119-588: NARL may refer to: NARL, a section of Utqiagvik, Alaska , United States North American Rugby League , a professional rugby league in North America National Atmospheric Research Laboratory , an Indian research laboratory Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title NARL . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
238-568: A New International Economic Order (NIEO). The NIEO was opposed to the 1944 Bretton Woods system , which had benefited the leading states which had created it, and remained in force until 1971 after the United States' suspension of convertibility from dollars to gold. The main principles of the NIEO are: The UNCTAD however was not very effective in implementing the NIEO, and social and economic inequalities between industrialized countries and
357-649: A Democrat in office from 1913 to 1921, ignored the Philippines, and focused his attention on Mexico and Caribbean nations. By the 1920s, the peaceful efforts by the Filipino leadership to pursue independence proved convincing. When the Democrats returned to power in 1933, they worked with the Filipinos to plan a smooth transition to independence. It was scheduled for 1946 by Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934. In 1935,
476-567: A French-protected monarchy. Spain took the step to occupy the Dominican Republic and restore colonial rule . The Union victory in the Civil War in 1865 forced both France and Spain to accede to American demands to evacuate those two countries. America's only African colony, Liberia , was formed privately and achieved independence early; Washington unofficially protected it. By 1900, the U.S. advocated an Open Door Policy and opposed
595-579: A beacon of hope to pro-independence activists. However, with the anti-colonial wars of the 1900s (decade) barely over, new modernizing forms of Africa nationalism began to gain strength in the early 20th century with the emergence of Pan-Africanism, as advocated by the Jamaican journalist Marcus Garvey (1887–1940) whose widely distributed newspapers demanded swift abolition of European imperialism, as well as republicanism in Egypt. Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972) who
714-509: A climate observation site in Utqiagvik as part of its Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility. Despite the extreme northern location, temperatures at Utqiagvik are moderated by the surrounding topography . The Arctic Ocean is on three sides, and flat tundra stretches some 200 mi (320 km) to the south. No wind barriers or protected valleys exist where dense cold air can settle or form temperature inversions in
833-596: A for-profit village corporation established under the Act. In 1972, the North Slope Borough was established. The borough has built sanitation facilities, water and electrical utilities, roads, and fire departments, and has established health and educational services in Utqiagvik and the villages of the North Slope with millions of dollars in new revenues from the settlement and later oil revenues. In 1986,
952-563: A left-wing revolution inside Portugal overthrew the existing regime and encouraged pro-Soviet elements to attempt to seize control in the colonies. The result was a very long and extremely difficult multi-party Civil War in Angola , and lesser insurrections in Mozambique. Belgium's empire began with the annexation of the Congo in 1908 in response to international pressure to bring an end to
1071-758: A nation in the Western Hemisphere became vulnerable to European control. In practice, this meant that the United States was led to act as a collections agent for European creditors by administering customs duties in the Dominican Republic (1905–1941), Haiti (1915–1934), and elsewhere. The intrusiveness and bad relations this engendered were somewhat checked by the Clark Memorandum and renounced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's " Good Neighbor Policy ". The Fourteen Points were preconditions addressed by President Woodrow Wilson to
1190-447: A new army, under general Douglas MacArthur , who took leave from his U.S. Army position to take command of the new army reporting to Quezon. The Japanese occupation 1942 to 1945 disrupted but did not delay the transition. It took place on schedule in 1946 as Manuel Roxas took office as president. As a result of its pioneering discoveries , Portugal had a large and particularly long-lasting colonial empire which had begun in 1415 with
1309-524: A pioneer settlement. It is not. Barrow is among the oldest permanent settlements in the United States. Hundreds of years before the European Arctic explorers showed up... Barrow was more or less where it is now, a natural hunting place at the base of a peninsula that pokes out into the Beaufort Sea ... Yankee whalers sailed here, learning about the bowhead whale from Iñupiat hunters... Later,
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#17327810751961428-437: A result of economic shifts toward wage labor and an enlarged bourgeois class ; yet another argument sees decolonization as a diffusion process wherein earlier revolutionary movements inspired later ones. Other explanations emphasize how the lower profitability of colonization and the costs associated with empire prompted decolonization. Some explanations emphasize how colonial powers struggled militarily against insurgents in
1547-587: A result, the UN General Assembly removed Puerto Rico from the U.N. list of non-self-governing territories . Four referendums showed little support for independence, but much interest in statehood such as Hawaii and Alaska received in 1959. The Monroe Doctrine was expanded by the Roosevelt Corollary in 1904, providing that the United States had a right and obligation to intervene "in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence" that
1666-546: Is Ukpiaġvik ( IPA: [ukpi.ɑʁvik] ), which comes from ukpik " snowy owl " and is translated as "the place where snowy owls are hunted". A spelling variant of this name was adopted by the Ukpeaġvik Iñupiat Corporation when it was established in 1973. Archaeological sites in the area indicate the Iñupiat lived around Utqiagvik as far back as 500 AD. Remains of 16 sod dwelling mounds , from
1785-436: Is cold and dry, classified as a tundra climate ( Köppen ET ). Winter weather can be hazardous because of the combination of cold and wind, while summers are cool even at their warmest. Weather observation records are available for Utqiagvik, dating back to the late 19th century. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Climate Monitoring Lab operates in Utqiagvik. The United States Department of Energy has
