which may be higher or lower by about 400 m in altitude than the summer sites. Many bird species in arid regions across southern Australia are nomadic; they follow water and food supply around

975-536: Is inherently risky, due to predation and mortality. The Arctic tern holds the long-distance migration record for birds, travelling between Arctic breeding grounds and the Antarctic each year. Some species of tubenoses , such as albatrosses , circle the Earth, flying over the southern oceans, while others such as Manx shearwaters migrate 14,000 km (8,700 mi) between their northern breeding grounds and

1040-508: Is known as "partial migration". Partial migration is very common in the southern continents; in Australia, 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerine species are partially migratory. In some species, the population at higher latitudes tends to be migratory and will often winter at lower latitude. The migrating birds bypass the latitudes where other populations may be sedentary, where suitable wintering habitats may already be occupied. This

1105-477: The Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay . Some bar-tailed godwits Limosa lapponica baueri have the longest known non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km from Alaska to their New Zealand non-breeding areas. Prior to migration, 55 percent of their bodyweight is stored as fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey. Seabird migration is similar in pattern to those of the waders and waterfowl. Some, such as

1170-711: The Bosphorus at migration times. More common species, such as the European honey buzzard Pernis apivorus , can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants, as in the Central American migratory bottleneck. The Batumi bottleneck in the Caucasus is one of the heaviest migratory funnels on earth, created when hundreds of thousands of soaring birds avoid flying over

1235-531: The Khumbu Glacier . Bar-headed geese Anser indicus have been recorded by GPS flying at up to 6,540 m (21,460 ft) while crossing the Himalayas, at the same time engaging in the highest rates of climb to altitude for any bird. Anecdotal reports of them flying much higher have yet to be corroborated with any direct evidence. Seabirds fly low over water but gain altitude when crossing land, and

1300-662: The Migratory Bird Convention with the United States because of concern both countries had regarding the uncontrolled hunting of waterfowl and shorebirds . The original MBCA law was passed to satisfy the terms of this agreement with the United States . The updated version includes stronger enforcement and greater penalties. A geographical area may be designated as a Migratory Bird Refuge under this convention; this restricts activities targeting

1365-515: The black guillemot Cepphus grylle and some gulls , are quite sedentary; others, such as most terns and auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move varying distances south in the northern winter. The Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic non-breeding areas. One Arctic tern, ringed (banded) as

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1430-798: The dark-eyed junco migrates from subarctic and arctic climates to the contiguous United States and the American goldfinch from taiga to wintering grounds extending from the American South northwestward to Western Oregon . Some ducks, such as the garganey Anas querquedula , move completely or partially into the tropics. The European pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca follows this migratory trend, breeding in Asia and Europe and wintering in Africa. Migration routes and wintering grounds are both genetically and traditionally determined depending on

1495-503: The turtle dove , the swift and the crane keep the time of their arrival." In the Pacific, traditional land-finding techniques used by Micronesians and Polynesians suggest that bird migration was observed and interpreted for more than 3,000 years. In Samoan tradition, for example, Tagaloa sent his daughter Sina to Earth in the form of a bird, Tuli, to find dry land, the word tuli referring specifically to land-finding waders, often to

1560-531: The 'tubenose' order Procellariiformes , are great wanderers, and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the " Roaring Forties " outside the breeding season. The tubenoses spread widely over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many are among the longest-distance migrants; sooty shearwaters Puffinus griseus nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate 14,000 km (7,600 nmi) between

1625-800: The Black Sea surface and across high mountains. Birds of prey such as honey buzzards which migrate using thermals lose only 10 to 20% of their weight during migration, which may explain why they forage less during migration than do smaller birds of prey with more active flight such as falcons, hawks and harriers. From observing the migration of eleven soaring bird species over the Strait of Gibraltar, species which did not advance their autumn migration dates were those with declining breeding populations in Europe. Many long-distance migrants appear to be genetically programmed to respond to changing day length. Species that move short distances, however, may not need such

1690-586: The Coues' white-tailed deer is named after him. Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus couesi , a subspecies of the Cactus wren , is named after him and is specifically the state bird of Arizona, recognizing Coues' contributions to natural surveys of early Arizona. Coues took an interest in spiritualism and began speculations in Theosophy . He was a friend of Alfred Russel Wallace and they had attended séances with

