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120-459: At one point, the region had the highest population density of a region inhabited by Indigenous peoples in Canada . The Pacific Northwest Coast at one time had the most densely populated areas of indigenous people ever recorded in Canada. The land and waters provided rich natural resources through cedar and salmon, and highly structured cultures developed from relatively dense populations. Within

240-516: A Chimakuan -speaking people. Their traditional territory is in the western Olympic Peninsula, around the Quillayute and Hoh Rivers . The Willapa people are a traditionally Athabaskan -speaking people of southwestern Washington. Their territory was between Willapa Bay (named after them) and the prairie lands around the head of the Chehalis and Cowlitz Rivers . A related people, known as

360-422: A collective noun is a specific term of art used as a legal term encompassing all Indigenous peoples living in Canada. Although "Indian" is a term still commonly used in legal documents for First Nations, the descriptors "Indian" and " Eskimo " have fallen into disuse in Canada, and most consider them to be pejorative . Aboriginal peoples has begun to be considered outdated and is slowly being replaced by

480-487: A national historic site , one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner. The Plano cultures was a group of hunter-gatherer communities that occupied the Great Plains area of North America between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indians moved into new territory as it emerged from under the glaciers. Big game flourished in this new environment. The Plano culture

600-588: A Feast. Professionals existed for some communities, but music is taught and then rehearsed. For some nations, the tradition was those who made musical errors were punished, usually through shaming. Employing octave singing, but rather than running up and down the scale, it is not uncommon to jump notes and go from bottom to top or top to bottom in a couple of notes. Vocal Rhythmic patterns are often complex and run counter to rigid percussion beats. The tribes would dance in groups in circles. The creation of beautiful and practical objects (for all tribal communities) served as

720-655: A continuous habitation of at least 10,000 years. Their traditional language is called Gitxsanimaax . A museum known as 'Ksan displaying some traditional and modern Gitksan art and history is located on the Gitanmaax reserve near Hazelton . The aboriginal title rights of the Gitxsan and their neighbours, the Wetʼsuwetʼen , were affirmed by the Supreme Court of Canada in its 1997 Delgamuukw decision. To date,

840-766: A diet of squash, corn, and bean crops. The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell Exchange System networked cultures and societies with the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario . Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula , Saugeen , and Laurel complexes . First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what

960-533: A distinct people. They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo. The Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages , but are related to each other. Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo , inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik across the geographical area inhabited by them. Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are often divided into legal categories based on their relationship with

1080-409: A forum to display wealth within a tribe. In the potlatch ceremony, the chief would give highly elaborate gifts to visiting peoples to establish his power and prestige, and by accepting these gifts the visitors conveyed their approval of the chief. There were also great feasts and displays of conspicuous consumption, such as the burning of articles, or throwing things into the sea, purely as a display of

1200-627: A language related to Heiltsuk , Wuikyala or Oowekyala (they are dialects of a language that has no independent name; linguists refer to it as Heiltsuk-Oweekyala). Together with the Heiltsuk and Haisla, they were once incorrectly known as the Northern Kwakiutl because of their language's close relationship with Kwakʼwala . Greatly reduced in numbers today, like other coastal peoples they were master carvers and painters. They had an elaborate ritual and clan system. The focus of their territory

1320-451: A large array of plant species. These species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide. The vastness and variety of Canada's climates, ecology, vegetation, fauna , and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural or linguistic divisions. Canada is surrounded north, east, and west with coastline and since the last ice age, Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions. Language contributes to

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1440-547: A means of transmitting stories, history, wisdom and property from generation to generation. Art provided Indigenous people with a tie to the land by depicting their histories on totem poles the Big (Plank) Houses of the Pacific Northwest coast – the symbols depicted were a constant reminder of their birthplaces, lineages and nations. Due to the abundance of natural resources and the affluence of most Northwest tribes, there

1560-749: A mixed language called Michif . Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of Métif, a variant of Métis. The Métis today predominantly speak English , with French a strong second language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues . A 19th-century community of the Métis people, the Anglo-Métis , were referred to as Countryborn. They were children of Rupert's Land fur trade typically of Orcadian , Scottish, or English paternal descent and Aboriginal maternal descent. Their first languages would have been Aboriginal ( Cree , Saulteaux , Assiniboine , etc.) and English. Their fathers spoke Gaelic , thus leading to

1680-588: A numerous tribe" but instead found "only of three men, three women" as well as the oldest of the men "marked with the small-pox", when referring to the Tlingit people in the North West Coast. Oral traditions of various tribes in the Pacific Northwest also refer to an epidemic of smallpox on the populations. There are many theories to how smallpox arrived in the Pacific Northwest. One theory is that an outbreak in central Mexico in 1779 spread north and infected

1800-624: A pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals. The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12,000 years ago. Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America, such as hyenas and large camels . Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site in Yukon from which a specimen of apparently human-worked mammoth bone was radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago. Clovis sites dated at 13,500 years ago were discovered in western North America during

1920-443: Is native to America rather than a person who is ethnically Indigenous to the boundaries of the present-day United States. In this sense, native may encompass a broad range of populations and is therefore not recommended, although it is not generally considered offensive. The Indian Act  ( Revised Statutes of Canada (R.S.C.) , 1985, c. I-5) sets the legal term Indian , designating that "a person who pursuant to this Act

