197-1487: [REDACTED] Carthage 4th century BC– 201 BC [REDACTED] Roman Republic 123 BC–27 BC [REDACTED] Roman Empire 27 BC–455 Vandal Kingdom 455–534 Byzantine Empire 534–628 Umayyad state of Córdoba 903–1015 Taifa of Dénia 1015–1076 Taifa of Majorca 1076–1115 Almoravid Dynasty 1115–1158 Taifa of Majorca 1158–1203 [REDACTED] Almohad Dynasty 1203–1229 [REDACTED] Crown of Aragon ( Taifa of Menorca ) 1229/1231–1287 [REDACTED] Crown of Aragon 1287–1298 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Mallorca 1298–1343 [REDACTED] Crown of Aragon 1343–1708 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Great Britain 1708–1756 [REDACTED] Kingdom of France 1756–1763 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Great Britain 1763–1782 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Spain 1782–1798 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Great Britain 1798–1800 [REDACTED] United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 1801–1802 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Spain 1802–1808 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Spain 1813–1931 [REDACTED] Second Spanish Republic 1931–1939 [REDACTED] Spanish State 1939–1975/1982 [REDACTED] Spain 1982–present [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Balearic Islands 1983–present Menorca or Minorca (from Latin : Insula Minor , lit. 'smaller island', later Minorica )
394-752: A failed British relief attempt . The 1763 Treaty of Paris enabled the British to return to the island after Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War . In 1781, during the American War of Independence , the British were defeated for a second time , in this instance by a combination of French and Spanish forces, and on 5 January 1782 the Spanish regained control of the island, after a long siege of St. Philip's Castle in Port Mahon. The British ceded
591-545: A fleet and used a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme as a blueprint for their own. As novice shipwrights , the Romans built copies that were heavier than the Carthaginian vessels; thus they were slower and less manoeuvrable. Getting the oarsmen to row as a unit, let alone to execute more complex battle manoeuvres, required long and arduous training. At least half of the oarsmen would need to have had some experience if
788-583: A thalassocracy . Beginning in 480 BC Carthage fought a series of inconclusive wars against the Greek city-states of Sicily, led by Syracuse . By 264 BC Carthage was the dominant external power on the island, and Carthage and Rome were the preeminent powers in the western Mediterranean. Relationships were good, and the two states had several times declared their mutual friendship in formal alliances : in 509 BC, 348 BC and around 279 BC. There were strong commercial links. During
985-539: A viceroy and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal , in the early 220s BC and then his son, Hannibal, in 221 BC. In 226 BC the Ebro Treaty was agreed with Rome, specifying the Ebro River as the northern boundary of the Carthaginian sphere of influence . At some time during the next six years Rome made a separate agreement with the city of Saguntum , which was situated well south of
1182-403: A 2,000-talent loan from Ptolemaic Egypt , which was refused. Rome was also close to bankruptcy and the number of adult male citizens, who provided the manpower for the navy and the legions, had declined by 17 per cent since the start of the war. Historian Adrian Goldsworthy (2006) has described Roman manpower losses as "appalling". The Romans rebuilt their fleet again in 243 BC after
1379-564: A British possession. It was formally ceded to Great Britain in 1713, under the terms of Article XI of the Treaty of Utrecht . Under the governorship of General Richard Kane , this period saw the island's capital moved to Port Mahon and a naval base established in that town's harbour. In 1756, during the Seven Years' War , France captured the island after the Siege of Fort St Philip and
1576-595: A Jewish population. The Letter on the Conversion of the Jews by a fifth-century bishop named Severus tells of the forced conversion of the island's 540 Jewish men and women in AD 418. Several Jews, including Theodore, a rich representative Jew who stood high in the estimation of his coreligionists and of Christians alike, underwent baptism. The act of conversion brought about, within a previously peaceful coexisting community,
1773-489: A city of great wealth and ruthless in the pursuit of war. Its name was Carthage, and Juno is said to have loved it more than any other place ... But she had heard that there was rising from the blood of Troy a race of men who in days to come would overthrow this Tyrian citadel ... [and] sack the land of Libya." Virgil describes Queen Elissa—for whom he uses the ancient Greek name, Dido, meaning "beloved"—as an esteemed, clever, but ultimately tragic character. As in other legends,
1970-628: A close with a firework display. As a small island, Menorca offers limited opportunities to see top-level sport competitions. Football in Menorca is played at the fifth level of the Spanish football pyramid. There are currently 11 clubs contesting the Regional Preferente de Menorca , the champion of which progresses to the Tercera División Grupo XI playoffs. The winner of this playoff is promoted to Tercera División;
2167-416: A decade later in 387 BC. After winning a naval battle off the coast of Catania, Himilco laid siege to Syracuse with 50,000 Carthaginians, but yet another epidemic struck down thousands of them. With the enemy assault stalled and weakened, Dionysius then launched a surprise counterattack by land and sea, destroying all the Carthaginian ships while its crews were ashore. At the same time, his ground forces stormed
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#17327732519562364-509: A distance and avoided close combat; the latter were usually Numidians . The close order African infantry and the citizen-militia both fought in a tightly-packed formation known as a phalanx . On occasion some of the infantry would wear captured Roman armour, especially among the troops of the Carthaginian general Hannibal . In addition both Iberia and Gaul provided many experienced infantry and cavalry. The infantry from these areas were unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had
2561-473: A justification to declare war in 149 BC, starting the Third Punic War . This conflict was fought entirely on Carthage's territories in what is now Tunisia and centred on the siege of Carthage . In 146 BC, the Romans stormed the city of Carthage , sacked it, slaughtered or enslaved most of its population, and completely demolished the city. The Carthaginian territories were taken over as
2758-403: A large shield and short thrusting swords . They were divided into three ranks: the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year as senior magistrates , known as consuls , who in
2955-571: A localised variety known as Punic. Like other Phoenician peoples, its society was urban, commercial, and oriented towards seafaring and trade; this is reflected in part by its notable innovations, including serial production , uncolored glass , the threshing board , and the cothon harbor. Carthaginians were renowned for their commercial prowess, ambitious explorations, and unique system of government , which combined elements of democracy , oligarchy , and republicanism , including modern examples of checks and balances . Despite having been one of
3152-586: A long and difficult expedition. Herodotus claims that the Tyrians refused to cooperate due to their affinity for Carthage, causing the Persian king to abort his campaign. Though it escaped reprisal, Tyre's status as Phoenicia's leading city was significantly circumscribed; its rival, Sidon, subsequently garnered more support from the Persians. However, it too remained subjugated, leading the way for Carthage to fill
3349-468: A long-drawn-out affair, or, if the target was a port, impossible. Carthage's new allies felt little sense of community with Carthage, or even with each other. The new allies increased the number of places that Hannibal's army was expected to defend from Roman retribution, but provided relatively few fresh troops to assist him in doing so. Such Italian forces as were raised resisted operating away from their home cities and performed poorly when they did. When
3546-550: A monopoly on an area's natural resources, satisfying the demand for trade goods, and finding areas where they could trade freely without outside interference. Over time many Phoenicians also sought to escape their tributary obligations to foreign powers that had subjugated the Phoenician homeland. Another motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who became a nascent maritime power and began establishing colonies across
3743-485: A mythical, fatalistic backdrop for a century of bitter conflict between Rome and Carthage. These stories typify the Roman attitude towards Carthage: a level of grudging respect and acknowledgement of their bravery, prosperity, and even their city's seniority to Rome, along with derision of their cruelty, deviousness, and decadence, as exemplified by their practice of human sacrifice. To facilitate their commercial ventures,
3940-475: A new city abroad. Upon landing in North Africa, she is greeted by the local Berber chieftain, Iarbas (also called Hiarbas) who promises to cede as much land as could be covered by a single ox hide. With her characteristic cleverness, Dido cuts the hide into very thin strips and lays them end to end until they encircle the entire hill of Byrsa . While digging to set the foundation of their new settlement,
4137-570: A reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted. The Gallic cavalry, and possibly some of the Iberians, wore armour and fought as close order troops; most or all of the mounted Iberians were light cavalry . Slingers were frequently recruited from the Balearic Islands. The Carthaginians also employed war elephants ; North Africa had indigenous African forest elephants at the time. Garrison duty and land blockades were
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#17327732519564334-463: A sauce, but the cream was nowhere to be found. Therefore, he replaced it with olive oil, creating mayonnaise. The name mayonnaise originates from the capital of the island, Mahón . Also famous is Mahón cheese , "formatge de Maó", a cheese typical of the island. Sweets known as flaons are one of the typical gastronomic products of Menorca. Menorca is rich in wild flowers with over 900 species of flowering plants recorded. Many are those typical of