1904-527: Is completely overcast slightly more than 50% of the year. It is at least 70% overcast around 62% of the time. Cloud types are mainly low stratus and fog; cumuli forms are rare. Peak cloudiness occurs in August and September when the ocean is ice-free. Dense fog occurs an average of 65 days yearly, mostly in summer. Ice fog is very common during the winter months, especially when the temperature drops below −30 °F (−34 °C). Wind speed variation during
2023-700: Is located in Utqiagvik, where the airport was renamed the Wiley Post–Will Rogers Memorial Airport in their honor. In 1940, the Indigenous Iñupiat organized as the Native Village of Barrow Iñupiat Traditional Government (previously, Native Village of Barrow), a federally recognized Alaska Native Iñupiat "tribal entity" as listed by the US Bureau of Indian Affairs around 2003. They wrote a constitution and by-laws under
2142-562: Is surrounded by the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska . The city of Utqiagvik has three sections, which can be classified as south, central, and north. They are known to residents as Utqiagvik, Browerville, and NARL, respectively. An ancient 5.0 mi (8 km)-sized crater, Avak , is situated near Utqiagvik. Owing to its location 330 mi (530 km) north of the Arctic Circle , Utqiagvik's climate
2261-603: Is the 12th-most populated city in Alaska. The location has been home to the Iñupiat , an indigenous Inuit ethnic group, for more than 1,500 years. The city's Iñupiaq name refers to a place for gathering wild roots. It is derived from the Iñupiat word utqiq , also used for Claytonia tuberosa (" Eskimo potato "). The name was first recorded by European explorers in 1853 as "Ot-ki-a-wing" by Commander Rochfort Maguire , Royal Navy. John Simpson's native map dated 1855 has
2380-402: Is the borough seat and largest city of the North Slope Borough in the U.S. state of Alaska . Located north of the Arctic Circle , it is one of the northernmost cities and towns in the world and the northernmost in the United States , with nearby Point Barrow as the country's northernmost point. Utqiagvik's population was 4,927 at the 2020 census , an increase from 4,212 in 2010. It
2499-458: Is the core requirement for decolonization, and that this right can be exercised with or without political independence. A UN General Assembly Resolution in 1960 characterised colonial foreign rule as a violation of human rights. In states that have won independence, Indigenous people living under settler colonialism continue to make demands for decolonization and self-determination. Although discussions of hegemony and power, central to
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#17327810751962618-550: Is the economic center of the North Slope Borough, the city's primary employer. Many businesses provide support services to oil field operations. State and federal agencies are employers. The midnight sun has attracted tourism, and arts and crafts offer some cash income. Because transporting food to the city is expensive, many residents continue relying on subsistence food sources. Whale , seal , polar bear , walrus , waterfowl , caribou , and fish are harvested from
2737-858: The 1965 occupation of the Dominican Republic ), Africa, and the Middle East to oppose Communist movements and insurgencies. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the United States has been far less active in the Americas, but invaded Afghanistan and Iraq following the September 11 attacks in 2001, establishing army and air bases in Central Asia . Before World War I, Japan had gained several substantial colonial possessions in East Asia such as Taiwan (1895) and Korea (1910). Japan joined
2856-854: The Bandung Conference along with Sukarno , the leader of Indonesia, and Zhou Enlai , Premier of the People's Republic of China. In 1960, the UN General Assembly voted on the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples . The next year, the first Non-Aligned Movement conference was held in Belgrade (1961), and was followed in 1964 by the creation of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) which tried to promote
2975-658: The Birnirk culture of about 800 AD, can be seen on the shore of the Arctic Ocean. Located on a slight rise above the high-water mark, they risk being lost to erosion. Bill Streever, who chairs the North Slope Science Initiative's Science Technical Advisory Panel, wrote in his 2009 book Cold: Adventures in the World's Frozen Places : Barrow, like most communities in Alaska, looks temporary, like
3094-574: The British Raj , culminating in the Government of India Act 1935 . These reforms included creating elected legislative councils in some of the provinces of British India . Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi , India's independence movement leader, led a peaceful resistance to British rule. By becoming a symbol of both peace and opposition to British imperialism, many Indians began to view the British as
3213-636: The Dutch East Indies , corresponding to what is now Indonesia. Its massive oil reserves provided about 14 percent of the Dutch national product and supported a large population of ethnic Dutch government officials and businessmen in Batavia (now Jakarta) and other major cities. The Netherlands was overrun and almost starved to death by the Nazis during the war, and Japan sank the Dutch fleet in seizing
3332-750: The Great Mosque of Paris was constructed as recognition of these efforts, the French state had no intention to allow self-rule , let alone grant independence to the colonized people. Thus, nationalism in the colonies became stronger in between the two wars, leading to Abd el-Krim 's Rif War (1921–1925) in Morocco and to the creation of Messali Hadj 's Star of North Africa in Algeria in 1925. However, these movements would gain full potential only after World War II. After World War I, France administered
3451-724: The Irish Free State , New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa; Ireland had been brought into a union with Great Britain in 1801 creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until the formation of the Irish Free State in 1922. However, some of the Dominions were already independent de facto, and even de jure and recognized as such by the international community. Thus, Canada was a founding member of
3570-688: The Kingdom of Sikkim merged with India by popular vote in 1975. Significant violence was involved in several prominent cases of decolonization of the British Empire; partition was a frequent solution. In 1783, the North American colonies were divided between the independent United States, and British North America , which later became Canada. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India against British East India Company . It