1755-417: The Pacific golden plover. Aristotle, however, suggested that swallows and other birds hibernated. This belief persisted as late as 1878 when Elliott Coues listed the titles of no fewer than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows. Even the "highly observant" Gilbert White , in his posthumously published 1789 The Natural History of Selborne , quoted a man's story about swallows being found in

1820-640: The Southern Hemisphere) to overwinter; In contrast, among (pelagic) seabirds, species of the Southern Hemisphere are more likely to migrate. This is because there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, and more islands suitable for seabirds to nest. The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration

1885-697: The Theosophical movement. Coues wrote an attack on Blavatsky entitled "Blavatsky Unveiled!" in The Sun newspaper on July 20, 1890. The article prompted Blavatsky to file a legal suit against Coues and the newspaper but it was terminated as she died in 1891. He fell out with Theosophical leaders such as William Quan Judge and was expelled from the Theosophical Society in June 1899 for "untheosophical conduct". Coues retained interest in oriental religious thought and later studied Islam . Among his publications are: Coues also contributed numerous articles to

1950-405: The autumn passage of southbound passerine migrants, which it feeds to its young. A similar strategy is adopted by the greater noctule bat , which preys on nocturnal passerine migrants. The higher concentrations of migrating birds at stopover sites make them prone to parasites and pathogens, which require a heightened immune response. Within a species not all populations may be migratory; this

2015-778: The autumn than males do and the European tits of genera Parus and Cyanistes only migrate their first year. Most migrations begin with the birds starting off in a broad front. Often, this front narrows into one or more preferred routes termed flyways . These routes typically follow mountain ranges or coastlines, sometimes rivers, and may take advantage of updrafts and other wind patterns or avoid geographical barriers such as large stretches of open water. The specific routes may be genetically programmed or learned to varying degrees. The routes taken on forward and return migration are often different. A common pattern in North America

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2080-678: The breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway . Some Manx shearwaters Puffinus puffinus do this same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million kilometres (4.5 million nautical miles) during its over-50-year lifespan. Some large broad-winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many birds of prey such as vultures , eagles , and buzzards , but also storks . These birds migrate in

2145-488: The chaffinch are much less migratory in Britain than those of continental Europe, mostly not moving more than 5 km in their lives. Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those that have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the common chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita , are species of southern hemisphere origins that have progressively shortened their return migration to stay in

2210-455: The composition of a migrating flock, and can sometimes encode the sex of a migrating individual, and to avoid collision in the air. Nocturnal migration can be monitored using weather radar data, allowing ornithologists to estimate the number of birds migrating on a given night, and the direction of the migration. Future research includes the automatic detection and identification of nocturnally calling migrant birds. Nocturnal migrants land in

2275-553: The country in an irregular pattern, unrelated to season but related to rainfall. Several years may pass between visits to an area by a particular species. Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. Bohemian waxwings Bombycilla garrulus well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers, with five major arrivals in Britain during

2340-499: The daytime. Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances. Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as the Strait of Messina , Gibraltar , Falsterbo , and

2405-452: The difficulty of understanding the alleged abruptness of the transition from activity to torpor. I cannot consider the evidence as inadmissible, and must admit that the alleged facts are as well attested, according to ordinary rules of evidence, as any in ornithology. It is useless as well as unscientific to pooh-pooh the notion. The asserted facts are nearly identical with the known cases of many reptiles and batrachians. They are strikingly like

2470-809: The earliest evidence of long-distance stork migration. This bird was referred to as a Pfeilstorch , German for "Arrow stork". Since then, around 25 Pfeilstörche have been documented. Migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south, undertaken by many species of birds. Migration is marked by its annual seasonality and movement between breeding and non-breeding areas. Nonmigratory bird movements include those made in response to environmental changes including in food availability, habitat, or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular (nomadism, invasions, irruptions) or in only one direction (dispersal, movement of young away from natal area). Non-migratory birds are said to be resident or sedentary. Approximately 1,800 of

2535-412: The far south to support long-distance migration. The primary motivation for migration appears to be food; for example, some hummingbirds choose not to migrate if fed through the winter. In addition, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for breeding birds to feed their young. This helps diurnal birds to produce larger clutches than related non-migratory species that remain in