2040-769: Is a First Nations government in northern Vancouver Island in British Columbia , Canada, their main community is the community of Alert Bay in the Queen Charlotte Strait region. There are approximately 225 members of the Daʼnaxdaʼxw Nation. The Nation is a member of the Kwakiutl District Council and, for treaty negotiation purposes, the Winalagalis Treaty Group which includes three other members of

2160-417: Is a hunting grounds that was in use for about 5,000 years. By 7,000–5000 BCE (9,000–7,000 years ago) the west coast of Canada saw various cultures who organized themselves around salmon fishing. The Nuu-chah-nulth of Vancouver Island began whaling with advanced long spears at about this time. The Maritime Archaic is one group of North America's Archaic culture of sea-mammal hunters in

2280-409: Is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnic identity. In conversation, this would be "I am Haida ", or "we are Kwantlens ", in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities. Also coming into general use since the 1970s, First Peoples refers to all Indigenous groups, i.e. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. Notwithstanding Canada's location within

2400-566: Is believed the inhabitants entered the Americas pursuing Pleistocene mammals such as the giant beaver , steppe wisent (bison), muskox , mastodons , woolly mammoths and ancient reindeer (early caribou). One route hypothesized is that people walked south by way of an ice-free corridor on the east side of the Rocky Mountains , and then fanned out across North America before continuing on to South America. The other conjectured route

2520-644: Is characterized by a range of projectile point tools collectively called Plano points , which were used to hunt bison . Their diets also included pronghorn , elk , deer , raccoon and coyote . At the beginning of the Archaic period , they began to adopt a sedentary approach to subsistence. Sites in and around Belmont, Nova Scotia , have evidence of Plano-Indians, indicating small seasonal hunting camps, perhaps re-visited over generations from around 11,000–10,000 years ago. Seasonal large and smaller game fish and fowl were food and raw material sources. Adaptation to

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2640-892: Is considered to be part of the civilization of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast , although their territory lies in the Interior rather than on the Coast . They were at one time also known as the Interior Tsimshian , a term which also included the Nisga'a , the Gitxsan's neighbours to the north. Their neighbours to the west are the Tsimshian (a.k.a. the Coast Tsimshian) while to

2760-621: Is derived from the Haisla word x̣àʼisla or x̣àʼisəla , "(those) living at the rivermouth, living downriver". The Heiltsuk ( / ˈ h aɪ l t s ʊ k / HYLE -tsuuk ) are an indigenous Nation of the Central Coast region of the Canadian province of British Columbia, centred on the island communities of Bella Bella and Klemtu . The Heiltsuk are the descendants of a number of tribal groups who came together in Bella Bella in

2880-780: Is distinguished from the Chinook Jargon , which was partly based upon it, and is often called "Chinook." Close allies of the Nuu-chah-nulth , they are also a canoe people, and pre-European contact, Chinook Jargon arose as a trading language incorporating both Chinookan and Wakashan vocabulary. Recent attempts to keep Chinook Jargon or Chinook Wawa alive are helped by the corpus of songs and stories dictated by Victoria Howard to Melville Jacobs , published by him as Clackamas Chinook Texts. Selections from that corpus were also published as Clackamas Chinook Performance Art. The Chinookan peoples practiced slavery, likely learned from

3000-679: Is forbidden. There are approximately 5,000 people British Columbia wide with many living in traditional Gitxsan territory. Many also live elsewhere in British Columbia, in places such as Terrace , Smithers , and in Vancouver , as well as around the world. Eighty per cent of the people living on the lands surrounding Legate creek to the Skeena headwaters are Gitxsan ('People of the River Mist') and archaeological evidence supports

3120-460: Is in the Pacific Northwest on the west coast of Vancouver Island. In pre-contact and early post-contact times, the number of nations was much greater, but as in the rest of the region, smallpox and other consequences of contact resulted in the disappearance of some groups, and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups. They were among the first Pacific peoples north of California to come into contact with Europeans. Competition between Spain and

3240-563: Is indigenous to the New England and Atlantic Canada regions of North America. The culture flourished between 3,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE (5,000–3,000 years ago) and was named after their burial ceremonies, which used large quantities of red ochre to cover bodies and grave goods. The Arctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula , around Bristol Bay , and on

3360-606: Is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed each with its own culture, customs, and character. In the northwest were the Athapaskan speaking , Slavey , Tłı̨chǫ , Tutchone , and Tlingit . Along the Pacific coast were the Tsimshian ; Haida; Salish ; Kwakwakaʼwakw ; Heiltsuk ; Nootka ; Nisga'a ; Senakw and Gitxsan . In the plains were the Niisitapi ; Káínawa ; Tsuutʼina ; and Piikáni . In

3480-563: Is now spoken by less than 5% of the population—about 250 people. Today 17 separate tribes make up the Kwakwakaʼwakw, who historically spoke the common language of Kwakʼwala . Some Kwakwakaʼwakw groups are now extinct. Kwakʼwala is a Northern Wakashan language , a grouping shared with Haisla, Heiltsuk and Oowekyala. The Nuu-chah-nulth ( / n uː ˈ tʃ ɑː n ʊ l θ / noo- CHAH -nuulth ; Salishan: [nuːt͡ʃaːnˀuɬ] ) are an Indigenous people in Canada. Their traditional home