3689-701: The Northern Mariana Islands elected to become a commonwealth of the United States. Newly independent states organised themselves in order to oppose continued economic colonialism by former imperial powers. The Non-Aligned Movement constituted itself around the main figures of Jawaharlal Nehru , the first Prime Minister of India, Sukarno , the Indonesian president, Josip Broz Tito the Communist leader of Yugoslavia , and Gamal Abdel Nasser , head of Egypt. In 1955 these leaders gathered at
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3808-593: The Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War . Early studies of decolonisation appeared in the 1960s and 1970s. An important book from this period was The Wretched of the Earth (1961) by Martiniquan author Frantz Fanon , which established many aspects of decolonisation that would be considered in later works. Subsequent studies of decolonisation addressed economic disparities as a legacy of colonialism as well as
3927-683: The Spanish Empire and Mexico. The Native Americans were sent to reservations , often unwillingly. With support from Britain, its Monroe Doctrine reserved the Americas as its sphere of interest, prohibiting other states (particularly Spain) from recolonizing the newly independent polities of Latin America . However, France, taking advantage of the American government's distraction during the Civil War, intervened militarily in Mexico and set up
4046-779: The Territory of the Philippine Islands was eventually granted independence. In 1917, the U.S. purchased the Danish West Indies (later renamed the US Virgin Islands ) from Denmark and Puerto Ricans became full U.S. citizens that same year. The US government declared Puerto Rico the territory was no longer a colony and stopped transmitting information about it to the United Nations Decolonization Committee. As
4165-518: The UN Partition Plan and the ensuing war . The British eventually pulled out, and the former Mandate territory was divided between Israel , Jordan and Egypt . After World War I, the colonized people were frustrated at France's failure to recognize the effort provided by the French colonies (resources, but more importantly colonial troops – the famous tirailleurs ). Although in Paris
4284-704: The Union of South Africa , and Western Samoa by New Zealand . Egypt became independent in 1922, although the UK retained security prerogatives, control of the Suez Canal , and effective control of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan . The Balfour Declaration of 1926 declared the British Empire dominions as equals, and the 1931 Statute of Westminster established full legislative independence for them. The equal dominions were six– Canada , Newfoundland , Australia,
4403-550: The University of Miami , an anticipated rise in sea level and consequent global warming is inevitable, meaning the existence of Utqiagvik at its current location is doomed in the relative geological short term. Smoothed data from NOAA show that Utqiagvik has warmed by more than 11 °F (6.1 °C) since 1976. On December 5, 2022, Utqiagvik broke its previous record for the warmest winter temperature, hitting 40 °F (4 °C). The town first appeared in census records in
4522-439: The conquest of Ceuta and ended only in 1999 with the handover of Portuguese Macau to China. In 1822, Portugal lost control of Brazil , its largest colony. From 1933 to 1974, Portugal was an authoritarian state (ruled by António de Oliveira Salazar ). The regime was fiercely determined to maintain the country's colonial possessions at all costs and to aggressively suppress any insurgencies. In 1961, India annexed Goa and by
4641-473: The terrible atrocities that had taken place under King Leopold 's privately run Congo Free State . It added Rwanda and Burundi as League of Nations mandates from the former German Empire in 1919. The colonies remained independent during the war, while Belgium was occupied by the Germans. There was no serious planning for independence, and exceedingly little training or education provided. The Belgian Congo
4760-541: The 1880 U.S. Census as the unincorporated Inuit village of "Ootiwakh". All 225 of its residents were Inuit. In 1890, the community and area were returned as the "Cape Smythe Settlements", which included the refuge and whaling stations, Pengnok, Utkeavie, Kugaru (Inaru) River villages, four other camps, and Whaling Steamer Balaena . Of the 246 residents, 189 were Natives, 46 were White, one was Asian, and 10 were other races. This did not include nearby Point Barrow, which
4879-407: The 1954 Geneva Accords ended France's occupation of Indochina, leaving South Vietnam independent and North Vietnam independence recognized. In 1956, Morocco and Tunisia gained their independence from France. In 1960, eight independent countries emerged from French West Africa , and five from French Equatorial Africa . The Algerian War of Independence raged from 1954 to 1962. To this day,
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4998-462: The 1960s, due to economic needs for post-war reconstruction and rapid economic growth, French employers actively sought to recruit manpower from the colonies, explaining today's multiethnic population . A union of former colonies itself, the United States approached imperialism differently from the other Powers. Much of its energy and rapidly expanding population was directed westward across the North American continent against English and French claims,
5117-528: The 19th century than they did in the 20th century, where holding on to such colonies was often understood to be a burden. A great deal of scholarship attributes the ideological origins of national independence movements to the Age of Enlightenment . Enlightenment social and political theories such as individualism and liberalism were central to the debates about national constitutions for newly independent countries. Contemporary decolonial scholarship has critiqued
5236-575: The Algerian war – officially called a "public order operation" until the 1990s – remains a trauma for both France and Algeria. Philosopher Paul Ricœur has spoken of the necessity of a "decolonisation of memory", starting with the recognition of the 1961 Paris massacre during the Algerian war, and the decisive role of African and especially North African immigrant manpower in the Trente Glorieuses post–World War II economic growth period. In