4531-596: A settlement in present-day Tunisia , it later became a city-state and then an empire . Founded by the Phoenicians in the ninth century BC, Carthage reached its height in the fourth century BC as one of the largest metropoleis in the world. It was the centre of the Carthaginian Empire , a major power led by the Punic people who dominated the ancient western and central Mediterranean Sea . Following
4728-481: A similar number of allied troops. The majority were deployed in southern Italy in field armies of approximately 20,000 men each. This was insufficient to challenge Hannibal's army in open battle, but sufficient to force him to concentrate his forces and to hamper his movements. For 12 years after Cannae the war surged around southern Italy as cities went over to the Carthaginians or were taken by subterfuge and
4925-550: A spirit in the form of the messenger god, Mercury , to remind Aeneas that his mission is not to stay in Carthage with his new-found love Dido, but to sail to Italy to found Rome . The Trojan departs, leaving Dido so heartbroken that she commits suicide by stabbing herself upon a funeral pyre with his sword. As she lies dying, she predicts eternal strife between Aeneas' people and her own, proclaiming "rise up from my bones, avenging spirit" in an invocation of Hannibal . Aeneas sees
5122-404: A surprise night assault and captured several districts of the city. Meanwhile, the Carthaginian army was crippled by plague . After the Carthaginians failed to resupply the city, Syracuse fell that autumn; Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier. Carthage sent more reinforcements to Sicily in 211 BC and went on the offensive. A fresh Roman army attacked the main Carthaginian stronghold on
5319-1011: A time of war would each lead an army. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies ; allied legions usually had a larger attached complement of cavalry than Roman ones. Carthaginian citizens only served in their army if there was a direct threat to the city of Carthage . When they did they fought as well-armoured heavy infantry armed with long thrusting spears, although they were notoriously ill-trained and ill-disciplined. In most circumstances Carthage recruited foreigners to make up its army. Many were from North Africa and these were frequently referred to as "Libyans". The region provided several types of fighters, including: close order infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting spears ; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close order shock cavalry (also known as "heavy cavalry") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from
5516-479: A treaty to keep their commercial planes separate from each other. Carthage focused on growing their population by taking in Phoenicians colonies and soon began controlling Libyan, African, and Roman colonies. Many Phoenician cities also had to pay or support the Carthaginian troops. Punic troops would defend cities and these cities had few rights. Unlike the existential conflict of the later Punic Wars with Rome,
5713-504: Is Egyptian vulture in the right habitat. In summer there are bee-eaters and Menorca has major colonies of Cory's shearwater and Balearic shearwater . Menorca has no large native mammals. There are some small mammals including rabbits, bats, rats, mice, pine martens and a subspecies of North African hedgehog . The major towns are Port Mahon and Ciutadella de Menorca . The island is administratively divided into eight municipalities (from west to east): The areas and populations of
5910-580: Is Pavelló Menorca in the Bintaufa neighborhood just outside of Maó. In recent years, some sporting events that gather hundreds of participants have been successfully held on a yearly basis, such as the triathlon race Extreme Man Menorca and the single-staged ultramarathon race Trail Menorca Camí de Cavalls . In 2014, it was announced that the island would host the 18th editions of the Island Games in 2019; however, Menorca later pulled out of hosting
6107-550: Is Gin Xoriguer which is named after the typical Menorcan windmill which was used to make the first gin. One of the reasons it is also known as Gin de Minorca or Gin de Mahón. Mayonnaise is thought to take its name from the capital of the island. According to this theory, it was first prepared by a French chef in 1756 as part of a victory feast after capturing Port Mahon , Minorca. In those days, sauces were prepared by combining cream and eggs. The French chef needed cream to prepare
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6304-457: Is also credited with initiating, or at least expanding, the practice of recruiting subject peoples and mercenaries, as Carthage's population was too small to secure and defend its scattered colonies. Libyans , Iberians , Sardinians and Corsicans were soon enlisted for the Magonid expansionist campaigns across the region. By the beginning of the fourth century BC, the Carthaginians had become
6501-411: Is greeted by Iarbas , and after he offers as much land as could be covered by a single ox hide, she cuts the hide into very thin strips and encircles all of Byrsa . While digging to set the foundation of their new settlement, the Tyrians discover the head of a horse, which in Phoenician culture is a symbol of courage and conquest. The horse foretells where Dido's new city will rise, becoming the emblem of
6698-475: Is held annually in Ciutadella de Menorca , during 23–25 June. The festes last for three days. On the first day, a man bears a well-groomed sheep upon his shoulders and parades around the local streets. In the late evening, main streets are closed, and bonfires held upon them. On the second day, locally bred black horses are dressed with ribbons and rosettes. The riders, or "caixers", ride the horses through
6895-462: Is known for its collection of megalithic stone monuments: navetes , taules and talaiots , which indicate very early prehistoric human activity. Some of the earliest culture on Menorca was influenced by other Mediterranean cultures, including the Greek Minoans of ancient Crete (see also Gymnesian Islands ). For example, the use of inverted plastered timber columns at Knossos
7092-559: Is one of the Balearic Islands located in the Mediterranean Sea belonging to Spain. Its name derives from its size, contrasting it with nearby Mallorca . Its capital is Mahón ( Catalan : Maó ), situated on the island's eastern end, although Menorca is not a province and forms a political union with the other islands in the archipelago. Ciutadella and Mahón are the main ports and largest towns. The port of Mahón
7289-526: Is quite common and can be found all over the island. Two terrapin species are also found, the native European pond terrapin ( Emys orbicularis ) and the introduced American red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta ). The birdlife of Menorca is very well known. Menorca is a well watched island which is on the migration route of many species and good number of passage migrants can be seen in spring. Residents include Audouin's gull , blue rock thrush and Thekla lark . Booted eagle and red kite are easy to see as
7486-467: Is seen in the Menorcans' taste for gin , which during local festes honoring towns' patron saints is mixed with lemonade (or bitter lemon ) to make a golden liquid known as Pomada . Gin from Menorca is not derived from grain alcohol but from wine alcohol ( eau de vie de vin ), making it more akin to brandy. It has the distinction to have geographical identity protection . Probably the best known gin
7683-464: Is the second biggest natural port in the world. Menorca had a population of 96,733 at the Census of 1 January 2021, which rose to an official estimated total of 99,005 at 1 January 2023. It is located 39°47' to 40°00'N, 3°52' to 4°24'E. Its highest point, called El Toro (from Catalan " turó " meaning hill ), roughly in the middle of the island, is 358 metres (1,175 feet) above sea level . The island
7880-506: Is thought to have influenced early peoples of Menorca in imitating this practice. The end of the Punic wars saw an increase in piracy in the western Mediterranean. The Roman occupation of Hispania had meant a growth of maritime trade between the Iberian and Italian peninsulas . Pirates took advantage of the strategic location of the Balearic Islands to raid Roman commerce, using both Menorca and Mallorca as bases. In reaction to this,
8077-490: Is unknown what factors influenced the citizens of Carthage, unlike those of other Phoenician colonies, to create an economic and political hegemony; the nearby city of Utica was far older and enjoyed the same geographical and political advantages, but never embarked on hegemonic conquest, instead coming under Carthaginian influence. One theory is that Babylonian and Persian domination of the Phoenician homeland produced refugees that swelled Carthage's population and transferred
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8274-468: Is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts". Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions, such as the trireme Olympias . The Roman Republic had been aggressively expanding in the southern Italian mainland for a century before the First Punic War . It had conquered peninsular Italy south of
8471-409: Is why its empire took the form of a hegemony based on treaties and political arrangements more than conquest. By contrast, the Romans focused on expanding and consolidating their control over the rest of mainland Italy, and would aim to extend its control well beyond its homeland. These differences would prove key in the conduct and trajectory of the later Punic Wars. By the third century BC, Carthage
8668-549: The corvus became useless; part way through the First Punic War the Romans ceased using it. Much of the First Punic War was fought on, or in the waters near, Sicily. Away from the coasts its hilly and rugged terrain made manoeuvring large forces difficult and so encouraged defensive strategies. Land operations were largely confined to raids , sieges and interdiction ; in 23 years of war on Sicily there were only two full-scale pitched battles. The war began with
8865-615: The Aeneid —written over a century after the Third Punic War—tells the mythical story of the Trojan hero Aeneas and his journey towards founding Rome, inextricably tying together the founding myths, and ultimate fates, of both Rome and Carthage. Its introduction begins by mentioning "an ancient city" that many readers likely assumed was Rome or Troy, but goes on to describe it as a place "held by colonists from Tyre, opposite Italy . ..
