Dominican Restoration War Ten Years' War
56-627: Máximo Gómez y Báez (November 18, 1836 – June 17, 1905) was a Cuban-Dominican Generalissimo in Cuba's War of Independence (1895–1898). He was known for his controversial scorched-earth policy, which entailed dynamiting passenger trains and torching the Spanish loyalists' property and sugar plantations—including many owned by Americans. He greatly increased the efficacy of the attacks by torturing and killing not only Spanish soldiers, but also Spanish sympathizers and especially Cubans loyal to Spain. By
112-561: A generalissimo but some sources assert that Joseph Stalin refused to accept the rank. In fact the grade was established by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , which did not need the approval of Stalin. The rank of generalissimo for Stalin was used also by Western diplomacy. In the 20th century, the term came to be associated with military officers who took dictatorial power in their respective countries, especially due to
168-533: A Pole meant being a hero. Roloff's grandson, Felipe Roloff, claimed that Carlos had already been conspiring to launch an uprising, being that he was close to patriots Emilio Núñez , Serafín Sánchez , and Pancho Carrillo, all of whom felt revolutionary fervor during the eastern uprisings. Miguel Jerónimo Gutiérrez named sugar mill owner Joaquín Morales as commander-in-chief and Roloff as major-general and chief-of-staff in Las Villas. Morales admitted that he
224-672: A Spanish regiment attacked the Villareños while they rested, killing 14 men. The Junta discussed future plans as they were low on munitions. Roloff suggested a scorched earth campaign in the sugar-rich west to gain freedmen volunteers and to harm the colonial economy. The proposal was rejected citing a lack of resources; it was decided they move to the Oriente Province to receive supplies from Céspedes. During their march, Roloff's forces sabotaged bridges, telegraph poles, railways, and burned sugar plantations. In early April,
280-619: A bookkeeper. In Caibarién he became known as Carlos Roloff Mialofsky. He was a founder of the San Juan Masonic Lodge in 1866 and was treasurer of the El Progreso Social Club, gaining a local reputation for his success in the position. In 1868, the struggle for Cuban independence culminated in the Ten Years' War . The conflict began with Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and Ignacio Agramonte 's uprisings in
336-482: A dictator and was arrested for it by the president in mid-July 1872. He retracted the comment and apologized, allowing for his release on 25 July. Commander-in-chief Ignacio Agromente's death on 11 May 1873, vitalized a power vacuum and greater division between the House of Representatives and Céspedes. Militarily-experienced Máximo Gómez was promoted to the position by the president. Upon an appeal for more powers Céspedes
392-599: A few hours" but countered that the state of misery most of the laborers still experienced, if that was the price to pay to redeem them from the economic system that enslaved them ¡Bendita sea la tea! ("Blessed be the torch!") On March 5, 1898, the Captain-General of Cuba, Ramón Blanco y Erenas , proposed for Gómez and his Cuban troops to join him and the Spanish Army in repelling the United States in
448-575: A membership fee. In July, he continued in Key West , where he also received a warm welcome. Roloff spent 3 years traveling across the United States with Martí to fundraise. By 1894 the clubs totaled to 126 in 18 cities; Key West had 62. He also led the Lotería de la Patria, which ran from August 1894 to March 1895 and raised thousands of dollars for the party. The Fernandina Plan was devised by
504-616: A patriot assault; he was dissatisfied with the change as he wanted to retain command on the battlefield. The regionalist Villareños disagreed with Gómez's vision for an invasion west. They formed the Unión Repúblicana with Roloff leading them. Gómez attempted to quell the group by returning Roloff to military command, this time of the First Division, but on 1 October was demanded to step down and allow for Roloff to become commander-in-chief. Gómez without fight transferred
560-741: Is the absolute superlative of generale ( 'general' ) thus meaning "the highest-ranking of all generals". The superlative suffix -issimo itself derives from Latin -issimus , meaning "utmost, to the highest grade". Similar cognates in other languages include generalísimo in Spanish , generalíssimo in Portuguese , généralissime in French , and generalissimus in Latin. The Russian word генералиссимус , generalissimus comes from Latin. Historically, this rank
616-602: The Cuban War of Independence began. Martí and Gómez initiated the revolution while Roloff was organizing his expedition. He was watched by Spanish consul Pedro Solís and American authorities in Key West. To avert the watchers the expeditionary force moved camp to Big Pine Key to await a vessel. The men were restless due to the inhospitable environment and lacking provisions but on 18 July the James Woodall picked up
SECTION 10