2600-649: The known cases of many bats. They accord in general with the recognized conditions of hibernation in many mammals. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1878. He resigned from the army in 1881 to devote himself entirely to scientific research. In 1899 he died in Baltimore, Maryland . Grace's warbler , a species of bird, was discovered by Elliott Coues in the Rocky Mountains in 1864. He requested that

2665-418: The local temperature to time their spring migration departure. Notably, departure responses to temperature varied between individuals but were individually repeatable (when tracked over multiple years). This suggests that individual use of temperature is a cue that allows for population-level adaptation to climate change . In other words, in a warming world, many migratory birds are predicted to depart earlier in

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2730-517: The loss. The typical image of migration is of northern land birds, such as swallows (Hirundinidae) and birds of prey, making long flights to the tropics. However, many Holarctic wildfowl and finch (Fringillidae) species winters in the North Temperate Zone , in regions with milder winters than their summer breeding grounds. For example, the pink-footed goose migrates from Iceland to Britain and neighbouring countries, whilst

2795-530: The medical school of that institution in 1863. He served as a medical cadet in Washington in 1862–1863, and in 1864 was appointed assistant-surgeon in the regular army, and assigned to Fort Whipple, Arizona . While there was not yet any legal provision for divorce under its laws, the 1st Arizona State Legislature granted Coues an annulment of his marriage to Sarah A. Richardson. His marriage to Jeannie Augusta McKenney ended in divorce in 1886, and he married

2860-460: The medium Pierre L. O. A. Keeler . He felt the inadequacy of formal orthodox science in dealing with the deeper problems of human life and destiny. Convinced by the principles of evolution , he believed that these principles may be capable of being applied in psychical research and he proposed to use it to explain obscure phenomena such as hypnotism , clairvoyance and telepathy . He claimed to have witnessed levitation of objects and developed

2925-427: The morning and may feed for a few days before resuming their migration. These birds are referred to as passage migrants in the regions where they occur for a short period between the origin and destination. Nocturnal migrants minimize depredation, avoid overheating, and can feed during the day. One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep. Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for

2990-502: The most direct line between breeding and wintering grounds. Rather, it could follow a hooked or arched line, with detours around geographical barriers or towards suitable stopover habitat. For most land birds, such barriers could consist of large water bodies or high mountain ranges, a lack of stopover or feeding sites, or a lack of thermal columns (important for broad-winged birds). Conversely, in water-birds , large areas of land without wetlands offering suitable feeding sites may present

3055-443: The new species be named after his 18-year-old sister, Grace Darling Coues, and his request was honored when Spencer Fullerton Baird described the species scientifically in 1865. In addition to ornithology he did valuable work in mammalogy; his book Fur-Bearing Animals (1877) being distinguished by the accuracy and completeness of its description of species, several of which were already becoming rare. Odocoileus virginianus couesi ,

3120-458: The nineteenth century, but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000. Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra too are irruptive, with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791. Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern Hemisphere phenomenon. This is because continental landmasses of the northern hemisphere are almost entirely temperate and subject to winter food shortages driving bird populations south (including

3185-456: The northern hemisphere. Species that have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings Bombycilla , are effectively moving in response to winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities. In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for a food supply, but altitudinal migration occurs in some tropical birds. There

3250-519: The result clearly proves, what is in fact now admitted on all hands, that Swallows do not in any material instance differ from other birds in their nature and propensities [for life in the air]; but that they leave us when this country can no longer furnish them with a supply of their proper and natural food ... In 1822, a white stork was found in the German state of Mecklenburg with an arrow made from central African hardwood, which provided some of

3315-902: The reverse pattern is seen in land birds. However most bird migration is in the range of 150 to 600 m (490–2,000 ft). Bird strike Aviation records from the United States show most collisions occur below 600 m (2,000 ft) and almost none above 1,800 m (5,900 ft). Bird migration is not limited to birds that can fly. Most species of penguin (Spheniscidae) migrate by swimming. These routes can cover over 1,000 km (550 nmi). Dusky grouse Dendragapus obscurus perform altitudinal migration mostly by walking. Emus Dromaius novaehollandiae in Australia have been observed to undertake long-distance movements on foot during droughts. During nocturnal migration ("nocmig" ), many birds give nocturnal flight calls, which are short, contact-type calls. These likely serve to maintain