9062-559: The Adriatic coast to block Hannibal's advance into central Italy. In early spring 217 BC, the Carthaginians crossed the Apennines unopposed, taking a difficult but unguarded route. Hannibal attempted to draw the main Roman army under Gaius Flaminius into a pitched battle by devastating the area they had been sent to protect, provoking Flaminius into a hasty pursuit without proper reconnaissance. Hannibal set an ambush and in
9259-517: The Arno River by 270 BC, when the Greek cities of southern Italy ( Magna Graecia ) submitted after the conclusion of the Pyrrhic War . During this period of Roman expansion Carthage, with its capital in what is now Tunisia , had come to dominate southern Iberia, much of the coastal regions of North Africa, the Balearic Islands , Corsica , Sardinia and the western half of Sicily in
9456-526: The Atlantic . The same year, the Iberian colonies seceded, cutting off Carthage from a major source of silver and copper . The loss of such strategically important mineral wealth, combined with the desire to exercise firmer control over shipping routes, led Hannibal Mago , grandson of Hamilcar, to make preparations to reclaim Sicily. In 409 BC, Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily with his force. He captured
9653-494: The Balearic archipelago . Tripoli remained autonomous under the authority of local Libyco-Phoenicians , who paid nominal tribute. Among the ancient world's largest and richest cities, Carthage's strategic location provided access to abundant fertile land and major maritime trade routes . Its extensive mercantile network reached as far as west Asia and northern Europe , providing an array of commodities from all over
9850-880: The Corpo Truppe Volontarie Air Force. Many Menorcans were also killed when taking part in a failed invasion of Mallorca . During the Pedro Marqués Barber era (July–December 1936) some Mallorcans and a priest were executed on the island. After the Nationalist victory in the Battle of Minorca in February 1939, the British Navy assisted in a peaceful transfer of power in Menorca and the evacuation of some political refugees aboard HMS Devonshire . In October 1993, Menorca
10047-742: The English Cemetery , which was restored by the Spanish government in 2008 and is maintained in the 21st century. During the Spanish Civil War , Menorca stayed loyal to the Republican Spanish Government , while the rest of the Balearic Islands supported the Spanish Nationalists . The island did not see ground combat, but it was a target of aerial bombing by the pro-Nationalist Italians of
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#173277325195610244-499: The Greeks of Syracuse , who also sought control of the central Mediterranean. Founded in the mid seventh century BC, Syracuse had risen to become one of the wealthiest and most powerful Greek city states, and the preeminent Greek polity in the region. The island of Sicily, lying at Carthage's doorstep, became the main arena on which this conflict played out. From their earliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had been attracted to
10441-504: The Moors . Menorquí also has a few English loan words dating back to the period of British rule, such as "grevi", "xumaquer", "boinder" and "xoc" taken from "gravy", "shoemaker", "bow window" and "chalk", respectively. Wine production has been known on the island since ancient times, but it went into a heavy decline over the last century. Now, several new, small wineries have started up, producing wines locally. Lingering British influence
10638-592: The Punic qrt-ḥdšt ( Punic : 𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤟𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕 , lit. 'New City'). Punic , which is sometimes used synonymously with Carthaginian, derives from the Latin poenus and punicus , based on the Ancient Greek word Φοῖνιξ ( Phoinix ), pl. Φοίνικες ( Phoinikes ), an exonym used to describe the Canaanite port towns with which the Greeks traded. Latin later borrowed
10835-548: The Punic Wars , Carthage was destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC, who later rebuilt the city lavishly. Carthage was settled around 814 BC by colonists from Tyre , a leading Phoenician city-state located in present-day Lebanon . In the 7th century BC , following Phoenicia's conquest by the Neo-Assyrian Empire , Carthage became independent, gradually expanding its economic and political hegemony across
11032-667: The Roman province of Africa . The ruins of the city lie east of modern Tunis on the North African coast. The most reliable source for the Punic Wars is the historian Polybius ( c. 200 – c. 118 BC ), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. He is best known for The Histories , written sometime after 146 BC. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral between Carthaginian and Roman points of view. Polybius
11229-636: The Spartan Kingdom (subject peoples serving as serfs for the Punic elite and state) and, to a lesser extent, the Roman Republic (allies contributing manpower and tribute for Rome's war machine). In 509 BC, Carthage and Rome signed the first of several treaties demarcating their respective influence and commercial activities. This is the first textual source demonstrating Carthaginian control over Sicily and Sardinia. The treaty also conveys
11426-670: The Xueta community. When Menorca became a British possession in 1713, they actively encouraged the immigration of foreign non-Catholics, which included Jews who were not accepted by the predominantly Christian inhabitants. When the Jewish community in Mahon requested the use of a room as a synagogue, their request was refused, and they were denounced by the clergy. In 1781, when Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, duc de Mahon invaded Menorca, he ordered all Jews to leave in four days. At that time,
11623-423: The ancient world , in addition to lucrative exports of agricultural products and manufactured goods . This commercial empire was secured by one of the largest and most powerful navies in the ancient Mediterranean , and an army composed heavily of foreign mercenaries and auxiliaries , particularly Iberians , Balearics , Gauls , Britons , Sicilians , Italians , Greeks , Numidians , and Libyans . As
11820-455: The battle of Akragas . That night the Carthaginian garrison escaped and the Romans seized the city and its inhabitants, selling 25,000 of them into slavery . After this the land war on Sicily reached a stalemate as the Carthaginians focused on defending their well-fortified towns and cities; these were mostly on the coast and so could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interfere. The focus of
12017-412: The battle of Dertosa . Meanwhile, the Romans took drastic steps to raise new legions: enrolling slaves, criminals and those who did not meet the usual property qualification. By early 215 BC they were fielding at least 12 legions; by 214 BC, 18; and by 213 BC, 22. By 212 BC the full complement of the legions deployed would have been in excess of 100,000 men, plus, as always,
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#173277325195612214-463: The battle of Lake Trasimene completely defeated the Roman army, killing 15,000 Romans, including Flaminius, and taking 15,000 prisoners . A cavalry force of 4,000 from the other Roman army was also engaged and wiped out. The prisoners were badly treated if they were Romans, but released if they were from one of Rome's Latin allies. Hannibal hoped some of these allies could be persuaded to defect and marched south hoping to win over Roman allies among
12411-405: The battle of Phintias and all but swept the Romans from the sea. It was to be seven years before Rome again attempted to field a substantial fleet, while Carthage put most of its ships into reserve to save money and free up manpower. After more than 20 years of war, both states were financially and demographically exhausted. Evidence of Carthage's financial situation includes their request for
12608-536: The battle of Ticinus . As a result, most of the Gallic tribes declared for the Carthaginian cause and Hannibal's army grew to 37,000 men. A large Roman army was lured into combat by Hannibal at the battle of the Trebia , encircled and destroyed. Only 10,000 Romans out of 42,000 were able to cut their way to safety. Gauls now joined Hannibal's army in large numbers. The Romans stationed an army at Arretium and one on
12805-502: The battle of Zama in 202 BC and Carthage sued for peace . A treaty was agreed in 201 BC which stripped Carthage of its overseas territories and some of its African ones, imposed a large indemnity, severely restricted the size of its armed forces , and prohibited Carthage from waging war without Rome's express permission. This caused Carthage to cease to be a military threat. In 151 BC, Carthage attempted to defend itself against Numidian encroachments and Rome used this as
13002-692: The battle of the Metaurus and destroyed his army, killing Hasdrubal. This battle confirmed Roman dominance in Italy and marked the end of their Fabian strategy. In 205 BC, Mago landed in Genua in north-west Italy with the remnants of his Spanish army ( see § Iberia below ) where it received Gallic and Ligurian reinforcements. Mago's arrival in the north of the Italian peninsula was followed by Hannibal's inconclusive battle of Crotona in 204 BC in
13199-528: The emperor dragonfly . There are three species of amphibians: green toad ( Bufo viridis ), marsh frog and stripeless tree frog ( Hyla meridionalis ). The common lizard seen all over the island is the Italian wall lizard ( Podarcis siculus ) although the Moroccan rock lizard ( Scelaris perspicillata ) also occurs. The Balearic endemic Lilford's wall lizard ( Podarcis lilfordi ) can be found on many of
13396-412: The siege of Agrigentum , Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague, which claimed Hannibal Mago himself. His successor, Himilco, managed to extend the campaign, capturing the city of Gela and repeatedly defeating the army of Dionysius of Syracuse. But he, too, was struck with plague and forced to sue for peace before returning to Carthage. By 398 BC, Dionysius had regained his strength and broke
13593-642: The slave markets of Eivissa, Valencia and Barcelona , while others became Christians. After the Christian conquest of 1287, the island was part of the Crown of Aragon . For some time it was ceded to the Kingdom of Mallorca , a vassal state of the Crown, but it was retaken by the king of Aragon in 1343. Eventually the Crown of Aragon merged with the Crown of Castile , and so Menorca became part of Spain. During
13790-401: The western Mediterranean . By 300 BC, through its vast patchwork of colonies , vassal states , and satellite states , held together by its naval dominance of the western and central Mediterranean Sea, Carthage controlled the largest territory in the region, including the coast of northwest Africa , southern and eastern Iberia , and the islands of Sicily , Sardinia , Corsica , Malta , and
13987-451: The "New City" Carthage. In just seven years since their exodus from Tyre, the Carthaginians build a successful kingdom under Dido's rule. She is adored by her subjects and presented with a festival of praise. Virgil portrays her character as even more noble when she offers asylum to Aeneas and his men, who had recently escaped from Troy . The two fall in love during a hunting expedition, and Dido comes to believe they will marry. Jupiter sends