#1732776027091672-683: The Little War , Roloff went to the Colony of Jamaica in March 1880 to raise funds, though the conflict ended in failure by August. Roloff remained in Jamaica with fellow veterans of the Ten Years' War, Antonio Maceo and Máximo Gómez, until late 1881, before he left to Amapala , Honduras to work at the town's central bank. He was designated vice consul by the United States government and entered
728-602: The Ten Years' War and the Cuban War of Independence in the Las Villas Province . Roloff was born in Warsaw on 4 November 1842 to a Polish family. He was the second of three children had by Karol Rolow and Loisa Miałowska, having an older brother and younger sister. As a child, his family moved to Königsberg , Kingdom of Prussia , where he learned German, business, and military strategy in school. After his father's death in 1862, he and his brother immigrated to
784-617: The Department of Expeditions. To supply offensives he was asked to return to the United States. There he successfully organized expeditions but was arrested in New York City, being charged with violating American laws against filibustering . He was taken to Ludlow Street Jail but later had the charges dropped. After the death of Antonio Maceo, Roloff vowed to avenge him. He organized an expedition with 2,050 rifles, 300 machetes, and 2 small cannons, landing on 21 March 1897. He lost
840-700: The Dominican general, Pedro Florentino . He arrived in Cuba with the Spanish troops evacuated from Santo Domingo in 1865, starting an agricultural enterprise. In Cuba, he married Bernarda Toro, who accompanied him during the war. After the Spanish forces were defeated and fled the Dominican Republic in 1865 by the order of Queen Isabel II , many supporters of the Annexionist cause left with them, and Gómez moved his family to Cuba. Gómez retired from
896-761: The Spaniards cannot say that we are a group of ruffians, interested in nothing more than plundering and ransacking. So, as Commander- in-Chief, I really don't have much to do, because Roloff will [militarily] do everything. On 7 February, carrying a Cuban flag, around 5,000 poorly equipped Villareños traveled from the coffee plantation to Manicaragua . On 17 February, Roloff led 100 men in an attempt to take Santo Domingo , failing due to low ammunition. Two days after, he won at San Gil leading 300 men with rudimentary wooden cannons against 700 Spaniards. On 6 March, three regiments totaling 800 men led by provincial governor, Trillo Figueroa, lost at Santa Cruz del Líbano. A week later,
952-583: The Spanish Army and soon took up the rebel cause in 1868, helping transform the Cuban Army's military tactics and strategy from the conventional approach, favored by Thomas Jordan and others. He gave the Cuban mambises their most feared tactic, the " machete charge." On October 25, 1868, during the Battle of Pino de Baire , Gómez led a machete charge on foot, ambushing a Spanish column and obliterating it;
1008-939: The Spanish commander in the region who received 60,000 pesos until ordered to stop by the Cuban Patriotic Junta in April. Prior to leaving Cuba, he had a son named Gerardo with Benita Alvarez. He was born in Remedios in 1877. In July, Roloff left to New York and in August was in Cincinnati with his relatives. In New York City during March 1879, he became secretary-treasurer of the Cuban Revolutionary Committee led by Calixto García , an organization dedicated to achieving Cuban independence. To support García and other patriots participating in
1064-417: The Spanish government's tyranny in Cuba. Our war will not be an isolated war, it will be an all-out war conducted by the people in Cuba, the Cuban immigrant community, the foreigners who love Cuba, and those who fight for our principles; the principles of freedom, justice and equality. Throughout June he sought donations from cigar workers and created Patriotic Clubs. Cuban émigrés were meant to enroll and pay
1120-650: The Spanish governor, Romualdo Palacio, which led to the arrest of many local political leaders, including Román Baldorioty de Castro , Gómez offered his services to Ramón Emeterio Betances , the previous instigator of the island's first pro-independence revolution, the Grito de Lares , who was then exiled in Paris . Gómez sold most of his personal belongings to finance a revolt in Puerto Rico and volunteered to lead any Puerto Rican troops if any such revolt occurred. The revolt
1176-506: The Spanish leader Francisco Franco having this rank. As such, it is used in literature depicting fictional Latin American dictatorial regimes, for example Father Hilary's Holiday by Bruce Marshall . Carlos Roloff Karol Rolow-Miałowski or Carlos Roloff Mialofsky , better known simply as Carlos Roloff , (4 November 1842 – 17 May 1907) was a Polish-born Cuban general and liberation activist, who fought against Spain in
SECTION 20
#17327760270911232-416: The Spanish suffered 233 casualties. The Spanish Army was terrified of the charges because most were infantry troops, mainly conscripts, who were fearful of being cut down by the machetes. Because the Cuban Army always lacked sufficient munitions, the usual combat technique was to shoot once and then charge the Spanish. In 1871, Gómez led a campaign to clear Guantánamo from forces loyal to Spain, particularly