5355-408: The British made deals with the local politicians. Across the empire, the general protocol was to convene a constitutional conference in London to discuss the transition to greater self-government and then independence, submit a report of the constitutional conference to parliament, if approved submit a bill to Parliament at Westminster to terminate the responsibility of the United Kingdom (with a copy of
5474-423: The Chinese province of Rehe , and incorporated it into its Manchurian possessions. The Second Sino-Japanese War started in 1937, and Japan occupied much of eastern China, including the Republic's capital at Nanjing . An estimated 20 million Chinese died during the 1931–1945 war with Japan. In December 1941, the empire of Japan joined World War II by invading the European and U.S. colonies in Southeast Asia and
5593-400: The Duck-in, the Iñupiat protested a federal hunting ban on ducks, which threatened their livelihood and access to food security. The residents of the North Slope were the only Native people to vote on the acceptance of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ; they rejected it. The Act was passed in December 1971 and, despite their opposition, became law. The Ukpeaġvik Iñupiat Corporation is
5712-428: The Dutch cause. In the aftermath, the Netherlands prospered greatly in the 1950s and 1960s but nevertheless public opinion was bitterly hostile to the United States for betrayal. The Dutch government eventually gave up on claims to Indonesian sovereignty in 1949, after American pressure. The Netherlands also had one other major colony, Dutch Guiana in South America , which became independent as Suriname in 1975. When
5831-429: The Earth's surface lies as far or farther from the equator as Utqiagvik. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 21 sq mi (54 km ), of which 3 sq mi (7.8 km ) are covered by water (14% of the total area). The predominant land type in Utqiagvik is tundra , which is formed over a permafrost layer that is as deep as 1,300 ft (400 m). Utqiagvik
5950-410: The East Indies. In 1945 the Netherlands could not regain these islands on its own; it did so by depending on British military help and American financial grants . By the time Dutch soldiers returned, an independent government under Sukarno was in power, originally set up by the Empire of Japan . The Dutch both abroad and at home generally agreed that Dutch power depended on an expensive war to regain
6069-455: The European powers at the Paris Peace Conference following World War I . In allowing allies France and Britain the former colonial possessions of the German and Ottoman Empires, the US demanded of them submission to the League of Nations mandate , in calling for V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty
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#17327810751966188-418: The League of Nations in 1919 and served on the council from 1927 to 1930. That country also negotiated on its own and signed bilateral and multilateral treaties and conventions from the early 1900s onward. Newfoundland ceded self-rule back to London in 1934. Iraq , a League of Nations mandate, became independent in 1932. In response to a growing Indian independence movement , the UK made successive reforms to
6307-409: The North Slope Borough created the North Slope Higher Education Center. Renamed Iḷisaġvik College , it is an accredited two-year college providing education based on the Iñupiat culture and the needs of the North Slope Borough. The Tuzzy Consortium Library, in the Iñupiat Heritage Center , serves the communities of the North Slope Borough and functions as the academic library for Iḷisaġvik College. It
6426-460: The Ottoman Empire, was culturally divided between the majority Greek element (which demanded " enosis " or union with Greece) and the minority Turks. London for decades assumed it needed the island to defend the Suez Canal; but after the Suez crisis of 1956, that became a minor factor, and Greek violence became a more serious issue. Cyprus became an independent country in 1960, but ethnic violence escalated until 1974 when Turkey invaded and partitioned
6545-400: The Pacific, including French Indochina , Hong Kong , the Philippines, Burma, Malaya , Indonesia , Portuguese Timor , and others. Following its surrender to the Allies in 1945, Japan was deprived of all its colonies with a number of them being returned to the original colonizing Western powers. The Soviet Union declared war on Japan in August 1945 , and shortly after occupied and annexed
6664-411: The Philippines transitioned out of territorial status, controlled by an appointed governor, to the semi-independent status of the Commonwealth of the Philippines . Its constitutional convention wrote a new constitution, which was approved by Washington and went into effect, with an elected governor Manuel L. Quezon and legislature. Foreign Affairs remained under American control. The Philippines built up
6783-416: The Second World War. Critical scholars extend the meaning beyond independence or equal rights for colonized peoples to include broader economic, cultural and psychological aspects of the colonial experience. Extending the meaning of decolonization beyond political independence has been disputed and received criticism. The United Nations (UN) states that the fundamental right to self-determination
6902-543: The Third World grew throughout the 1960s until the 21st century. The 1973 oil crisis which followed the Yom Kippur War (October 1973) was triggered by the OPEC which decided an embargo against the US and Western countries, causing a fourfold increase in the price of oil, which lasted five months, starting on 17 October 1973, and ending on 18 March 1974. OPEC nations then agreed, on 7 January 1975, to raise crude oil prices by 10%. At that time, OPEC nations – including many who had recently nationalized their oil industries – joined
7021-466: The UK. In 1947, British India was partitioned into the independent dominions of India and Pakistan . Hundreds of princely states , states ruled by monarchs in a treaty of subsidiary alliance with Britain, were integrated into India and Pakistan. India and Pakistan fought several wars over the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir . French India was integrated into India between 1950 and 1954, and India annexed Portuguese India in 1961, and
7140-475: The United Nations was formed in 1945, it established trust territories. These territories included the League of Nations mandate territories which had not achieved independence by 1945, along with the former Italian Somaliland . The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands was transferred from Japanese to US administration. By 1990 all but one of the trust territories had achieved independence, either as independent states or by merger with another independent state;