14184-408: The "superior power" of the western Mediterranean , and would remain so for roughly the next three centuries. Carthage took control of all nearby Phoenician colonies, including Hadrumetum , Utica , Hippo Diarrhytus and Kerkouane ; subjugated many neighboring Libyan tribes, and occupied coastal North Africa from Morocco to western Libya . It held Sardinia, Malta , the Balearic Islands , and
14381-538: The 16th century, Turkish naval attacks destroyed Mahon , and the then capital, Ciutadella . In Mahon, Barbary pirates from North Africa took considerable booty and as many as 6,000 slaves. Various Spanish kings, including Philip III and Philip IV , styled themselves "King of Minorca" as a subsidiary title. Captured by Britain's Royal Navy in 1708 during the War of the Spanish Succession , Minorca became
14578-560: The Alps and invasion of mainland Italy . This expedition enjoyed considerable early success and campaigned in Italy for 14 years before the survivors withdrew. There was also extensive fighting in Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal), Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa. The successful Roman invasion of the Carthaginian homeland in Africa in 204 BC led to Hannibal's recall. He was defeated in
14775-457: The Alps and invading Italy. His aim was to join his forces with those of Hannibal, but Hannibal was unaware of his presence. The Romans facing Hannibal in southern Italy tricked him into believing the whole Roman army was still in camp, while a large portion marched north under the consul Claudius Nero and reinforced the Romans facing Hasdrubal, who were commanded by the other consul, Marcus Salinator . The combined Roman force attacked Hasdrubal at
14972-550: The Carthaginian colonial cities with mixed success until moving into Italy; and Africa, where the war was decided. In 218 BC there was some naval skirmishing in the waters around Sicily; the Romans defeated a Carthaginian attack and captured the island of Malta . In Cisalpine Gaul (modern northern Italy), the major Gallic tribes attacked the Roman colonies there, causing the Roman settlers to flee to their previously-established colony of Mutina (modern Modena ), where they were besieged. A Roman relief force broke through
15169-430: The Carthaginians advanced on Panormus, but in a battle outside the walls the Romans drove off the Carthaginian elephants with javelins. The elephants routed through the Carthaginian infantry, who were then charged by the Roman infantry to complete their defeat. Slowly the Romans had occupied most of Sicily; in 250 BC they besieged the last two Carthaginian strongholds – Lilybaeum and Drepana in
15366-481: The Carthaginians were defeated. By the terms of the Treaty of Lutatius (241, amended 237 BC), Carthage paid large reparations and Sicily was annexed as a Roman province . The end of the war sparked a major but eventually unsuccessful revolt within Carthaginian territory known as the Mercenary War . The Second Punic War began in 218 BC and witnessed the Carthaginian general Hannibal 's crossing of
15563-525: The Ebro. In 219 BC a Carthaginian army under Hannibal besieged, captured and sacked Saguntum and in spring 218 BC Rome declared war on Carthage. There were three main military theatres in the war: Italy, where Hannibal defeated the Roman legions repeatedly, with occasional subsidiary campaigns in Sicily, Sardinia and Greece; Iberia, where Hasdrubal , a younger brother of Hannibal, defended
15760-539: The European mainland, in what are today Genoa and Marseilles . Foreshadowing the later Sicilian Wars, settlements in Crete and Sicily continually clashed with the Greeks, and Phoenician control over all of Sicily was brief. Nearly all these areas would come under the leadership and protection of Carthage, which eventually founded cities of its own, especially after the decline of Tyre and Sidon . The site of Carthage
15957-637: The First Punic War, Carthaginian possessions in Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal) were limited to a handful of prosperous coastal cities in the south. Hamilcar took the army which he had led in the Mercenary War to Iberia in 237 BC and carved out a quasi-monarchial, autonomous state in its south east. This gave Carthage the silver mines, agricultural wealth, manpower , military facilities such as shipyards , and territorial depth to stand up to future Roman demands with confidence. Hamilcar ruled as
16154-617: The Greek term a second time as phoenix , pl. phoenices . Both Punic and Phoenician were used by the Romans and Greeks to refer to Phoenicians across the Mediterranean; modern scholars use the term Punic exclusively for Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean, such as the Carthaginians. Specific Punic groups are often referred to with hyphenated terms, like "Siculo-Punic" for Phoenicians in Sicily or "Sardo-Punic" for those in Sardinia. Ancient Greek authors sometimes referred to
16351-522: The Greeks with respect to Sicily , and the Romans over dominance of the western Mediterranean. Inevitably, foreign accounts of Carthage usually reflect significant bias, especially those written during or after the Punic Wars, when the interpretatio Romana perpetuated a "malicious and distorted view". Excavations of ancient Carthaginian sites since the late 19th century has brought to light more material evidence that either contradict or confirm aspects of
16548-542: The Jewish community consisted of about 500 people and they were transported from Menorca in four Spanish ships to the port of Marseille . The Vandals easily conquered the island in the fifth century. The Byzantine Empire recovered it in 534. Following the Umayyad conquest of Hispania , Menorca was annexed to the Caliphate of Córdoba in 903, with many Muslims emigrating to the island. Manûrqa ( Arabic : منورقة )
16745-494: The Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean grew up on the two paths to Iberia's mineral wealth: along the northwest African coast and on Sicily , Sardinia , and the Balearic Islands . As the largest and wealthiest city-state among the Phoenicians, Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas. Strabo claims that the Tyrians alone founded three hundred colonies on
16942-638: The Mediterranean island of Sicily in 264 BC as Rome's expansion began to encroach on Carthage's sphere of influence on the island. At the start of the war Carthage was the dominant power of the western Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire , while Rome was a rapidly expanding power in Italy , with a strong army but no navy. The fighting took place primarily on Sicily and its surrounding waters, as well as in North Africa , Corsica , and Sardinia . It lasted 23 years, until 241 BC, when
17139-437: The Mediterranean region as a whole. The immense effort of repeatedly building large fleets of galleys during the war laid the foundation for Rome's maritime dominance, which was to last 600 years. The Mercenary, or Truceless, War began in 241 BC as a dispute over the payment of wages owed to 20,000 foreign soldiers who had fought for Carthage on Sicily during the First Punic War. This erupted into full-scale mutiny under
17336-547: The Mediterranean, but some are endemic. There are 24 or 25 species of orchid found and of these most flower early in the year in late March, April and May. 30 species of butterflies have been recorded on Menorca and most are on the wing from March to late September. The species that occur include the Cleopatra , Lang's short tailed blue and the two-tailed pasha . Despite not having many large wetlands dragonflies abound on Menorca. Seventeen species have been recorded including
17533-444: The Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Organized in fiercely independent city-states, the Phoenicians lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand overseas; most colonies had fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, and only a few, including Carthage, would grow larger. Motives for colonization were usually practical, such as seeking safe harbors for their merchant fleets, maintaining
17730-665: The Punic Wars, and to varying degrees were shaped by the hostilities. Popular and scholarly attitudes towards Carthage historically reflected the prevailing Greco-Roman view, though archaeological research since the late 19th century has helped shed more light and nuance on Carthaginian civilization. The name Carthage / ˈ k ɑː r θ ɪ dʒ / is the Early Modern anglicisation of Middle French Carthage /kar.taʒ/ , from Latin Carthāgō and Karthāgō (cf. Greek Karkhēdōn ( Καρχηδών ) and Etruscan *Carθaza ) from
17927-474: The Punic-speakers in North Africa called themselves Chanani (Canaanites), but it has recently been argued that this is a misreading. Numismatic evidence from Sicily shows that some western Phoenicians made use of the term Phoinix. Compared to contemporaneous civilizations such as Rome and Greece, far less is known about Carthage, as most indigenous records were lost in the wholesale destruction of
18124-514: The Pyrrhic War of 280–275 BC, against a king of Epirus who alternately fought Rome in Italy and Carthage on Sicily, Carthage provided materiel to the Romans and on at least one occasion provided its navy to ferry a Roman force. According to the classicist Richard Miles , Rome had an expansionary attitude after its conquest of southern Italy, while Carthage had a proprietary approach to Sicily. The conflict between these policies pushed
18321-469: The Romans invaded Menorca . By 123 BC, both islands were fully under Roman control, later being incorporated into the province of Hispania Citerior . In 13 BC Roman emperor Augustus reorganised the provincial system and the Balearic Islands became part of the Tarraconensis imperial province. The ancient town of Mago was transformed from a Carthaginian town to a Roman town. The island had
18518-410: The Romans gaining a foothold on Sicily at Messana (modern Messina) in 264 BC. They then pressed Syracuse, the only significant independent power on the island, into allying with them and laid siege to Carthage's main base at Akragas on the south coast. A Carthaginian army of 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and 60 elephants attempted to lift the siege in 262 BC, but was badly defeated at
18715-419: The Romans recaptured them by siege or by suborning pro-Roman factions. Hannibal repeatedly defeated Roman armies, in 209 BC both consuls were killed in a cavalry skirmish. But wherever his main army was not active the Romans threatened Carthaginian-supporting towns or sought battle with Carthaginian or Carthaginian-allied detachments; frequently with success. By 207 BC Hannibal had been confined to
18912-410: The Romans were still in their winter quarters. His surprise entry into the Italian peninsula led to the cancellation of Rome's planned campaign for the year: an invasion of Africa. The Carthaginians captured the chief city of the hostile Taurini (in the area of modern Turin ) and seized its food stocks. In late November the Carthaginian cavalry routed the cavalry and light infantry of the Romans at
19109-547: The Second Punic War, but was destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC after the Third Punic War . The Romans later founded a new city in its place. All remnants of Carthaginian civilization came under Roman rule by the first century AD , and Rome subsequently became the dominant Mediterranean power, paving the way for its rise as a major empire . Despite the cosmopolitan character of its empire, Carthage's culture and identity remained rooted in its Canaanite heritage, albeit