1288-541: The Ten Years' War, José Martí for a new plan to achieve Cuban independence. Roloff met Martí in New York City, moving to Tampa , Florida afterward in June, and joined Martí's pro-independence Cuban Revolutionary Party . Martí was leader and Máximo Gómez, then residing in the Second Dominican Republic , was commander-in-chief. After Martí funded newspaper, Patria , reported: Tampa salutes Roloff,
1344-502: The Trocha—a string of Spanish military fortifications—and burned 83 plantations around Sancti Spíritus and freed their slaves. However, the conservative Revolutionary leaders feared the consequences of these actions and diverted troops away from Gómez' army, causing the campaign to fizzle. In 1876, Gómez surrendered his command when he was told by General Carlos Roloff that the officers of Las Villas would no longer follow his orders since he
1400-733: The United States. They briefly stayed in New York before moving to Cincinnati , Ohio . Roloff served in the Union Army during the American Civil War in the 9th Ohio Infantry Regiment , working under the command of August Willich . He obtained the rank of captain before being discharged when the unit disbanded in June 1864. That same year he traveled to Cuba after being hired by Bishop and Company, an American sugar-exporting firm in Caibarién , Las Villas Province , as
1456-937: The Villareños arrived in Camagüey Province and on 10 April met with Céspedes and other mambises to draft the Guáimaro Constitution . Established was the House of Representatives, which held the responsibility of delegating positions, including president, and named Céspedes the President of the Republic in Arms, with him being sworn in with the flag carried by Roloff. Ultimately the Villareños did not acquire arms and returned to their home province. They engaged in guerrilla warfare, now assaulting in machete-wielding cavalry charges. Dissension spurred within patriot ranks. Roloff, being involved, labeled Céspedes
1512-562: The civil leader of Cuba. He died in his villa in 1905 and was interred in the Colón Cemetery, Havana . Generalissimo Generalissimo ( / ˌ dʒ ɛ n ( ə ) r ə ˈ l ɪ s ɪ m oʊ / JEN -(ə-)rə- LIS -ih-moh ), also generalissimus , is a military rank of the highest degree , superior to field marshal and other five-star ranks in the states where they are used. The word generalissimo ( pronounced [dʒeneraˈlissimo] ), an Italian term,
1568-503: The command of the military district of the province of Camaguey and its famed Cavalry Corps. Upon first inspecting the corps, he concluded that they were the best trained and disciplined in the nascent indigenous Cuban Army, and they would significantly contribute to the war for independence. On February 19, 1874, Gómez and 700 other rebels marched westward from their eastern base and defeated 2,000 Spanish troops at El Naranjo. The Spaniards lost 100 killed in action , 200 wounded in action ;
1624-518: The contents of Lagonda while it was in Fernandina; he properly labeled said contents and freely stated to others that military equipment was aboard. The New York World reported that Martí was seen in Fernandina , which prompted Spanish ambassador Emilio de Muruaga to claim U.S. violation of national neutrality laws and requested an investigation. On 14 January, American officials detained
1680-502: The country with Dr. Eusebio Hernández Pérez at Puerto Cortés . On 24 December, he arrived in Amapala. On 3 February 1883, he married Galatea Guardiola, daughter of former Honduran President Santos Guardiola , at Tegucigalpa Cathedral . They had 4 children, Carlos, Ana Luisa, Julio, and María Francisca, born in 1886, 1890, 1892, and 1894, respectively. In 1892, he returned to the United States answering, along with other veterans of
1736-633: The east, with many being motivated to join due to dissatisfaction with the policies of Captain-General Francisco de Lersundi . The revolution spread to Las Villas in February 1869 with patriots from Santa Clara , Sagua La Grande , Remedios , Cienfuegos , Trinidad , and Sancti Spíritus meeting to form the Las Villas Junta at the El Cafetal González coffee plantation. They planned for their uprising to commence on 7 February. As
Máximo Gómez - Misplaced Pages Continue
1792-604: The end of the Cuban Independence War in 1898, he retired to a villa outside of Havana . In 1899, he was dismissed as general-in-chief of the Cuban army by the Asamblea del Cerro, and this position was abolished. He refused the presidential nomination that was offered to him in 1901, which he was expected to win unopposed, mainly because he always disliked politics. Also, after 40 years of living in Cuba, he still felt that being Dominican -born, he should not become
1848-610: The face of the Spanish–American War . Blanco appealed to the shared heritage of the Cubans and Spanish and promised the island's autonomy if the Cubans would help fight the Americans. Blanco had declared, "As Spaniards and Cubans we find ourselves opposed to foreigners of a different race, who are of a grasping nature.... The supreme moment has come in which we should forget past differences and, with Spaniards and Cubans united for