3600-534: Is quite different from that of their coastal neighbours, though it contains a large number of Wakashan loan words. They are believed to have been more connected to Interior Salish peoples, before Athabaskan -speaking groups now inland from them spread southwards, cutting the Nuxalk off from their linguistic relatives. The Wuikinuxv , also known as the Owekeeno or Rivers Inlet people (after their location), speak

3720-406: Is registered as an Indian or is entitled to be registered as an Indian." Section 5 of the act states that a registry shall be maintained "in which shall be recorded the name of every person who is entitled to be registered as an Indian under this Act." No other term is legally recognized for the purpose of registration and the term Indian specifically excludes reference to Inuit as per section 4 of

Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast - Misplaced Pages Continue

3840-535: Is that they migrated, either on foot or using primitive boats , down the Pacific coast to the tip of South America, and then crossed the Rockies and Andes . Evidence of the latter has been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of metres following the last ice age. The Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the Pleistocene Ice ages , thus it served as

3960-469: The Americas , the term Native American is hardly ever used in Canada, in order to avoid any confusion due to the ambiguous meaning of the word "American". Therefore, the term is typically used only in reference to the Indigenous peoples within the boundaries of the present-day United States . Native Canadians was often used in Canada to differentiate this American term until the 1980s. In contrast to

4080-574: The Canadian Martyrs ). Christianization as government policy became more systematic with the Indian Act in 1876, which would bring new sanctions for those who did not convert to Christianity . For example, the new laws would prevent non-Christian Aboriginal people from testifying or having their cases heard in court, and ban alcohol consumption. When the Indian Act was amended in 1884, traditional religious and social practices, such as

4200-646: The Copper River Delta north of the Alaska Panhandle . The vast majority currently live near the Alaskan city of Cordova . The Tlingit ( / ˈ k l ɪ ŋ k ɪ t / KLINK -it , / ˈ t l ɪ ŋ ɡ ɪ t / ; the latter is considered inaccurate) are one of the furthest north indigenous nations in the Pacific Northwest Coast. Their autonym is Lingít [ɬɪŋkɪ́t] , meaning "Human being". The Russian name for them, Koloshi ,

4320-516: The Eramosa River around 8,000–7,000 BCE (10,000–9,000 years ago). They were concentrated between Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay . Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier-covered land. Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting by 6,000–5,000 BCE (8,000–7,000 years ago). They hunted buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump , near Lethbridge, Alberta ,

4440-718: The Indian Act was the Canadian residential school system : Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the first century of Confederation, none was more ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of the Department, to its goal of assimilation than the residential school system… it was the residential school experience that would lead children most effectively out of their "savage" communities into "higher civilization" and "full citizenship." Gitxsan Gitxsan (also spelled Gitksan and Kitksan ) are an Indigenous people in Canada whose home territory comprises most of

4560-683: The North Straits Salish -speaking peoples in and around Victoria , the Halkomelem -speaking peoples in and around Vancouver , and the Lushootseed -speaking peoples in and around Seattle . Pre-European contact, the Coast Salish numbered in the tens of thousands, and as such were one of the most populous groups on the northwest coast The Chimakum people were a Chimakuan -speaking people whose traditional territory lay in

4680-717: The Northwest Territories (NWT). Amongst notable Métis people are singer and actor Tom Jackson , Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Tony Whitford , and Louis Riel who led two resistance movements: the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870 and the North-West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in his trial and subsequent execution. The languages inherently Métis are either Métis French or

4800-565: The Potlatch , would be banned, and further amendments in 1920 would prevent " status Indians " (as defined in the Act ) from wearing traditional dress or performing traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non-Christian practices. Another focus of the Canadian government was to make the Aboriginal groups of Canada sedentary, as they thought that this would make them easier to assimilate. In

4920-543: The Salish Sea in 2010. The Coast Salish cultures differ considerably from those of their northern neighbours. One branch, the Bella Coola, feature a patrilineal, not matrilineal, system. As a whole, the Coast Salish tribes generally have both a matrilineal and patrilineal system. They are also one of the few peoples on the coast whose traditional territories coincide with contemporary major metropolitan areas, namely

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5040-579: The Shoshone in 1781, allowing the disease to spread into the lower Columbia River and Strait of Georgia via trade between the Flathead , Nez Perce , Walla Walla , and other various tribes. Spanish expeditions to the Northwest Coast from Mexico in 1774, 1775, and 1779 are also attributed to spreading smallpox to the local tribes in the area, with many documented outbreaks correlating to where

5160-848: The Thule culture , which emerged from western Alaska around 1,000 CE and spread eastward across the Arctic , displacing the Dorset culture (in Inuktitut , the Tuniit ). Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as "giants", who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society. By 1300,

5280-578: The Wisconsin glaciation , 50,000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwest North America (Alaska). Alaska was ice-free because of low snowfall , allowing a small population to exist. The Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years. Aboriginal genetic studies suggest that

5400-498: The subarctic . They prospered from approximately 7,000 BCE–1,500 BCE (9,000–3,500 years ago) along the Atlantic Coast of North America. Their settlements included longhouses and boat-topped temporary or seasonal houses. They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency white chert , a rock quarried from northern Labrador to Maine . The Pre-Columbian culture, whose members were called Red Paint People ,