19306-518: The Senate approached Rome's wealthiest citizens for loans to finance the construction of one ship each, repayable from the reparations to be imposed on Carthage once the war was won. This new fleet effectively blockaded the Carthaginian garrisons. Carthage assembled a fleet which attempted to relieve them, but it was destroyed at the battle of the Aegates Islands in 241 BC, forcing
19503-597: The Tyrian colony of Cadiz in southern Spain, which supplied raw materials for manufacturing in Tyre, and the other between North Africa and the northern Mediterranean, namely Sicily, Italy, and Greece. In contrast to most Phoenician colonies, Carthage grew larger and more quickly thanks to its combination of favorable climate, arable land, and lucrative trade routes. Within just one century of its founding, its population rose to 30,000. Meanwhile, its mother city, which for centuries
19700-581: The Tyrians discover the head of an ox, an omen that the city would be wealthy "but laborious and always enslaved". In response they move the site of the city elsewhere, where the head of a horse is found, which in Phoenician culture is a symbol of courage and conquest. The horse foretells where Dido's new city will rise, becoming the emblem of Carthage, derived from the Phoenician Qart-Hadasht , meaning "New City". The city's wealth and prosperity attracts both Phoenicians from nearby Utica and
19897-551: The besiegers' lines and routed them. Himilco and his chief officers abandoned their army and fled Sicily. Once again, the Carthaginians were forced to press for peace. Returning to Carthage in disgrace, Himilco was met with contempt and committed suicide by starving himself. Notwithstanding consistently poor luck and costly reversals, Sicily remained an obsession for Carthage. Over the next fifty years, an uneasy peace reigned, as Carthaginian and Greek forces engaged in constant skirmishes. By 340 BC, Carthage had been pushed entirely into
20094-524: The brink of collapse. Within a few weeks of Cannae a Roman army of 25,000 was ambushed by Boii Gauls at the battle of Silva Litana and annihilated. Fabius was elected consul in 215 BC and was re-elected in 214 BC. Little survives of Polybius's account of Hannibal's army in Italy after Cannae and Livy is the best surviving source for this part of the war. Several of the city states in southern Italy allied with Hannibal or were captured when pro-Carthaginian factions betrayed their defences. These included
20291-621: The city after the Third Punic War. Sources of knowledge are limited to ancient translations of Punic into Greek and Latin, Punic inscriptions on monuments and buildings, and archaeological findings of Carthage's material culture. The majority of available primary sources about Carthage were written by Greek and Roman historians , most notably Livy , Polybius , Appian , Cornelius Nepos , Silius Italicus , Plutarch , Dio Cassius , and Herodotus . These authors came from cultures that were nearly always in competition with Carthage;
20488-408: The city they razed and abandoned it. The Romans rapidly rebuilt their fleet, adding 220 new ships, and captured Panormus (modern Palermo ) in 254 BC. The next year they lost another 150 ships to a storm. On Sicily the Romans avoided battle in 252 and 251 BC, according to Polybius because they feared the war elephants which the Carthaginians had shipped to the island. In 250 BC
20685-581: The classicist Adrian Goldsworthy says Livy's "reliability is often suspect", and the historian Philip Sabin refers to Livy's "military ignorance". Later ancient histories of the wars also exist in fragmentary or summary form. Modern historians usually take into account the writings of various Roman annalists , some contemporary; the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus ; and the later Roman historians Plutarch , Appian , and Dio Cassius . Goldsworthy writes "Polybius' account
20882-672: The coast in May or June. It entered Gaul and took an inland route, to avoid the Roman allies to the south. At the battle of the Rhone Crossing Hannibal defeated a force of local Gauls which sought to bar his way. A Roman fleet carrying the Iberian-bound army landed at Rome's ally Massalia (modern Marseille ) at the mouth of the Rhone, but Hannibal evaded the Romans and they continued to Iberia. The Carthaginians reached
21079-480: The coast to Himera, making camp before engaging in battle against the forces of Syracuse and its ally Agrigentum . The Greeks won a decisive victory, inflicting heavy losses on the Carthaginians, including their leader Hamilcar, who was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame. As a result, the Carthaginian nobility sued for peace. The conflict proved to be a major turning point for Carthage. Though it would retain some presence in Sicily, most of
21276-495: The colonies, the Carthaginians appointed magistrates to directly control their own (a policy that would lead to a number of Iberian towns siding with the Romans during the Punic Wars ). In many other instances, Carthage's hegemony was established through treaties, alliances, tributary obligations, and other such arrangements. It had elements of the Delian League led by Athens (allies shared funding and manpower for defense),
21473-630: The common people. By 410 BC, Carthage had recovered from its serious defeats in Sicily. It had conquered much of modern-day Tunisia and founded new colonies across northern Africa. It also extended its reach well beyond the Mediterranean; Hanno the Navigator journeyed down the West African coast, and Himilco the Navigator had explored the European Atlantic coast. Expeditions were also led into Morocco and Senegal , as well as
21670-502: The conflict between Carthage and the Greeks centered on economic concerns, as each side sought to advance their own commercial interests and influence by controlling key trade routes. For centuries, the Phoenician and Greek city-states had embarked on maritime trade and colonization across the Mediterranean. While the Phoenicians were initially dominant, Greek competition increasingly undermined their monopoly. Both sides had begun establishing colonies, trading posts, and commercial relations in
21867-426: The crews of ships that were suspected of carrying infectious diseases, such as the plague. The crew needed to spend up to 40 days within its walls until it was clear there was no infection or until the sick recovered. It is now a national monument and can only be reached as part of an official tour. From 1815 until the mid-19th century, the U.S. Navy developed its Mediterranean headquarters at Port Mahon, leaving behind
22064-452: The culture, wealth, and traditions of Tyre to Carthage. The threat to the Phoenician trade monopoly—by Etruscan and Greek competition in the west, and through foreign subjugation of its homeland in the east—also created the conditions for Carthage to consolidate its power and further its commercial interests . Another contributing factor may have been domestic politics: while little is known of Carthage's government and leadership prior to
22261-441: The cut-off Carthaginian troops on Sicily to negotiate for peace. The Treaty of Lutatius was agreed by which Carthage paid 3,200 talents of silver in reparations and Sicily was annexed as a Roman province . Polybius regarded the war as "the longest, most continuous and most severely contested war known to us in history". Henceforth Rome considered itself the leading military power in the western Mediterranean and increasingly
22458-569: The dominant power of the western Mediterranean, Carthage inevitably came into conflict with many neighbours and rivals, from the Berbers of North Africa to the nascent Roman Republic . Following centuries of conflict with the Sicilian Greeks , its growing competition with Rome culminated in the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), which saw some of the largest and most sophisticated battles in antiquity. Carthage narrowly avoided destruction after
22655-567: The earlier work of Trogus . Princess Dido is the daughter of King Belus II of Tyre, who upon his death bequeaths the throne jointly to her and her brother Pygmalion. After cheating his sister out of her share of political power, Pygmalion murders her husband Acerbas (Phoenician: Zakarbaal), also known as Sychaeus, the High Priest of Melqart , whose wealth and power he covets. Before her tyrannical brother can take her late husband's wealth, Dido immediately flees with her followers to establish
22852-470: The ethnic Greek and Italic states. The Romans, panicked by these heavy defeats, appointed Quintus Fabius as dictator , with sole charge of the war effort. Fabius introduced the Fabian strategy of avoiding open battle with his opponent, but constantly skirmishing with small detachments of the enemy. This was not popular with parts of the Roman army, public and senate, since he avoided battle while Italy
23049-403: The event, citing a change of government as the main reason. The two official languages are Catalan and Spanish. Natives to the island speak the variety of Catalan called Menorquí , and Spanish as well; many residents originating from the mainland are monolingual in Spanish. The language of education and of government is Catalan , with Spanish taught alongside it. A 2014 survey carried out by
23246-399: The expulsion of the ruling Jewish elite into the bleak hinterlands, the burning of synagogues, and the gradual reinstatement of certain Jewish families after the forced acceptance of Christianity, allowing the survival of those Jewish families who had not already perished. Many Jews secretly retained their Jewish faith while outwardly professing Christian beliefs. Some of these Jews form part of
23443-537: The extent to which Carthage was, at the very least, on equal terms with Rome, whose influence was limited to parts of central and southern Italy. Carthaginian dominance of the sea reflected not only its Phoenician heritage, but an approach to empire-building that differed greatly from Rome. Carthage emphasized maritime trade over territorial expansion, and accordingly focused its settlements and influence on coastal areas while investing more on its navy. For similar reasons, its ambitions were more commercial than imperial, which
23640-623: The extreme south of Italy and many of the cities and territories which had joined the Carthaginian cause had returned to their Roman allegiance. During 216 BC the Macedonian king, Philip V , pledged his support to Hannibal, initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome in 215 BC. In 211 BC Rome contained this threat by allying with the Aetolian League , a coalition of Greek city states which
23837-435: The extreme west. Repeated attempts to storm Lilybaeum's strong walls failed, as did attempts to block access to its harbour, and the Romans settled down to a siege which was to last nine years. They launched a surprise attack on the Carthaginian fleet, but were defeated at the battle of Drepana ; Carthage's greatest naval victory of the war. Carthage turned to the maritime offensive, inflicting another heavy naval defeat at