7259-497: The allies in World War I, and after the war acquired the South Seas Mandate , the former German colony in Micronesia, as a League of Nations Mandate . Pursuing a colonial policy comparable to those of European powers, Japan settled significant populations of ethnic Japanese in its colonies while simultaneously suppressing Indigenous ethnic populations by enforcing the learning and use of the Japanese language in schools. Other methods such as public interaction, and attempts to eradicate
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#17327810751967378-441: The amount decreasing each day during the first half of the polar night. On the winter solstice (around December 21 or December 22), civil twilight in Utqiagvik lasts 3 hours. After this, the amount of civil twilight increases each day to around 6 hours at the end of the polar night. Particularly cold weather usually begins in January, and February is generally the coldest month, averaging −11.9 °F (−24.4 °C). By March 1,
7497-478: The annihilation of people's cultures. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o explored the cultural and linguistic legacies of colonialism in the influential book Decolonising the Mind (1986). "Decolonization" has also been used to refer to the intellectual decolonization from the colonizers' ideas that made the colonized feel inferior. Issues of decolonization persist and are raised contemporarily. In the Americas and South Africa , such issues are increasingly discussed under
7616-420: The call for a New International Economic Order to be initiated by coalitions of primary producers. Concluding the First OPEC Summit in Algiers they called for stable and just commodity prices, an international food and agriculture program, technology transfer from North to South, and the democratization of the economic system. But industrialized countries quickly began to look for substitutes to OPEC petroleum, with
7735-428: The cause of India's problems leading to a newfound sense of nationalism among its population. With this new wave of Indian nationalism, Gandhi was eventually able to garner the support needed to push back the British and create an independent India in 1947. Africa was only fully drawn into the colonial system at the end of the 19th century. In the north-east the continued independence of the Ethiopian Empire remained
7854-534: The city was 57.2% Alaska Native , 21.8% White , 9.4% Asian , 1.0% African American , 1.4% Pacific Islander , 0.7% from other races , 8.5% from two or more races , and 3.3% Hispanics or Latinos of any race. Of the 1,399 households, 56.5% had children under 18 living with them, 45.2% were married couples living together, 14.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.0% were not families. 23.0% of all households were individuals, and 1.8% had someone 65 or older living alone. The average household size
7973-520: The coast or nearby rivers and lakes. Utqiagvik is the headquarters of the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation , one of the Alaska Native corporations set up following the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971 to manage revenues and invest in development for their people in the region. Decolonization Decolonization is the undoing of colonialism , the latter being the process whereby imperial nations establish and dominate foreign territories, often overseas. The meanings and applications of
8092-411: The colonies due to a shift from 19th century conditions of "strong political will, a permissive international environment, access to local collaborators, and flexibility to pick their battles" to 20th century conditions of "apathetic publics, hostile superpowers, vanishing collaborators, and constrained options". In other words, colonial powers had more support from their own region in pursuing colonies in
8211-500: The concept of decolonization, can be found as early as the writings of Thucydides , there have been several particularly active periods of decolonization in modern times. These include the decolonization of Africa , the breakup of the Spanish Empire in the 19th century; of the German , Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires following World War I ; of the British , French , Dutch , Portuguese , Belgian , Italian , and Japanese Empires following World War II ; and of
8330-407: The daily mean temperature rises above freezing, and the normal daily mean temperature remains above freezing until September 21. July is the year's warmest month, with an average temperature of 41.7 °F (5.4 °C). Beginning in mid-July, the Arctic Ocean is relatively ice-free until late October. The highest temperature recorded in Utqiagvik was 79 °F (26 °C) on July 13, 1993, while
8449-462: The day. October is usually the month with the heaviest snowfall, with measurable amounts occurring on over half the days and a 1991−2020 normal total accumulation of 10.3 in (26 cm). Sunlight is around 6 hours per day by the end of October. When the sun sets on November 18, it stays below the horizon until January 23, resulting in a polar night that lasts about 66 days. When the polar night starts, about 6 hours of civil twilight occur, with
8568-667: The direct division of China. After 1898 direct intervention expanded in Latin America. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867 and annexed Hawaii in 1898. Following the Spanish–American War in 1898, the US added most of Spain's remaining colonies: Puerto Rico , Philippines , and Guam . Deciding not to annex Cuba outright, the U.S. established it as a client state with obligations including
8687-555: The emancipatory potential of Enlightenment thought, highlighting its erasure of Indigenous epistemologies and failure to provide subaltern and Indigenous people with liberty, equality, and dignity. Great Britain's Thirteen North American colonies were the first to declare independence , forming the United States of America in 1776, and defeating Britain in the Revolutionary War . The Haitian Revolution
8806-472: The former Ottoman territories of Syria and Lebanon , and the former German colonies of Togoland and Cameroon , as League of Nations mandates. Lebanon declared its independence in 1943, and Syria in 1945. In some instances, decolonization efforts ran counter to other concerns, such as the rapid increase of antisemitism in Algeria in the course of the nation's resistance to French rule. Although France