5520-570: The 17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts generally recorded friendliness of the First Nations, who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade generally strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation . Throughout the 16th century, European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern shores of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities. A sideline industry emerged in

5640-457: The 1930s. Clovis peoples were regarded as the first widespread Paleo-Indian inhabitants of the New World and ancestors to all Indigenous peoples in the Americas . Archaeological discoveries in the years 1979–2009 brought forward other distinctive knapping cultures who occupied the Americas from the lower Great Plains to the shores of Chile. Localized regional cultures developed from

5760-698: The 19th century, the government began to support the creation of model farming villages, which were meant to encourage non-sedentary Aboriginal groups to settle in an area and begin to cultivate agriculture. When most of these model farming villages failed, the government turned instead to the creation of Indian reserves with the Indian Act of 1876. With the creation of these reserves came many restricting laws, such as further bans on all intoxicants, restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections, decreased hunting and fishing areas, and inability for status Indians to visit other groups on their reserves. Farming

5880-527: The 19th century. They generally prefer the autonym Heiltsuk . Anthropology labelled them the Bella Bella, which is how they are more widely known. The Nuxalk (pronounced [nuχalk] ), also known as the Bella Coola, are an Indigenous people of the Central Coast , as well as the furthest north of the Coast Salish cultures. Linguists have classified their Salishan language as independent of both Interior and Coast Salish language groups. It

6000-516: The Aboriginal peoples. These policies, which were made possible by legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act and the Indian Act , focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education. Missionary work directed at the Aboriginal people of Canada had been ongoing since the first missionaries arrived in the 1600s, generally from France, some of whom were martyred ( Jesuit saints called

6120-482: The Clatskanie ( / ˈ k l æ t s k ɪ n aɪ / ) or Tlatskani, lived on the south side of the Columbia River in northwestern Oregon . The Chinookan peoples were once one of the most powerful and populous groups of tribes on the southern part of the Northwest Coast. Their territories flank the mouth of the Columbia River and stretch up that river in a narrow band adjacent to that river, as far as Celilo Falls . Their group of dialects are known as Chinookan . It

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6240-436: The Crown (i.e. the state). Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal government (as opposed to the provinces) the sole responsibility for "Indians, and Lands reserved for the Indians." The government inherited treaty obligations from the British colonial authorities in Eastern Canada and signed treaties itself with First Nations in Western Canada (the Numbered Treaties ). The Indian Act , passed by

6360-430: The Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast, the music varies in function and expression. Though some groups have more cultural differences than the rest (like the Coast Salish and the more northern nations), there remain many similarities. Some instruments used by the Indigenous were hand drums made of animal hides, plank drums, log drums, box drums, along with whistlers, wood clappers, and rattles. A great deal of

6480-458: The Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century. The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures. Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions. Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit, such as the Nunamiut ( Uummarmiut ) who inhabited the Mackenzie River delta area, often engaged in common warfare. The Central Arctic Inuit lacked

6600-458: The Kwakiutl District Council (the Quatsino First Nation , the Gwaʼsala-ʼNakwaxdaʼxw Nations , and the Tlatlasikwala Nation ). The area referred to as the Northwest Coast has a very long history of human occupation, exceptional linguistic diversity, population density and cultural and ceremonial development. Noted by anthropologists for its complexity, there is emerging research that the economies of these people were more complex and intensive than

6720-466: The Métis, their heritage and Aboriginal ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations. From the late 18th century, European Canadians (and the Canadian government) encouraged assimilation of Aboriginal culture into what was referred to as " Canadian culture ." These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete assimilation and subjugation of

6840-435: The New World began. Lower sea levels in the Queen Charlotte sound and Hecate Strait produced great grass lands called archipelago of Haida Gwaii . Hunter-gatherers of the area left distinctive lithic technology tools and the remains of large butchered mammals, occupying the area from 13,000– 9,000 years ago . In July 1992, the Government of Canada officially designated X̱á:ytem (near Mission, British Columbia ) as

6960-493: The North Coast of British Columbia, and the southernmost corner of Alaska on Annette Island . There are about 10,000 Tsimshian, of whom about 1,300 live in Alaska. Succession in Tsimshian society is matrilineal, and one's place in society was determined by one's clan or phratry (defined as four equal parts). Four main Tsimshian clans form the basic phratry. The Laxsgiik (Eagle Clan) and Ganhada (Raven Clan) form one half. Gispwudwada (Killer Whale Clan) and Laxgibuu (Wolf Clan) form

7080-451: The Northwest Coast harvested root crops through a process of digging and tilling. Using a digging stick made from hard wood, First Nations people would work the ground between tree roots and in bulb and rhizome patches, which loosened the compacted soil. Loosened soils made it easier to remove root crops whole and undamaged, and allowed roots, bulbs and rhizomes to grow more freely and abundantly with increased production. Native peoples of

7200-408: The Nuu-chah-nulth as it was more common to the north, and cranial deformation . Those without flattened heads were considered to be beneath or servile to those who had undergone the procedure as infants. One likely reason for the cultural prominence of the Chinookan peoples was their strategic position along the Columbia River , which acted as a massive trade corridor, as well as near Celilo Falls ,