1904-549: The force and landed them at Tayabacoa, Las Villas Province at 9:30 A.M. on 24 July. Reports of the expedition's supplies vary. He was in command of the Fourth Corps. He demanded payment from sugar planters and if they refused, promptly burned their fields. On 18 September, upon the creation of a new constitution he was elected to the cabinet of President Salvador Cisneros Betancourt as Secretary of War. In this position he gathered weapons and organized expeditions, creating
1960-564: The hero who fought day and night for ten years for the freedom of a land which was not his. Today he is received with admiration by everyone and everyone seeks to shake his hand and express love and admiration for this son of Poland, who today is our honored guest in Tampa. He responded with a speech advocating for the party: [...] the Cuban Revolutionary Party is the entity with which your support will once and for all, end
2016-423: The improvised military tactics that had first been used by Spanish guerrillas against Napoleon Bonaparte 's armies into a cohesive and comprehensive system, at both the tactical and the strategic levels. The concept of insurrection and insurgency and the asymmetric nature thereof can be traced intellectually to him. He was shot in the neck in 1875 while he was crossing the fortified line or Trocha from Júcaro in
2072-655: The majority of members were strictly civilian they sought out a military leader and when confronted, Roloff accepted, joining on the evening of 6 February. The Junta was looking for someone with military experience who would teach us how to fight. It soon learned that in Caibarién there was a Pole who had served in the war between the North and the South. Luis Fernández was ordered to speak with him and he immediately accepted. He arrived last night and we were very glad because being
2128-654: The party, planning for the Revolution to commence in January 1895. Roloff, among other generals, was involved in organizing the military effort. In cooperation with businessman Nathaniel Borden, 3 ships were chartered, the Lagonda , Amadís , and Baracoa . Roloff and Serafín Sánchez were to board the Lagonda in Key West with 150 men after it was loaded with munitions in Fernandina. Colonel Fernando López de Queralta disobeyed Martí's orders of maintaining secrecy regarding
2184-742: The position of Secretary of War in September and was officially replaced upon the drafting of the La Yaya Constitution . He with Sánchez led the capture of Las Varas against 2,000 Spaniards commanded by Colonel Rubin. Meanwhile, the Spanish–American War sparked. The efforts of the Cubans and Americans ended with the Treaty of Paris on 10 December 1898. The result of the war was the United States Military Government in Cuba governing until 1902. In 1901, he
2240-404: The rebels incurred 150 casualties. A battalion of 500 Chinese fought under the command of Gómez in the Battle of Las Guasimas (March 1874). The battle cost the Spanish 1,037 casualties and the rebels 174 casualties. However, the rebels had exhausted their resources: the unusual departure from guerrilla tactics had proved a costly enterprise. In early 1875, with fewer than 2,000 men, Gómez crossed
2296-604: The rich coffee growers, who were mostly of French descent and whose ancestors had fled from Haiti after the Haitians had slaughtered the French. Gómez carried out a bloody but successful campaign, and most of his officers went on to become high-ranking officers, including Antonio and José Maceo, Adolfo Flor Crombet, Policarpo Pineda "Rustán." After the death in combat of Major General Ignacio Agramonte y Loynáz in May 1873, Gómez assumed
Máximo Gómez - Misplaced Pages Continue
2352-491: The role. The war turned against the patriots due to infighting and the arrival of a new well supported captain-general in late 1876. On 11 February 1878, the Pact of Zanjón was signed, recognizing the war was to come to an end. Roloff was among a number of patriots that disagreed with the action and continued to fight along with the Villareños. In the following months, Villareño forces gradually surrendered as they faced against
2408-496: The sake of their own defense, repel the invader. Spain will not forget the noble help of its Cuban sons, and once the foreign enemy is expelled from the island, she will, like an affectionate mother, embrace in her arms a new daughter amongst the nations of the New World, who speaks the same language, practices the same faith, and feels the same noble Spanish blood run through her veins." Gómez refused to adhere to Blanco's plan. At
2464-402: The south to Morón , in the north; he was leading the failed attempt to invade Western Cuba. He then always wore a kerchief around his neck to cover the bullet hole, which remained open after it healed (he usually plugged it with a wad of cotton). His second and last wound came in 1896 while he was fighting in the rural areas outside Havana and completing a successful invasion of Western Cuba. He