8925-818: The freezing point on an average of only 136 days per year, and 92 days have a maximum at or below 0 °F (−18 °C). Freezing temperatures and snowfall can occur during any month of the year. Regarding precipitation, Utqiagvik has a desert climate and averages less than 6 in (150 mm) "rainfall equivalent" per year. One inch of rain has an estimated water content equal to 12 in (30 cm) of snow. According to 1981−2010 normals, this includes 37 in (94 cm) of snow, compared to 99 in (250 cm) for Kuujjuaq in Nunavik , Quebec , or 87 in (220 cm) and 69 in (180 cm) for much warmer Juneau and Kodiak, Alaska , respectively. Even Sable Island , at around 44 degrees latitude and under
9044-458: The high reaches at least 50 °F (10 °C). Temperatures above 60 °F (16 °C) are rare but have been recorded in most years. Even in July and August, the low falls to or below the freezing mark on an average of 18 days. In addition to its low temperatures and polar night, Utqiagvik is one of the cloudiest places on Earth. Owing to the prevailing easterly winds off the Arctic Ocean, it
9163-487: The ice offshore. After a two-week rescue effort ( Operation Breakthrough ), a Soviet icebreaker freed two of the whales. Journalist Tom Rose details the rescue, and the media frenzy that accompanied it, in his 1989 book Freeing The Whales . The movie Big Miracle is based on the rescue and was released on February 3, 2012. Utqiagvik is roughly 1,300 mi (2,100 km) south of the North Pole . Only 2.6% of
9282-696: The independence wars of Latin America began with a revolt in La Paz, Bolivia . In 1807 and 1808, the Viceroyalty of the River Plate was invaded by the British. After their 2nd defeat, a Frenchman called Santiague de Liniers was proclaimed a new Viceroy by the local population and later accepted by Spain. In May 1810 in Buenos Aires , a Junta was created, but in Montevideo it was not recognized by
9401-528: The influence of the Gulf Stream , received 44 in (110 cm), or 20 percent more snowfall than Utqiagvik. Snowfall in Utqiagvik has increased in recent years, with an average annual snowfall of 46 in (120 cm) according to the more recent 1991–2020 normals. The annual first snow (defined as snow that will not melt until the next spring) generally falls during the first week of October, when temperatures cease to rise above freezing during
9520-610: The interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable government whose title is to be determined. See also point XII. After World War II , the U.S. poured tens of billions of dollars into the Marshall Plan , and other grants and loans to Europe and Asia to rebuild the world economy. At the same time American military bases were established around the world and direct and indirect interventions continued in Korea , Indochina , Latin America ( inter alia ,
9639-638: The invasion of Spain by Napoleon in 1806, the American colonies declared autonomy and loyalty to King Ferdinand VII. The contract was broken and each of the regions of the Spanish Empire had to decide whether to show allegiance to the Junta of Cadiz (the only territory in Spain free from Napoleon) or have a junta (assembly) of its own. The economic monopoly of the metropolis was the main reason why many countries decided to become independent from Spain. In 1809,
9758-523: The island. Each side rewrote its own history, blaming the other. Palestine became a British mandate from the League of Nations after World War I, initially including Transjordan . During that war, the British gained support from Arabs and Jews by making promises to both (see McMahon–Hussein Correspondence and Balfour Declaration ). Decades of ethno—religious violence reached a climax with
9877-694: The islands. Compromises were negotiated, but were trusted by neither side. When the Indonesian Republic successfully suppressed a large-scale communist revolt, the United States realized that it needed the nationalist government as an ally in the Cold War. Dutch possession was an obstacle to American Cold War goals, so Washington forced the Dutch to grant full independence. A few years later, Sukarno nationalized all Dutch East Indies properties and expelled all ethnic Dutch —over 300,000—as well as several hundred thousand ethnic Indonesians who supported
9996-572: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NARL&oldid=1087801785 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Utqiagvik, Alaska Utqiagvik ( / ˌ ʊ t k i ˈ ɑː v ɪ k / UUT -kee- AH -vik ; Inupiaq : Utqiaġvik , IPA: [utqe.ɑʁvik] ), formerly known as Barrow ( / ˈ b ær oʊ / BARR -oh ),
10115-586: The local government who followed the authority of the Junta of Cadiz. The rivalry between the two cities was the main reason for the distrust between them. During the next 15 years, the Spanish and Royalist on one side, and the rebels on the other fought in South America and Mexico. Numerous countries declared their independence. In 1824, the Spanish forces were defeated in the Battle of Ayacucho . The mainland
10234-642: The lower atmosphere, as commonly happens in the interior between the Brooks and the Alaska ranges. Utqiagvik has the lowest average temperatures of cities in Alaska. Although Utqiagvik rarely records the lowest temperatures statewide during cold waves, extremely low wind chill and "white out" conditions from blowing snow are prevalent. Temperatures remain below freezing, 32 F (0 C), from early October through late May, and below 0 °F (−18 °C) from December through March. The high temperature reaches or tops
10353-429: The lowest was −56 °F (−49 °C) on February 3, 1924; the highest minimum was 56 °F (13 °C) on August 5, 2023, while the lowest maximum was −47 °F (−44 °C) on January 3, 1975. On average, during the 1991 to 2020 reference period, the coldest winter maximum was −29 °F (−34 °C) and the warmest summer minimum was 47 °F (8 °C). Utqiagvik records an average 26 days per year where
10472-492: The median income for a family was $ 68,223. Males had a median income of $ 51,959 versus $ 46,382 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 22,902. About 7.7% of families and 8.6% of the population were below the poverty line , including 7.2% of those under 18 and 13.1% of those 65 and older. As of December 2022, the city's website says: "The largest city in the North Slope Borough, Utqiagvik, has 4,429 residents, of which approximately 61% are Iñupiat Eskimo." Utqiagvik
10591-464: The military came, setting up a radar station, and in 1947 a science center was founded at Barrow. British Royal Navy officers came to the area to explore and map the Arctic coastline of North America. The US acquired Alaska in 1867 by purchasing it from Russia. The United States Army established a meteorological and magnetic research station at Utqiagvik in 1881. In 1888, a Presbyterian church