24034-561: The far south of the peninsula. Mago marched his reinforced army towards the lands of Carthage's main Gallic allies in the Po Valley , but was checked by a large Roman army and defeated at the battle of Insubria in 203 BC. After Publius Cornelius Scipio invaded the Carthaginian homeland in 204 BC, defeating the Carthaginians in two major battles and winning the allegiance of the Numidian kingdoms of North Africa, Hannibal and
24231-401: The foot of the Alps by late autumn and crossed them in 15 days, surmounting the difficulties of climate, terrain and the guerrilla tactics of the native tribes. Hannibal arrived with 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and an unknown number of elephants – the survivors of the 37 with which he left Iberia – in what is now Piedmont , northern Italy in early November;
24428-679: The foreign subjugation of the Phoenician homeland, led to its supplanting of Sidon as the supreme Phoenician city state. Carthage's empire was largely informal and multifaceted, consisting of varying levels of control exercised in equally variable ways. It established new colonies, repopulated and reinforced older ones, formed defensive pacts with other Phoenician city states, and acquired territories directly by conquest. While some Phoenician colonies willingly submitted to Carthage, paying tribute and giving up their foreign policy , others in Iberia and Sardinia resisted Carthaginian efforts. Whereas other Phoenician cities never exercised actual control of
24625-471: The government of the Balearic Islands found that 53.5% of participants identified themselves as Catalan speakers, 36.7% as Spanish speakers, and 7.7% as bilingual speakers. The Catalan spoken in Menorca is a variety known as Menorquí . Between Menorquí and standard Catalan, as with most Balearic dialects , the most distinctive difference is the word used for the article "the", where Menorquí uses "es" for masculine and "sa" for feminine. Menorquí thus shares
24822-460: The impetus for her escape is her tyrannical brother Pygmalion, whose secret murder of her husband is revealed to her in a dream. Cleverly exploiting her brother's greed, Dido tricks Pygmalion into supporting her journey to find and bring back riches for him. Through this ruse she sets sail with gold and allies secretly in search of a new home. As in Justin's account, upon landing in North Africa, Dido
25019-542: The indigenous Libyans, whose king Iarbas now seeks Dido's hand in marriage. Threatened with war should she refuse, and also loyal to the memory of her deceased husband, the queen orders a funeral pyre to be built, where she commits suicide by stabbing herself with a sword. She is thereafter worshiped as a goddess by the people of Carthage, who are described as brave in battle but prone to the "cruel religious ceremony" of human sacrifice, even of children, whenever they seek divine relief from troubles of any kind. Virgil's epic poem
25216-417: The infantry – poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard legionary – served as javelin -armed skirmishers known as velites ; they each carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, as well as a short sword and a 90-centimetre (3 ft) shield. The rest of the soldiers were equipped as heavy infantry , with body armour ,
25413-485: The island back to Spain the next year in the Treaty of Versailles . Menorca was invaded by the British once again in 1798 , during the French Revolutionary Wars , but it was finally repossessed by Spain by the terms of the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. The British influence can still be seen in local architecture, with elements such as sash windows . As with the rest of the Balearic Islands, Menorca
25610-502: The island would remain in Greek (and later Roman) hands. The Carthaginians would never again expand their territory or sphere of influence on the island to any meaningful degree, instead turning their attention to securing or increasing their hold in North Africa and Iberia. The death of King Hamilcar and the disastrous conduct of the war also prompted political reforms that established an oligarchic republic. Carthage would henceforth constrain its rulers through assemblies of both nobles and
25807-480: The island, Agrigentum , in 210 BC and the city was betrayed to the Romans by a discontented Carthaginian officer. The remaining Carthaginian-controlled towns then surrendered or were taken through force or treachery and the Sicilian grain supply to Rome and its armies was secured. In the spring of 207 BC Hasdrubal Barca repeated the feat of his elder brother by marching an army of 35,000 men across
26004-442: The king of Tyre who gave tribute to Shalmaneser III in 841 BC, with 𐤁𐤏𐤋𐤏𐤑𐤅𐤓 Ba‘al-'azor (Phoenician form of the name) or Baal-Eser/Balazeros (Greek form of the name), Dido's grandfather. The Nora Stone , found on Sardinia, has been interpreted by Frank Moore Cross as naming Pygmalion as the king of the general who was using the stone to record his victory over the local populace. On paleographic grounds,
26201-421: The large city of Capua and the major port city of Tarentum (modern Taranto ). Two of the major Samnite tribes also joined the Carthaginian cause. By 214 BC the bulk of southern Italy had turned against Rome, although there were many exceptions. The majority of Rome's allies in central Italy remained loyal. All except the smallest towns were too well fortified for Hannibal to take by assault and blockade could be
26398-401: The large, centrally-located island, each establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coasts; battles raged between these settlements for centuries, with neither side ever having total, long-term control over the island. In 480 BC, Gelo , the tyrant of Syracuse , attempted to unite the island under his rule with the backing of other Greek city-states . Threatened by
26595-572: The last Menorquí club to do so was CF Sporting Mahonés in 2009. CV Ciutadella are a professional women's volleyball club who play in the Superliga Femenina , the top league of Spanish volleyball, having won the league championship in 2011 and 2012. They play at Pavelló Municipal d'Esports in Ciutadella . A semi-professional basketball club, CB Menorca , play in the LEB Plata , the third level of Spanish basketball. Their home court
26792-506: The leadership of Spendius and Matho ; 70,000 Africans from Carthage's oppressed dependant territories flocked to join the mutineers, bringing supplies and finance. War-weary Carthage fared poorly in the initial engagements, especially under the generalship of Hanno . Hamilcar Barca , a veteran of the campaigns in Sicily, was given joint command of the army in 240 BC and supreme command in 239 BC. He campaigned successfully, initially demonstrating leniency in an attempt to woo
26989-463: The legions from behind. As a result, the Roman infantry was surrounded with no means of escape. At least 67,500 Romans were killed or captured. The historian Richard Miles describes Cannae as "Rome's greatest military disaster". Toni Ñaco del Hoyo describes the Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae as the three "great military calamities" suffered by the Romans in the first three years of the war. Brian Carey writes that these three defeats brought Rome to
27186-637: The local tribes. A rushed Carthaginian attack in late 218 BC was beaten back at the battle of Cissa . In 217 BC 40 Carthaginian and Iberian warships were defeated by 55 Roman and Massalian vessels at the battle of Ebro River , with 29 Carthaginian ships lost. The Romans' lodgement between the Ebro and the Pyrenees blocked the route from Iberia to Italy and greatly hindered the despatch of reinforcements from Iberia to Hannibal. The Carthaginian commander in Iberia, Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, marched into this area in 215 BC, offered battle and
27383-431: The main hub for trade between Africa and the rest of the ancient world, it also provided a myriad of rare and luxurious goods, including terracotta figurines and masks, jewelry, delicately carved ivories, ostrich eggs, and a variety of foods and wine. Carthage's growing economic prominence coincided with a nascent national identity. Although Carthaginians remained staunchly Phoenician in their customs and faith, by at least
27580-463: The middle of the 6th century BC. It had grown into a fully independent thalassocracy , embarking its own colonization efforts across the western Mediterranean. It nonetheless maintained amicable cultural, political, and commercial ties with its founding city and the Phoenician homeland; it continued to receive migrants from Tyre, and for a time continued the practice of sending annual tribute to Tyre's temple of Melqart, albeit at irregular intervals. By
27777-541: The mixed Punic inhabitants of North Africa ('Libya') as 'Liby-Phoenicians'. It is unclear what term, if any, the Carthaginians used to refer to themselves. The Phoenician homeland in the Levant was natively known as 𐤐𐤕 ( Pūt ) and its people as the 𐤐𐤍𐤉𐤌 ( Pōnnim ). Ancient Egyptian accounts suggest the people from the region identified as Kenaani or Kinaani , equivalent to Canaanite . A passage from Augustine has often been interpreted as indicating that
27974-409: The most common operations. When armies were campaigning, surprise attacks, ambushes and stratagems were common. More formal battles were usually preceded by the two armies camping two–twelve kilometres (1–7 miles) apart for days or weeks; sometimes both forming up in battle order each day. If either commander felt at a disadvantage, they might march off without engaging. In such circumstances it
28171-493: The most influential civilizations of antiquity, Carthage is mostly remembered for its long and bitter conflict with Rome, which threatened the rise of the Roman Republic and almost changed the course of Western civilization . Due to the destruction of virtually all Carthaginian texts after the Third Punic War, much of what is known about its civilization comes from Roman and Greek sources, many of whom wrote during or after
28368-505: The municipalities (according to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística , Spain) are: Ancient Carthage French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present Ancient Carthage ( / ˈ k ɑːr θ ɪ dʒ / KAR -thij ; Punic : 𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤟𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕 , lit. ' New City ' ) was an ancient Semitic civilisation based in North Africa . Initially
28565-528: The offshore islands. Two species of gecko can be found on Menorca, the Moorish ( Tarentola mauritanica ) and the Turkish ( Hemidactylus turcicus ) also called the Mediterranean house gecko. Four species of snake occur: the viperine snake ( Natrix maura ), grass snake , false smooth snake ( Macroprotodon cucullatus ) and the ladder snake ( Rhinechis scalaris ). Hermann's tortoise ( Testudo hermanni )
28762-426: The open plain near Cannae . In the battle of Cannae the Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's deliberately weak centre, but Libyan heavy infantry on the wings swung around their advance, menacing their flanks. Hasdrubal led the Carthaginian cavalry on the left wing and routed the Roman cavalry opposite, then swept around the rear of the Romans to attack the cavalry on the other wing. He then charged into