7320-500: The Nuu-chah-nulth. Their territory is concentrated in the southern portion of Vancouver Island. The Makah are a Southern Wakashan people and are closely related to the Nuu-chah-nulth . They are also noted as whalers . Their territory is around the northwest tip of the Olympic Peninsula . The Coast Salish are the largest of the southern groups. They are a loose grouping of many tribes with numerous distinct cultures and languages. Territory claimed by Coast Salish peoples spans from

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7440-411: The Pacific Northwest also used to eat a variety of fruit and berries. A favorite food was the salmonberry Rubus spectabilis , which derives its name from the fact that it was traditionally eaten with salmon and salmon roe. Blackberries Rubus , and evergreen huckleberries Vaccinium ovatum (which was eaten fresh or dried and made into cakes) were also popular. Red huckleberry Vaccinium parvifolium

7560-468: The Pacific Northwest by European and American migrants. In current times the political and current context of life for these indigenous peoples varies, especially considering their relationship to Canada and the United States. In Canada Indigenous peoples are one of the fastest growing groups with a young and increasing population. Significant issues persist as a result of colonial laws and the now infamous Canadian Indian residential school system . Many of

7680-500: The Pacific Northwest, many different nations developed, each with their own distinct history, culture, and society. Some cultures in this region were very similar and share certain elements, such as the importance of salmon to their cultures, while others differed. Prior to contact, and for a brief time after colonization, some of these groups regularly conducted war against each other through raids and attacks. Through warfare they gathered captives for slavery . The Eyak people reside in

7800-718: The Pre-Dorset, and the Independence traditions . These two groups, ancestors of Thule people , were displaced by the Inuit by 1000 CE. The Old Copper complex societies dating from 3,000 BCE – 500 BCE (5,000–2,500 years ago) are a manifestation of the Woodland culture , and are pre-pottery in nature. Evidence found in the northern Great Lakes regions indicates that they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its natural form to manufacture tools and implements. The Woodland cultural period dates from about 1,000 BCE – 1,000 CE, and has locales in Ontario , Quebec , and Maritime regions. The introduction of pottery distinguishes

7920-430: The Queen Charlotte Islands) also share a common border with other Indigenous peoples, such as the Tlingit and the Tsimshian. The Haida were also famous for their long-distance raiding and slaving, going often to California for trading. The Tsimshian ( / ˈ s ɪ m ʃ i ə n / SIM -shee-ən ), translated as "People Inside the Skeena River ," are indigenous people who live around Terrace and Prince Rupert on

8040-450: The Skeena River", were known with the Nisga'a as Interior Tsimshian. They speak a closely related language to Nisga'a, though both are related to Coast Tsimshian . This is the English term for Tsimshian spoken on the coast. Although inland, their culture is part of the Northwest Coast culture area, and they share many common characteristics, including the clan system, an advanced art style, and war canoes. They share an historic alliance with

8160-561: The Spanish made landfall. Another theory describes the outbreak originating in the Kamchatka Peninsula in 1769 and spreading via Russian explorers to South Alaska and the Aleutians , thus through the Alaska panhandle and down the Pacific Coast. There were a number of later smallpox epidemics, such as the devastating 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic . Due to the native population having no prior exposure to Old World diseases, local tribes may have lost as much as 90% of their population. This depopulation enabled an easier colonization of

8280-474: The Tillamook language was a Coast Salish language, it was somewhat divergent from its more northerly cousins; likewise, the Tillamook culture was substantially different from that of other Coast Salish cultures, apparently influenced by its southern neighbors. They, and their southern neighbors, were less reliant on salmon runs and more reliant on fish trapping in estuaries, hunting, and shellfish gathering. The Daʼnaxdaʼxw Nation , or Da'naxda'xw/Awaetlatla Nation

8400-443: The United Kingdom over control of Nootka Sound led to a bitter international dispute around 1790, which was settled when Spain agreed to abandon its claim of exclusivity to the North Pacific coast, and to pay damages for British ships seized during the dispute. The Nuu-chah-nulth speak a Southern Wakashan language and are closely related to the Makah and Ditidaht. The Ditidaht are a Southern Wakashan speaking people related to

8520-469: The Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants. Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada. They created pointed-bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland technology included items such as beaver incisor knives, bangles, and chisels. The population practising sedentary agricultural life ways continued to increase on

8640-467: The accompaniment of any person or drum. Usually slow in tempo and accompanied by a drum. Principal function of music in this area is spiritual; music honors the Earth, Creator, Ancestors, all aspects of the supernatural world. Sacred songs are not often shared with the wider world. Women and men, families own their own songs as property which can be inherited, sold or given as a gift to a prestigious guest at

8760-564: The act. Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution ; however, its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive. The term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland . Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit , though the Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers agree they are

8880-631: The area known as the Skeena Country in English ( Git : means "people of" and Xsan : means "the River of Mist"). Gitksan territory encompasses approximately 35,000 km (14,000 sq mi) of land, from the basin of the upper Skeena River from about Legate Creek to the Skeena's headwaters and its surrounding tributaries. Part of the Tsimshianic language group , their culture