2520-477: The time the Spanish–American War broke out in April 1898, the rebellion was virtually defeated in most of Western Cuba, with only a few operating pockets in the center and the east. He refused to join forces with the Spanish in fighting off the United States, and he retired to the Quinta de los Molinos, a luxury villa outside of Havana after the war's end formerly used by captains generals as summer residence. Gómez
2576-719: The title has been for the commander of the united armies of several allied powers (such as Ferdinand Foch on the Western Front in 1918 or Joseph Stalin on the Eastern Front in 1945), or if a senior military officer becomes a chief of state or a head of government (like Chiang Kai-shek in the Republic of China or Francisco Franco in Spain ). The rank generalissimus of the Soviet Union would have been
2632-443: The vessels. The Lagonda was seized and 800 rifles and 600,000 rounds of ammunition found in a warehouse were confiscated. The Amadís and Baracoa were released back to their owners after no military equipment was found. The party was left with $ 3,000 after the fiasco's expense of $ 25,000 to $ 40,000. The party afterword resorted to more contributions from Cuban cigar manufacturers, workers, and Patriotic Clubs. On 24 February 1895,
2688-430: Was Dominican. In the interlude between the two Cuban independence wars, Gómez held odd jobs in Jamaica and Panama (among them, he supervised a laborers' brigade during the construction of the Panama Canal ), but he remained as an active player for the cause of Cuban independence as well as that for the rest of the Antilles . For example, when Puerto Rico experienced a period of severe political repression in 1887 by
2744-411: Was born on November 18, 1836, in the town of Baní , in the province of Peravia , in what is now the Dominican Republic . During his teenage years, he joined in the battles against the frequent Haitian incursions of Faustin Soulouque in the 1850s. He fought alongside the Spanish forces in the Dominican Restoration War (1863–1865), earning promotion from sergeant to commander in a famous victory over
2800-477: Was deemed unnecessary later that year, when the Spanish government recalled Palacio from office to investigate charges of abuse of power from his part, but Gómez and Betances established a friendship and logistical relationship that lasted until Betances's death, in 1898. Gómez rose to the rank of Generalíssimo of the Cuban Army, a rank akin to that of Captain General or General of the Army , because of his superior military leadership. He adapted and formalized
2856-437: Was deposed on 17 October 1873. Gómez with 2,000 men joined the Villareños after crossing the Trocha from Júcaro to Morón on 6 January 1875. He gave Roloff command of the Second Division and ordered him to attack Sagua La Grande , falsely claimed to be holding a Spanish garrison. Roloff refused and was promptly relieved of command and assigned chief-of-intelligence with the objective of gathering information on western Cuba for
SECTION 50
#17327760270912912-422: Was given to a military officer leading an entire army or the entire armed forces of a state, usually only subordinate to the sovereign . Alternatively, those of imperial blood or the commanders-in-chief of several allied armies could gain the title. The military leader Albrecht von Wallenstein in 1632 became the first imperial generalissimo (general of the generals) of the Holy Roman Empire . Other usage of
2968-445: Was granted Cuban citizenship and nominated state-treasurer of the independent republic . He retained the role until his death, upon which he was succeeded by Fernando Figueredo Socarrás [ es ] . He compiled the Indice alfabético y defunciones del Ejército Libertador de Cuba, guerra de independencia, iniciada el 24 de febrero de 1895 y terminada oficialmente el 24 de agosto de 1898 with his son, Gerardo. The work contains
3024-414: Was reliant on the latter, as he himself had no military experience. It is ridiculous for me to serve as Commander-in-Chief when I don't even know how to stand [at] attention. This is extremely comical. I only have accepted this appointment because people have asked me to and because there is a need for this post to be occupied by a sugar mill owner so that those with property would trust us. Also, that way,
3080-402: Was trying to recover Maceo's dead body in combat on December 7, 1896. Soon afterward, Gómez implemented another warfare technique that proved to be very successful in crippling Spanish economic interests in Cuba: torching sugar cane haciendas and other strategic agricultural assets. He personally abhorred the idea of "setting to fire the product of our laborers' work over more than 200 years in
3136-414: Was wounded only twice during 15 years of guerrilla warfare against an enemy far superior in manpower and logistics. In contrast, his most trusted officer and second-in-command, Lieutenant General Antonio Maceo y Grajales , was shot 27 times in the same span of time, with the 26th being the mortal wound. Gómez's son and Maceo's aide-de-camp , Francisco Gómez y Toro , nicknamed "Panchito," was killed while he
#90909