10710-543: The name "Otkiawik", which was later misprinted on a British Admiralty chart as "Otkiovik." The former name Barrow was derived from Point Barrow and was originally a general designation because non-native Alaskan residents found it easier to pronounce than the Inupiat name. Point Barrow was named after Sir John Barrow of the British Admiralty by explorer Frederick William Beechey in 1825. A U.S. post office
10829-511: The new constitution annexed), and finally, if approved, issuance of an Order of Council fixing the exact date of independence. After World War I , several former German and Ottoman territories in the Middle East, Africa, and the Pacific were governed by the UK as League of Nations mandates . Some were administered directly by the UK, and others by British dominions – Nauru and the Territory of New Guinea by Australia , South West Africa by
10948-440: The oil companies investing the majority of their research capital in the US and European countries or others, politically sure countries. The OPEC lost more and more influence on the world prices of oil. The second oil crisis occurred in the wake of the 1979 Iranian Revolution . Then, the 1982 Latin American debt crisis exploded in Mexico first, then Argentina and Brazil, which proved unable to pay back their debts, jeopardizing
11067-540: The perpetual lease of Guantánamo Bay to the U.S. Navy. The attempt of the first governor to void the island's constitution and remain in power past the end of his term provoked a rebellion that provoked a reoccupation between 1906 and 1909, but this was again followed by devolution. Similarly, the McKinley administration , despite prosecuting the Philippine–American War against a native republic , set out that
11186-582: The police assaults on the Salt March of 1930. Large-scale communal violence broke out between Hindus and Muslims and between Muslims and Sikhs after the British left in 1947 in the newly independent dominions of India and Pakistan. Much later, in 1970, further communal violence broke out within Pakistan in the detached eastern part of East Bengal, which became independent as Bangladesh in 1971. Cyprus , which came under full British control in 1914 from
11305-478: The prior millenium, as well as to habitation. Thinner sea ice endangers the landing of bowhead whale strikes on offshore ice by springtime whalers. Caribou habitat is also affected while thawing soil threatens homes and municipal and commercial structures. The city's infrastructure is endangered, particularly water, sanitation, power, and road stability. The shoreline is rapidly eroding and has been encroaching on buildings for decades. According to Dr. Harold Wanless of
11424-489: The provisions of the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934. An IRA corporation was also created. Utqiagvik was incorporated as a first-class city under the name Barrow in 1958. Natural gas lines were brought to the town in 1965, eliminating the need for traditional heating sources such as whale blubber. The Barrow Duck-In was a civil disobedience event that occurred in the spring of 1961. During
11543-542: The same year nationalist forces had begun organizing in Portugal. Revolts (preceding the Portuguese Colonial War ) spread to Angola , Guinea Bissau and Mozambique . Lisbon escalated its effort in the war: for instance, it increased the number of natives in the colonial army and built strategic hamlets. Portugal sent another 300,000 European settlers into Angola and Mozambique before 1974. That year,
11662-535: The southern Kuril Islands , which Japan still claims . In the United States, the two major parties were divided on the acquisition of the Philippines, which became a major campaign issue in 1900. The Republicans, who favored permanent acquisition, won the election, but after a decade or so, Republicans turned their attention to the Caribbean, focusing on building the Panama Canal . President Woodrow Wilson ,
11781-478: The sun is up for 9 hours, and temperatures begin to warm, although winds are usually higher. Starting on March 23, astronomical night ceases to occur, with only daylight and twilight until the start of the midnight sun in May. This is also true from the end of the midnight sun at the beginning of August until September 22. April brings less extreme temperatures, with an average of 4.0 °F (−15.6 °C), and on April 1,
11900-475: The sun is up for more than 14 hours. By May 1, the sun is up for 19 hours, and by May 10 or 11 (depending on the year's relationship to the nearest leap year), the sun stays above the horizon for the entire day. This phenomenon is known as the midnight sun . The sun does not set for 83 days, until August 1 or 2 (again, depending on the year's relationship to the nearest leap year). In May, temperatures are much warmer, averaging 22.7 °F (−5.2 °C). On June 6,
12019-515: The term decoloniality . In the two hundred years following the American Revolutionary War in 1783, 165 colonies have gained independence from Western imperial powers. Several analyses point to different reasons for the spread of anti-colonial political movements. Institutional arguments suggest that increasing levels of education in the colonies led to calls for popular sovereignty; Marxist analyses view decolonization as
12138-553: The term are disputed. Some scholars of decolonization focus especially on independence movements in the colonies and the collapse of global colonial empires . As a movement to establish independence for colonized territories from their respective metropoles , decolonization began in 1775 in North America . Major waves of decolonization occurred in the aftermath of the First World War and most prominently after
12257-642: The use of Korean , Hokkien , and Hakka among the Indigenous peoples, were seen to be used. Japan also set up the Imperial Universities in Korea ( Keijō Imperial University ) and Taiwan ( Taihoku Imperial University ) to compel education. In 1931, Japan seized Manchuria from the Republic of China, setting up a puppet state under Puyi , the last Manchu emperor of China. In 1933 Japan seized
12376-503: The year is limited, with the fall days being windiest. Extreme winds from 40 to 60 mph (64 to 97 km/h) have been recorded every month. Winds average 12 mph (19 km/h) and are typically from the east. See or edit raw graph data . The Arctic region is warming at a rate that is three times the global average, forcing major adjustments to life on the North Slope with regard to hunting and whaling practices over