9000-583: The area of Port Townsend . Beset by warfare from surrounding Salish peoples, their last major presence in the region was eradicated by the Suquamish under Chief Seattle in the mid-19th century. Some survivors were absorbed by neighbouring Salish peoples, while some moved to join the Quileute on the southeast side of the Olympic Peninsula. The Quileute ( / ˈ k w ɪ l i uː t / ) are

9120-649: The area of forest conservation. The vast forests of cedar and spruce where the Haida make their home are on pre-glacial land, which is believed to be almost 14,000 years old. The Haida were widely known for their art and architecture, both of which focused on the creative embellishment of wood. They decorated utilitarian objects with depictions of supernatural and other beings in a highly conventionalized style. Haida communities located in Prince of Wales Island , Alaska and Haida Gwaii , British Columbia (previously referred to as

9240-574: The coast. " the Indian history of British Columbia... began at least a hundred centuries before the Province itself was born...." Wilson Duff On the northwest coast of North America, the mild climate and abundant natural resources made possible the rise of a complex Aboriginal culture. The people who lived in what are today British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon were able to obtain a good living without much effort. They had time and energy to devote to

9360-530: The coast. One development in recent times is the revival of ocean-going cedar canoes. Beginning in the late 1980s with early Haida and Heiltsuk canoes, the revival spread quickly after the Paddle to Seattle in 1989 and the 1993 'Qatuwas canoe festival in Bella Bella . Many other journeys to different places along the coast have occurred; these voyages have come to be known as Tribal Canoe Journeys . Both

9480-498: The development of an English dialect referred to as " Bungee ". S.35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 mentions the Métis yet there has long been debate over legally defining the term Métis, but on September 23, 2003, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis are a distinct people with significant rights ( Powley ruling ). Unlike First Nations people, there has been no distinction between status and non-status Métis;

9600-454: The development of fine arts and crafts and to religious and social ceremonies. The indigenous populations were devastated by epidemics of infectious diseases, especially smallpox , brought in by European explorers and traders. Prior to European colonization, various reports from European explorers describe the tribes in the area bearing signs of smallpox . Nathaniel Portlock , a British ship's captain, described as having "expected to have seen

9720-479: The diet of the Northwest Native Americans was the bulb Camassia , a member of the asparagus family. Indigenous peoples engaged in the active management and cultivation of camassia by clearing land, by tilling and weeding, and by planting bulbs. Camas plots were harvested by individuals or kin-groups, who were recognized as a particular plot's cultivators or stewards. Indigenous peoples of

9840-431: The dried or smoked salmon over the winter, so the first fresh fish caught in the spring was welcomed with great ceremony. Hunting, both on land and sea, was also an important source of food. At sea this involved hunting whales, sea lion, porpoise, seal and sea otter, while deer, moose and elk were pursued on land. The plentiful supply of all these animals meant that the tribes became prosperous. The most important plant in

9960-403: The east the Wetʼsuwetʼen , an Athapaskan people, with whom they have a long and deep relationship and shared political and cultural community. Gitxsan are a matrilineal society that consists of Frog, Eagle, Wolf, and Fireweed Clans . Each clan consists of a series of independent Houses (Wilp), each with their own High Chief, and traditional territories and fishing sites. Marriage within a clan

10080-546: The eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago). These Paleo-Arctic peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small blades ( microblades ) that were pointed at both ends and used as side- or end-barbs on arrows or spears made of other materials, such as bone or antler . Scrapers , engraving tools and adze blades were also included in their toolkits. The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into two cultural variants, including

10200-751: The environment around them in order to encourage greater production of a resource for sustained harvesting. The Pacific salmon in particular played a central role in the diet and culture of the Northwest, so much so that the Native Nations of the region define themselves as the Salmon People. The salmon were caught with hook and line or small nets, and then pierced with cedar skewers and roasted or smoked over open pit fires. Other methods of catching them could also be used however, such as traps, baskets, spears and lures. The tribe would have to rely on

10320-558: The federal Parliament in 1876, has long governed its interactions with all treaty and non-treaty peoples. Members of First Nations bands who are subject to the Indian Act are compiled on a list called the Indian Register , and such people are designated as status Indians. Many non-treaty First Nations and all Inuit and Métis peoples are not subject to the Indian Act . However, two court cases have clarified that Inuit, Métis, and non-status First Nations people are all covered by

10440-489: The first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years. Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting , allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago. It

10560-606: The government would encourage Indians (i.e., First Nations) to enfranchise – to remove all legal distinctions between [Indians] and Her Majesty's other Canadian Subjects . If an Aboriginal chose to enfranchise, it would strip them and their family of Aboriginal title , with the idea that they would become "less savage" and "more civilized," thus become assimilated into Canadian society. However, they were often still defined as non-citizens by Europeans, and those few who did enfranchise were often met with disappointment. The final government strategy of assimilation, made possible by

10680-420: The great wealth of the chief. Groups of dancers put on elaborate dances and ceremonies. These dancers were members of secret "dancing societies". Watching these performances was considered an honor. Potlatches were held for several reasons: the confirmation of a new chief; coming of age; tattooing or piercing ceremonies; initiation into a secret society; marriages; the funeral of a chief; and battle victory. Among