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3380-446: The role of circannual endogenous programs in controlling bird migrations. Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature, changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course. Satellite tracking of 48 individual Asian houbaras ( Chlamydotis macqueenii ) across multiple migrations showed that this species uses

3445-428: The same hemisphere, but others such as semipalmated sandpiper C. pusilla travel longer distances to the tropics in the Southern Hemisphere. For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to refuel for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are

3510-468: The seasonal comings and goings of birds. Aristotle wrote that birds transmuted into other birds or species like fish and animals, which explained their disappearance and reappearance. Aristotle thought many birds disappeared during cold weather because they were torpid , undetected in unseen environments like tree hollows or burrowing down in mud found at the bottom of ponds, then reemerging months later. Still, Aristotle recorded that cranes traveled from

3575-509: The situation in Britain as follows: Swallows frequently roost at night, after they begin to congregate, by the sides of rivers and pools, from which circumstance it has been erroneously supposed that they retire into the water. Bewick then describes an experiment that succeeded in keeping swallows alive in Britain for several years, where they remained warm and dry through the winters. He concludes: These experiments have since been amply confirmed by ... M. Natterer , of Vienna ... and

3640-475: The social system of the species. In long-lived, social species such as white storks (Ciconia ciconia), flocks are often led by the oldest members and young storks learn the route on their first journey. In short-lived species that migrate alone, such as the Eurasian blackcap Sylvia atricapilla or the yellow-billed cuckoo Coccyzus americanus , first-year migrants follow a genetically determined route that

3705-528: The southern ocean. Shorter migrations are common, while longer ones are not. The shorter migrations include altitudinal migrations on mountains, including the Andes and Himalayas . The timing of migration seems to be controlled primarily by changes in day length. Migrating birds navigate using celestial cues from the Sun and stars, the Earth's magnetic field, and mental maps. Writings of ancient Greeks recognized

3770-718: The start of the next, travelling not just the length of the Atlantic Ocean and the width of the Indian Ocean, but also half way across the South Pacific to the boundary between the Ross and Amundsen Seas before returning back west along the Antarctic coast and back up the Atlantic. Many tubenosed birds breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter. The most pelagic species, mainly in

3835-572: The steppes of Scythia to marshes at the headwaters of the Nile , an observation repeated by Pliny the Elder in his Historia Naturalis . Two books of the Bible may address avian migration. The Book of Job notes migrations with the inquiry: "Is it by your insight that the hawk hovers, spreads its wings southward?" The Book of Jeremiah comments: "Even the stork in the heavens knows its seasons, and

3900-416: The tropics. As the days shorten in autumn, the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season. These advantages offset the high stress, physical exertion costs, and other risks of migration. Predation can be heightened during migration: Eleonora's falcon Falco eleonorae , which breeds on Mediterranean islands, has a very late breeding season, coordinated with

3965-698: The widow, Mary Emily Bates in October 1887. In 1872, he published his Key to North American Birds , which, revised and rewritten in 1884 and 1901, did much to promote the systematic study of ornithology in America. In 1883, he was one of three members of the Nuttall Ornithological Club that put out a call to form a "Union of American Ornithologists". This would become the American Ornithologists' Union , with Coues as

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4030-409: The world's 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants. Many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer and returning in the autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions to the south. Of course, in the southern hemisphere, the directions are reversed, but there is less land area in

4095-476: The year for their summer or winter destination. In polygynous species with considerable sexual dimorphism , males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites than their females. This is termed protandry. Elliott Coues Coues was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire , to Samuel Elliott Coues and Charlotte Haven Ladd Coues. He graduated at Columbian University , Washington, D.C. , in 1861, and at

4160-451: Was believed at the time: I have never seen anything of the sort, nor have I ever known one who had seen it; consequently, I know nothing of the case but what I have read about it. But I have no means of refuting the evidence, and consequently cannot refuse to recognize its validity. Nor have I aught to urge against it, beyond the degree of incredibility that attaches to highly exceptional and improbable allegations in general, and in particular

4225-834: Was secretary and naturalist to the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories , the publications of which he edited. He was lecturer on anatomy in the medical school of the Columbian University from 1877 to 1882, and professor of anatomy there from 1882 to 1887. He was a careful bibliographer and in his work on the Birds of the Colorado Valley , he included a special section on swallows and attempted to resolve whether they migrated in winter or hibernated under lakes as

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