12495-407: Was 3.35, and the average family size was 4.80. In Utqiagvik, the age distribution was 27.7% under 18, 13.3% from 18 to 24, 31.6% from 25 to 44, 19.4% from 45 to 64, and 3.4% who were 65 or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 107.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $ 63,094.09, and
12614-456: Was 60.5% Alaskan Native, 16.2% White, 8.9% Asian, 8.1% from two or more races, 3.1% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 2.3% Pacific Islander, and 0.9% African. In the census of 2000 , 4,683 persons, 1,399 households, and 976 families were reported living in the city. The population density was 249.0 inhabitants per square mile (96.1/km ). There were 1,620 housing units at an average density of 88.1 per square mile (34.0/km ). The racial makeup of
12733-771: Was a Constitutionalist Revolution in Portugal, which led to the return of the Portuguese court to Lisbon. This led to distrust between the Portuguese and the Brazilian colonists, and finally, in 1822, to the colony becoming independent as the Empire of Brazil , which later became a republic. The emergence of Indigenous political parties was especially characteristic of the British Empire , which seemed less ruthless than, for example, Belgium, in controlling political dissent. Driven by pragmatic demands of budgets and manpower
12852-593: Was a revolt in 1789 and subsequent slave uprising in 1791 in the French colony of Saint-Domingue , on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola . In 1804, Haiti secured independence from France as the Empire of Haiti , which later became a republic. The chaos of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe cut the direct links between Spain and its American colonies, allowing for the process of decolonization to begin. With
12971-415: Was a separate community. In 1900, the community reported again as "Cape Smythe Settlements". In 1910, it first reported as Barrow and did so in every successive census to 2010. The community formally incorporated in 1959. The native name Utqiagvik was adopted in 2016 and was used in the 2020 census. In the 2010 United States Census , 4,212 persons were reported living in the city. The city's racial makeup
13090-521: Was built by United States missionaries at Utqiagvik. The church is still in use today. In 1889, a whaling supply and rescue station was built. It is the oldest wood-frame building in Utqiagvik and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The rescue station was converted in 1896 for use as the retail Cape Smythe Whaling and Trading Station. In the late 20th century, the building
13209-482: Was characterized by massacres of civilians on both sides. It was not a movement for independence, however, and only a small part of India was involved. In the aftermath, the British pulled back from modernizing reforms of Indian society, and the level of organised violence under the British Raj was relatively small. Most of that was initiated by repressive British administrators, as in the Amritsar massacre of 1919 , or
13328-466: Was especially rich, and many Belgian businessmen lobbied hard to maintain control. Local revolts grew in power and finally, the Belgian king suddenly announced in 1959 that independence was on the agenda – and it was hurriedly arranged in 1960, for country bitterly and deeply divided on social and economic grounds. The Netherlands had spent centuries building up its empire. By 1940 it consisted mostly of
13447-464: Was established in 1901, which helped the name "Barrow" to become dominant. Following a referendum approved by residents on October 6, 2016, the city's name was formally changed from Barrow to Utqiaġvik on December 1, 2016. City Council member Qaiyaan Harcharek said the name change supports the use of the Iñupiaq language and is part of a decolonization process. Another recorded Iñupiaq name
13566-533: Was extremely limited. On the night of 29 March 1947, a Madagascar nationalist uprising led the French government headed by Paul Ramadier ( Socialist ) to violent repression: one year of bitter fighting, 11,000–40,000 Malagasy died. In 1946, the states of French Indochina withdrew from the French Union, leading to the Indochina War (1946–54). Cambodia and Laos became independent in 1953, and
13685-416: Was free, and in 1898, Spain lost Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Spanish–American War . Puerto Rico became an unincorporated territory of the US, but Cuba became independent in 1902. The Napoleonic Wars also led to the severing of the direct links between Portugal and its only American colony, Brazil . Days before Napoleon invaded Portugal, in 1807 the Portuguese royal court fled to Brazil . In 1820 there
13804-673: Was inspired by the works of Garvey led Ghana to independence from colonial rule. Independence for the colonies in Africa began with the independence of Sudan in 1956, and Ghana in 1957. All of the British colonies on mainland Africa became independent by 1966, although Rhodesia 's unilateral declaration of independence in 1965 was not recognized by the UK or internationally. Some of the British colonies in Asia were directly administered by British officials, while others were ruled by local monarchs as protectorates or in subsidiary alliance with
13923-400: Was named after Evelyn Tuzroyluk Higbee, an influential community leader. Utqiagvik, like many communities in Alaska, has enacted a "damp" law prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages. However, the import, possession, and consumption of such beverages are still allowed. In 1988, Utqiagvik became the center of worldwide media attention when three California gray whales became trapped in
14042-588: Was ultimately a victor of World War II, Nazi Germany's occupation of France and its North African colonies during the war had disrupted colonial rule. On 27 October 1946, France adopted a new constitution creating the Fourth Republic , and substituted the French Union for the colonial empire. However power over the colonies remained concentrated in France, and the power of local assemblies outside France
14161-497: Was used as Brower's Cafe. A United States Post Office was opened in 1901. In 1935, famous humorist Will Rogers and pilot Wiley Post made an unplanned stop at Walakpa Bay, 15 mi (24 km) south of Utqiagvik, en route to the city. As they took off again, their plane stalled and plunged into a river, killing them both. Two memorials have been erected at the location, now called the Rogers–Post Site . Another memorial
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