10800-440: The harsh environment included tailored clothing and skin-covered tents on wooden frames. The North American climate stabilized by 8000  BCE (10,000 years ago); climatic conditions were very similar to today's. This led to widespread migration, cultivation and later a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas. Over the course of thousands of years, Indigenous peoples of the Americas domesticated, bred and cultivated

10920-717: The identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices. Aboriginal religions developed from anthropomorphism and animism philosophies. The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status. There is a continuous record of occupation of S'ólh Téméxw by Aboriginal people dating from the early Holocene period, 10,000–9,000 years ago. Archaeological sites at Stave Lake , Coquitlam Lake , Fort Langley and region uncovered early period artifacts. These early inhabitants were highly mobile hunter-gatherers, consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family. The Na-Dene people occupied much of

11040-477: The instruments were used mostly in the potlatch , but also carried over in to other festivities throughout the year. The songs employed are used with dancing, although it is also for celebration, which at times may not be accompanied by dancing. Most singing is community based. There are some solo parts, often the lead singer would begin in the first line of each round of a song, but not long solos. For some ceremonies, solo songs would be used by men and women without

11160-525: The land area of northwest and central North America starting around 8,000 BCE. They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabaskan -speaking peoples, including the Navajo and Apache . They had villages with large multi-family dwellings, used seasonally during the summer, from which they hunted, fished and gathered food supplies for the winter. The Wendat peoples settled into Southern Ontario along

11280-445: The longest continuously inhabited site in the Americas, used as a fishing site and trading hub for 15,000 years by a wide range of indigenous peoples. The Tillamook or Nehalem peoples were a Coast Salishan -speaking group of tribes living roughly between Tillamook Head and Cape Meares on the northern Oregon Coast . The term 'Tillamook' itself is in fact an exonym, from the neighbouring Chinook-speaking Kathlamet people. Although

11400-692: The mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married Europeans, primarily the French colonizers . First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting Europeans during the North American fur trade . Various Aboriginal laws , treaties , and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and Indigenous groups across Canada. The impact of settler colonialism in Canada can be seen in its culture, history, politics, laws, and legislatures. This led to

11520-406: The mid-17th century. When Europeans first arrived to Canada they relied on Aboriginal peoples for fur trading skills and survival. To ensure alliances, relationships between European fur traders and Aboriginal women were often consolidated through marriage. The Métis homeland consists of the Canadian provinces of British Columbia , Alberta , Saskatchewan , Manitoba , and Ontario , as well as

11640-532: The more-specific Aboriginal , one of the issues with the term native is its general applicability: in certain contexts, it could be used in reference to non-Indigenous peoples in regards to an individual place of origin / birth. For instance, people who were born or grew up in Calgary may call themselves "Calgary natives", as in they are native to that city. With this in mind, even the term native American , as another example, may very well indicate someone who

11760-413: The most repressive elements of the Indian Act (federal legislation governing First Nations) were removed in 1951, and the right for First Nations to vote was granted in 1960. The 1951 amendment to the Indian Act lifted the potlatch ban , though the ban was never fully effective - it had pushed traditional culture underground. Since 1951 ceremonial practices and the potlatch have re-emerged widely along

11880-551: The neighboring Wetʼsuwetʼen , a subgroup of the Dakelh (or Carrier people). Together they waged a battle in the courts against British Columbia known as Delgamuukw v British Columbia , which had to do with land rights. The Haisla (also Xaʼislakʼala, X̄aʼislakʼala, X̌àʼislakʼala, X̣aʼislakʼala) are an indigenous nation living at Kitamaat in the North Coast region of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The name Haisla

12000-728: The northern end of the Strait of Georgia , along the east side of Vancouver Island, covering most of southern Vancouver Island, all of the Lower Mainland and Sunshine Coast , all of Puget Sound except (formerly) for the Chimakum territory near Port Townsend , and all of the Olympic Peninsula except that of the Quileute , related to the now-extinct Chemakum. The Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound were officially united as

12120-778: The northern woodlands were the Cree and Chipewyan . Around the Great Lakes were the Anishinaabe ; Algonquin ; Haudenosaunee and Wendat. Along the Atlantic coast were the Beothuk , Wolastoqiyik , Innu , Abenaki and Mi'kmaq . Many First Nations civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks that included permanent urban settlements or cities, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture , and complex societal hierarchies . These cultures had evolved and changed by

12240-471: The other half. Prior to European contact, marriage in Tsimshian society could not take place within a half-group, for example between a Wolf and a Killer Whale. It was considered to be incest even if there was no blood relationship. Marriages were only arranged between people from clans in different halves: for example, between a Killer Whale and a Raven or Eagle. The Gitxsan or Gitksan, meaning "people of

12360-572: The population density to engage in warfare. In the 13th century, the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada. Norse accounts are scant. Norse-made items from Inuit campsites in Greenland were obtained by either trade or plunder. One account, Ívar Bárðarson , speaks of "small people" with whom the Norsemen fought. 14th-century accounts relate that a western settlement, one of

12480-559: The sea and the land provided important sources of food and raw materials to Indigenous Peoples of the Northwest Coast, and many of these resources needed to be managed to ensure continual harvest. Historians and ethnographers provide evidence of cultivation practices and environment management strategies that have been used by First Nations peoples for centuries along the Northwest Coast. Practices like digging and tilling, pruning, controlled burning , fertilizing, streamscaping and habitat creation allowed Indigenous groups to intentionally manage