28959-438: The peace treaty, striking at the Carthaginian stronghold of Motya in western Sicily. Himilco responded decisively, leading an expedition that not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured Messene (present-day Messina). Within a year, the Carthaginians were besieging Syracuse itself, and came close to victory until the plague once again ravaged and reduced their forces. The fighting in Sicily swung in favor of Carthage less than
29156-430: The port city of Locri defected to Carthage in the summer of 215 BC it was immediately used to reinforce the Carthaginian forces in Italy with soldiers, supplies and war elephants. It was the only time during the war that Carthage reinforced Hannibal. A second force, under Hannibal's youngest brother Mago , was meant to land in Italy in 215 BC but was diverted to Iberia after the Carthaginian defeat there at
29353-514: The potential power of a united Sicily, Carthage intervened militarily, led by King Hamilcar of the Magonid dynasty. Traditional accounts, including by Herodotus and Diodorus, number Hamilcar's army at around 300,000; though likely exaggerated, it was likely of formidable strength. While sailing to Sicily, Hamilcar suffered losses due to poor weather. Landing at Panormus (modern-day Palermo ), he spent three days reorganizing his forces and repairing his battered fleet. The Carthaginians marched along
29550-520: The preparation of this force an act of war and demanded Carthage cede Sardinia and Corsica and pay an additional 1,200-talent indemnity. Weakened by 30 years of war, Carthage agreed rather than again enter into conflict with Rome. Polybius considered this "contrary to all justice" and modern historians have variously described the Romans' behaviour as "unprovoked aggression and treaty-breaking", "shamelessly opportunistic" and an "unscrupulous act". These events fuelled resentment of Rome in Carthage, which
29747-421: The previous forty-five years and a staunch Roman ally, died in that year and his successor Hieronymus was discontented with his situation. Hannibal negotiated a treaty whereby Syracuse defected to Carthage, in exchange for making the whole of Sicily a Syracusan possession. The Syracusan army proved no match for a Roman army led by Claudius Marcellus and by spring 213 BC Syracuse was besieged . The siege
29944-408: The previously traditional tactic of ramming . All warships were equipped with rams, a triple set of 60-centimetre-wide (2 ft) bronze blades weighing up to 270 kilograms (600 lb) positioned at the waterline. In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the larger and heavier vessels adopted in this period increasingly lacked
30141-509: The proposed terms were so harsh they decided to fight on. At the battle of Tunis in spring 255 BC a combined force of infantry, cavalry and war elephants under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus crushed the Romans. The Romans sent a fleet to evacuate their survivors and the Carthaginians opposed it at the battle of Cape Hermaeum (modern Cape Bon ); the Carthaginians were again heavily defeated. The Roman fleet, in turn,
30338-444: The rebels over. To prevent this, in 240 BC Spendius tortured 700 Carthaginian prisoners to death and henceforth the war was pursued with great brutality. By early 237 BC, after numerous setbacks, the rebels were defeated and their cities brought back under Carthaginian rule. An expedition was prepared to reoccupy Sardinia, where mutinous soldiers had slaughtered all Carthaginians. The Roman Senate stated they considered
30535-448: The remnants of his army were recalled. They sailed from Croton and landed at Carthage with 15,000–20,000 experienced veterans. Mago was also recalled; he died of wounds on the voyage and some of his ships were intercepted by the Romans, but 12,000 of his troops reached Carthage. The Roman fleet continued on from Massala in the autumn of 218 BC, landing the army it was transporting in north-east Iberia, where it won support among
30732-511: The seventh century BC, they had developed a distinct Punic culture infused with local influences. Certain deities became more prominent in the Carthaginian pantheon than in Phoenicia; into the fifth century BC, the Carthaginians were worshiping Greek deities such as Demeter. These trends most likely precipitated the colony's emergence as an independent polity. Though the specific date and circumstances are unknown, Carthage became independent in
30929-477: The ship was to be handled effectively. As a result, the Romans were initially at a disadvantage against the more experienced Carthaginians. To counter this, the Romans introduced the corvus , a bridge 1.2 metres (4 feet) wide and 11 metres (36 feet) long, with a heavy spike on the underside, which was designed to pierce and anchor into an enemy ship's deck. This allowed Roman legionaries acting as marines to board enemy ships and capture them, rather than employing
31126-566: The siege, but was then ambushed and besieged itself. An army had previously been created by the Romans to campaign in Iberia and the Roman Senate detached one Roman and one allied legion from it to send to north Italy. Raising fresh troops to replace these delayed the army's departure for Iberia until September. Meanwhile, Hannibal assembled a Carthaginian army in New Carthage (modern Cartagena ) in Iberia and led it northwards along
31323-429: The sixth century BC, Tyre's power declined further still after its voluntary submission to the Persian king Cambyses ( r. 530–522 BC), which resulted in the incorporation of the Phoenician homeland into the Persian empire. Lacking sufficient naval strength, Cambyses sought Tyrian assistance for his planned conquest of Carthage, which may indicate that the former Tyrian colony had become wealthy enough to warrant
31520-490: The small size of the island, temperatures are generally quite stable. The location of Minorca in the middle of the western Mediterranean was a staging point for the different cultures since prehistoric times. This Balearic Island has a mix of colonial and local architecture. The festes take place throughout the summer in different towns around the island, and have their origins in the early 14th century. The international opera week and international organ festival in Mahon, and
31717-444: The smaller cities of Selinus (modern Selinunte ) and Himera —where the Carthaginians had been dealt a humiliating defeat seventy years prior—before returning triumphantly to Carthage with the spoils of war. But the primary enemy, Syracuse, remained untouched and in 405 BC, Hannibal Mago led a second Carthaginian expedition to claim the rest of the island. This time, however, he met with fiercer resistance as well as misfortune. During
31914-749: The smoke from the pyre as he sails away, and though he does not know the fate of Dido, he identifies it as a bad omen. Ultimately, his descendants go on to found the Roman Kingdom , the predecessor of the Roman Empire. Like Justin, Virgil's story essentially conveys Rome's attitude towards Carthage, as exemplified by Cato the Elder 's famous utterance, " Carthago delenda est "—"Carthage must be destroyed". In essence, Rome and Carthage were fated for conflict: Aeneas chose Rome over Dido, eliciting her dying curse upon his Roman descendants, and thus providing
32111-459: The source of its article with many Sardinian varieties (masc. sing. su , fem sing. sa ), rather than the standard Catalan "el" and "la", similar to other Romance languages (e.g. Spanish el , la , Italian il , la ), corresponding to a form which was historically used along the Costa Brava of Catalonia , from where it is supposed that the islands were repopulated after being conquered from
32308-434: The southern coast of Sicily. The Carthaginian's superior seamanship was not as effective as they had hoped, while the Romans' corvus gave them an edge as the battle degenerated into a shapeless brawl. The Carthaginians were again beaten; this was possibly the largest naval battle in history by the number of combatants involved. The invasion initially went well and in 255 BC the Carthaginians sued for peace ;
32505-556: The southwest corner of the island. Punic wars The Punic Wars were a series of wars between 264 and 146 BC fought between the Roman Republic and Ancient Carthage . Three wars took place, on both land and sea, across the western Mediterranean region and involved a total of forty-three years of warfare. The Punic Wars are also considered to include the four-year-long revolt against Carthage which started in 241 BC. Each war involved immense materiel and human losses on both sides. The First Punic War broke out on
32702-433: The speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram effectively, while their sturdier construction reduced a ram's effect on them even in case of a successful attack. The Roman adaptation of the corvus was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills. The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions
32899-601: The stone is dated to the 9th century BC. (Cross's translation, with a longer discussion of the Nora stone, is found in the Pygmalion article). If Cross's interpretation is correct, this presents inscriptional evidence substantiating the existence of a 9th-century-BC king of Tyre named (in Greek) Pygmalion. The Roman historian Justin , writing in the second century AD, provides an account of the city's founding based on
33096-400: The streets and, along with a tumultuous crowd of people, encourage them to rear up on their hind legs. The brave can be found running underneath them in an attempt to touch the horses hearts for good luck. The third day sees intense competition between the riders in a harmless form of jousting that involves spearing a suspended ring with a lance at considerable speed. The festes are brought to
33293-545: The summer music festival and Capella Davidica concerts in Ciutadella are the main events of the island. Minorca's cuisine is dominated by the Mediterranean diet , which is known to be very healthy. While many of the locals have adopted modern attitudes they still uphold certain old traditions. Minorca is especially well known for its traditional summer "festes", which intrigue many visitors. The Saint John's Feast
33490-466: The third century BC, the reign of Mago I ( c. 550–530), and the political dominance of the Magonid family in subsequent decades, precipitated Carthage's rise as a dominant power. Justin states that Mago, who was also general of the army, was the first Carthaginian leader to "[set] in order the military system", which may have entailed the introduction of new military strategies and technologies. He
33687-406: The traditional picture of Carthage; however, many of these findings remain ambiguous. The specific date, circumstances, and motivations concerning Carthage's founding are unknown. All surviving accounts of the city's origins come from Latin and Greek literature, which are generally legendary in nature but may have some basis in fact. The standard foundation myth across all sources is that the city
33884-501: The two powers to stumble into war more by accident than design. The spark that ignited the First Punic War in 264 BC was the issue of control of the independent Sicilian city state of Messana (modern Messina ). Most male Roman citizens were liable for military service and would serve as infantry, with a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two legions , each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 members of