12600-712: The stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs. Notable among the Inuit are Abraham Ulrikab and family who became a zoo exhibit in Hamburg , Germany, and Tanya Tagaq , a traditional throat singer . Abe Okpik was instrumental in helping Inuit obtain surnames rather than disc numbers and Kiviaq (David Ward) won the legal right to use his single-word Inuktitut name. The Métis are people descended from marriages between Europeans (mainly French) and Cree , Ojibwe , Algonquin , Saulteaux , Menominee , Mi'kmaq , Maliseet , and other First Nations. Their history dates to

12720-524: The systematic abolishment of Indigenous languages, traditions, religion and the degradation of Indigenous communities that has been described as a genocide of Indigenous peoples . The modern Indigenous right to self government provides for Indigenous self-government in Canada and the management of their historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within Indigenous communities. National Indigenous Peoples Day recognizes

12840-399: The term Indians in the Constitution Act, 1867 . The first was Reference Re Eskimos (1939), covering the Inuit; the second was Daniels v. Canada (2013), which concerns Métis and non-status First Nations. According to North American archaeological and genetic evidence, migration to North and South America made them the last continents in the world with human habitation . During

12960-409: The term Indigenous peoples . There is also an effort to recognize each Indigenous group as a distinct nation, much as there are distinct European, African, and Asian cultures in their respective places. First Nations (most often used in the plural) has come into general use since the 1970s replacing Indians and Indian bands in everyday vocabulary. However, on Indian reserves , First Nations

13080-466: The time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago. The Folsom tradition is characterized by the use of Folsom points as projectile tips at archaeological sites. These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison. The land bridge existed until 13,000–11,000 years ago, long after the oldest proven human settlements in

13200-453: The time of the first permanent European arrivals ( c.  late 15th –early 16th centuries), and have been brought forward through archaeological investigations. There are indications of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. Aboriginal people in Canada first interacted with Europeans around 1000 CE, but prolonged contact came after Europeans established permanent settlements in

13320-535: The total Canadian population . There are over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands with distinctive cultures, languages, art, and music. Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Indigenous cultures in Canada prior to European colonization included permanent settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal hierarchies , and trading networks . Métis nations of mixed ancestry originated in

13440-598: The two Norse settlements, was taken over by the Skræling . After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century, Basque fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as those excavated at Red Bay . The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they did raid

13560-622: The un-organized traffic of furs overseen by the British Indian Department . Prominent First Nations people include Joe Capilano, who met with King of the United Kingdom, Edward VII , to speak of the need to settle land claims and Ovide Mercredi , a leader at both the Meech Lake Accord constitutional reform discussions and Oka Crisis . Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call

13680-506: The vast cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples to the history of Canada . First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Indigenous community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity . In Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 , "Aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes Indian , Inuit , and Métis peoples. "Aboriginal" as

13800-499: Was Owikeno Lake , a freshwater fjord above a short stretch of river at the head of Rivers Inlet. The Kwakwakaʼwakw are an indigenous people, numbering about 5,500, who live in British Columbia on northern Vancouver Island and the mainland. The autonym they prefer is Kwakwakaʼwakw . Their Indigenous language, part of the Wakashan languages family, is Kwakʼwala . The name Kwakwakaʼwakw means "speakers of Kwakʼwala". The language

13920-457: Was both eaten and used as fish bait on account of its resemblance to salmon eggs. The Oregon grape Mahonia nervosa was sometimes eaten, mixed with sweeter berries to counteract its sour flavor. A potlatch is a highly complex event where people gather to commemorate a specific event (such as the raising of a totem pole or the appointment/election of a new chief). These potlatches would usually be held in competition with one another, providing

14040-533: Was derived from an Aleut term for the labret ; and the related German name, Koulischen , may be encountered in older historical literature. The Tlingit are a matrilineal society. They developed a complex hunter-gatherer culture in the temperate rainforest of the Alaska Panhandle and adjoining inland areas of present-day British Columbia. The Haida people ( / ˈ h aɪ d ə / HY -də ) are well known as skilled artisans of wood, metal and design. They have also shown much perseverance and resolve in

14160-598: Was plenty of leisure time to create art. Many works of art served practical purposes, such as clothing, tools, weapons of war and hunting, transportation, cooking, and shelter; but others were purely aesthetic. Indigenous peoples in Canada Indigenous peoples in Canada (also known as Aboriginals ) are the Indigenous peoples within the boundaries of Canada. They comprise the First Nations , Inuit , and Métis , representing roughly 5.0% of

14280-412: Was previously assumed. Coast Salish peoples' had complex land management practices linked to ecosystem health and resilience. Forest gardens on Canada's northwest coast included crabapple, hazelnut, cranberry, wild plum, and wild cherry species. Many groups have First Generation Stories - family stories that tell of the origin of the group, and often of humans themselves arising in specific locations along

14400-474: Was still seen as an important practice for assimilation on reserves; however, by the late 19th century the government had instituted restrictive policies here too, such as the Peasant Farm Policy , which restricted reserve farmers largely to the use of hand tools. This was implemented largely to limit the competitiveness of First Nations farming. Through the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857,

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