34081-407: The vacuum as the leading Phoenician political power. Although the Carthaginians retained the traditional Phoenician affinity for maritime trade and commerce, they were distinguished by their imperial and military ambitions: whereas the Phoenician city-states rarely engaged in territorial conquest, Carthage became an expansionist power, driven by its desire to access new sources of wealth and trade. It
34278-428: The war in modern sources are largely based on interpretations of Polybius's account. The account of the Roman historian Livy is commonly used by modern historians where Polybius's account is not extant. Livy relied heavily on Polybius, but wrote in a more structured way, with more details about Roman politics, as well as being openly pro-Roman. His accounts of military encounters are often demonstrably inaccurate;
34475-410: The war shifted to the sea, where the Romans had little experience; on the few occasions they had previously felt the need for a naval presence they had usually relied on small squadrons provided by their Latin or Greek allies. The Romans built a navy to challenge Carthage's, and using the corvus inflicted a major defeat at the battle of Mylae in 260 BC. A Carthaginian base on Corsica
34672-642: The west African coast; though clearly an exaggeration, many colonies did arise in Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Iberia , and in Libya. They were usually established as trading stations at intervals of about 30 to 50 kilometres along the African coast. By the time they gained a foothold in Africa, the Phoenicians were already present in Cyprus , Crete , Corsica , the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as on
34869-459: The western Mediterranean roughly contemporaneously, between the ninth and eighth centuries. Phoenician and Greek settlements, the increased presence of both peoples led to mounting tensions and ultimately open conflict, especially in Sicily. Carthage's economic successes, buoyed by its vast maritime trade network, led to the development of a powerful navy to protect and secure vital shipping lanes. Its hegemony brought it into increasing conflict with
35066-420: The western half of Sicily, where coastal fortresses such as Motya and Lilybaeum secured their possessions. The Iberian Peninsula , which was rich in precious metals, saw some of the largest and most important Carthaginian settlements outside North Africa, though the degree of political influence before the conquest by Hamilcar Barca (237–228 BC) is disputed. Carthage's growing wealth and power, along with
35263-438: The workhorses of the Roman and Carthaginian fleets throughout the Punic Wars. So ubiquitous was the type that Polybius uses it as a shorthand for "warship" in general. A quinquereme carried a crew of 300: 280 oarsmen and 20 deck crew and officers. It would also normally carry a complement of 40 marines; if battle was thought to be imminent this would be increased to as many as 120. In 260 BC Romans set out to construct
35460-513: Was defeated at Dertosa , although both sides suffered heavy casualties. The Carthaginians suffered a wave of defections of local Celtiberian tribes to Rome. The Roman commanders captured Saguntum in 212 BC and in 211 BC hired 20,000 Celtiberian mercenaries to reinforce their army. Observing that the three Carthaginian armies were deployed apart from each other, the Romans split their forces. This strategy resulted in two separate battles in 211 BC, usually referred to jointly as
35657-409: Was already at war against Macedonia. In 205 BC this war ended with a negotiated peace . A rebellion in support of the Carthaginians broke out on Sardinia in 213 BC, but it was quickly put down by the Romans. Up to 215 BC Sicily remained firmly in Roman hands, blocking the ready seaborne reinforcement and resupply of Hannibal from Carthage. Hiero II , the tyrant of Syracuse for
35854-524: Was an analytical historian and wherever possible interviewed participants from both sides in the events he wrote about. Modern historians consider Polybius to have treated the relatives of Scipio Aemilianus , his patron and friend, unduly favourably, but the consensus is to accept his account largely at face value. The modern historian Andrew Curry sees Polybius as being "fairly reliable"; Craige Champion describes him as "a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian". The details of
36051-519: Was being devastated by the enemy. Hannibal marched through the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping the devastation would draw Fabius into battle, but Fabius refused. In the 216 BC elections Gaius Varro and Lucius Paullus were elected as consuls; both were more aggressive-minded than Fabius. The Roman Senate authorised the raising of a force of 86,000 men, the largest in Roman history to that point. Paullus and Varro marched southward to confront Hannibal, who accepted battle on
36248-483: Was built on a hilly, triangular peninsula backed by the Lake of Tunis, which provided abundant supplies of fish and a place for safe harbor. The peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow strip of land, which combined with the rough surrounding terrain, made the city easily defensible; a citadel was built on Byrsa, a low hill overlooking the sea. Finally, Carthage would be conduit of two major trade routes: one between
36445-630: Was designated by UNESCO as a biosphere reserve . In July 2005, the island's application to become the 25th member of the International Island Games Association was approved. As the major part of Balearic Islands, Menorca has a mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ), with mild winters and hot summers. Menorca is generally wetter than Mallorca, with rainfall peaking in late autumn. Average annual highs range between 14 °C (57 °F) in winter to 29 °C (84 °F) in summer. Due to its offshore position and
36642-456: Was devastated by a storm while returning to Italy, losing most of its ships and more than 100,000 men. It is possible that the presence of the corvus, making the Roman ships unusually unseaworthy , contributed to this disaster; there is no record of them being used again. The war continued, with neither side able to gain a decisive advantage. The Carthaginians attacked and recaptured Akragas in 255 BC, but not believing they could hold
36839-512: Was difficult to force a battle if the other commander was unwilling to fight. Forming up in battle order was a complicated and premeditated affair, which took several hours. Infantry were usually positioned in the centre of the battle line, with light infantry skirmishers to their front and cavalry on each flank. Many battles were decided when one side's infantry force was attacked in the flank or rear and they were partially or wholly enveloped . Quinqueremes , meaning "five-oarsmen", provided
37036-456: Was founded by colonists from the ancient Phoenician city-state of Tyre , led by its exiled princess Dido (also known as Queen Elissa or Alissar). Dido's brother, Pygmalion (Phoenician: Pummayaton) had murdered her husband, the high priest of the city, and taken power as a tyrant. Dido and her allies escaped his reign and established Carthage, which became a prosperous city under her rule as queen. Several scholars have identified Baa‘li-maanzer,
37233-458: Was likely chosen by the Tyrians for several reasons. It was located in the central shore of the Gulf of Tunis, which gave it access to the Mediterranean sea while shielding it from the region's infamously violent storms. It was also close to the strategically vital Strait of Sicily, a key bottleneck for maritime trade between the east and west. The terrain proved as invaluable as the geography. The city
37430-422: Was marked by the ingenuity of Archimedes in inventing war machines to counteract the traditional siege warfare methods of the Romans. A large Carthaginian army led by Himilco was sent to relieve the city in 213 BC. It captured several Roman-garrisoned towns on Sicily; many Roman garrisons were either expelled or massacred by Carthaginian partisans. In spring 212 BC the Romans stormed Syracuse in
37627-646: Was not occupied by the French during the Peninsular War , as it was successfully protected by the Royal Navy, this time allied to Spain. A quarantine station ( lazaretto ), Llatzaret (Catalan), was constructed from 1793 to 1807 next to the entrance to the Port Mahon. It served ships from North Africa wishing to reach the Iberian Peninsula or the ports of the Balearic Islands. Lazarettos confined
37824-488: Was not reconciled to Rome's perception of its situation. This breach of the recently signed treaty is considered by modern historians to be the single greatest cause of war with Carthage breaking out again in 218 BC in the Second Punic War . With the suppression of the rebellion, Hamilcar understood that Carthage needed to strengthen its economic and military base if it were to again confront Rome. After
38021-415: Was ruled first by Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd Hakam al Qurashi (1234–1282), and following his death by his son, Abû 'Umar ibn Sa'îd (1282–1287). A Catalan-Aragonese invasion, led by Alfonso III (also known as Count of Barcelona Alfons II), came on 17 January 1287; its anniversary is now celebrated as Menorca's national day. Once the island was captured, most of its Muslim inhabitants were enslaved and sold in
38218-400: Was seized, but an attack on Sardinia was repulsed; the base on Corsica was then lost. In 258 BC a Roman fleet defeated a smaller Carthaginian fleet at the battle of Sulci off the western coast of Sardinia. Taking advantage of their naval victories the Romans launched an invasion of North Africa in 256 BC, which the Carthaginians intercepted at the battle of Cape Ecnomus off
38415-679: Was the Arabicized name given to the island by the Muslims from its annexation to the Caliphate of Cordoba by 'Isâm al-Khawlânî in 903 until the rule of the last Muslim ra'îs, Abû 'Umar ibn Sa'îd in 1287. The only urban centre of the island was Madînat al Jazîra or al Manûrqa (modern Ciutadella ). Most of the population lived in small farm communities organized under a tribal structure. In 1231, after Christian forces took Mallorca, Menorca chose to become an independent Islamic state, albeit one tributary to King James I of Aragon . The island
38612-641: Was the center of a sprawling network of colonies and client states. It controlled more territory than the Roman Republic, and became one of the largest and most prosperous cities in the Mediterranean, with a quarter of a million inhabitants. Carthage did not focus on growing and conquering land, instead, it was found that Carthage was focused on growing trade and protecting trade routes. The trades through Libya were territories and Carthage paid Libyans for access to this land in Cape Bon for agricultural purposes until about 550 BC. In around 508 BC Carthage and Rome signed
38809-571: Was the preeminent economic and political center of Phoenician civilization, saw its status begin to wane in the seventh century BC, following a succession of sieges by the Babylonians . By this time, its Carthaginian colony had become immensely wealthy from its strategic location and extensive trade network. Unlike many other Phoenician city-states and dependencies, Carthage grew prosperous not only from maritime commerce but from its proximity to fertile agricultural land and rich mineral deposits. As
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