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106-531: National Bolshevism , whose supporters are known as National Bolsheviks and colloquially as Nazbols , is a syncretic political movement committed to combining ultranationalism and Bolshevik communism . National Bolshevism as a term was first used to describe a faction in the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and later the Communist Workers' Party of Germany (KAPD) which wanted to ally

212-554: A democratic demagogue that lacked any actual socialism , he claimed and criticized that Hitler, after release from prison, started to look more towards Italian Fascism for inspiration, rather than Ludendorff . After the Nazis took power, Niekisch organised a national revolutionary resistance , for which he was sentenced to life imprisonment until being released in 1945 by the Red Army . Upon his release from prison, Niekisch started

318-469: A transit visa for a fee of 5 Western Deutsche Mark . For journeys between West Berlin and Poland or Czechoslovakia through East Germany, each traveller was also required to present a valid visa for the destination country. The transit routes for road travel connecting West Berlin to other destinations usually consisted of autobahns and other highways, marked by Transit signs. Transit travellers (German: Transitreisende ) were prohibited to leave

424-696: A "separate entity" from East Germany, and while the Western Allies later opened embassies in East Berlin, they recognised the city only as the seat of government of the GDR, not as its capital . Communist countries, however, did not recognise West Berlin as part of West Germany and usually described it as a "third" German jurisdiction, called an "independent political unit" ( German : selbständige politische Einheit ). On maps of East Berlin, West Berlin often did not appear as an adjacent urban area but as

530-635: A "showcase of the West." A wealthy city, West Berlin was noted for its distinctly cosmopolitan character, and as a centre of education, research and culture. With about two million inhabitants, West Berlin had the largest population of any city in Germany during the Cold War era. West Berlin was 160 km (100 mi) east and north of the inner German border and only accessible by land from West Germany by narrow rail and highway corridors . It consisted of

636-454: A Frenchman, Englishman, etc...the building of socialism, can bring every nation real freedom, independence and national greatness. It follows that the most internationalist class - the working class - is at the same time the most patriotic class." Otto Wille Kuusinen , "Cosmopolitanism, not patriotism, is the ideology of the imperialist bourgeoisie." Before the independence of Finland, Finnish nationalists sent volunteers to German army, to

742-437: A National Bolshevik political party, was banned on March 20, 2022. Syncretic politics Political syncretism is also referred to as catch-all politics , and syncretism is characterized by vague positioning on the political spectrum. Syncretic parties exhibit very high levels of ideological adaptability and flexibility, constantly switching positions and modifying their stances in order to broaden their electorate, without

848-475: A consolidated commitment to concrete ideologies and political tradition. Political scientist Gilda Sensales argues that political syncretism is relatively rare, and should only be applied to parties and movements that lack programmatic content and which intentionally create ideological ambiguity to attract support. The Centrão refers to a group of political parties that do not have a specific or consistent ideological orientation and aim at ensuring proximity to

954-542: A direct result, electrical grids were separated and phone lines were cut. The Volkspolizei and Soviet military personnel also continued the process of blocking all the roads leading away from the city, resulting in several armed standoffs and at least one skirmish with the French Gendarmerie and the Bundesgrenzschutz that June. However, the culmination of the schism did not occur until 1961 with

1060-484: A minority. The Finnish language was made one of the official languages of the republic and efforts were made to make it even the main language. School language was changed to Finnish, in some places against the will of the local population. During Gylling's time, Finnish workers from Canada and the United States were also systematically enticed to Soviet Karelia, from which several thousands would be recruited during

1166-543: A monochrome terra incognita, sometimes showing the letters WB, meaning "Westberlin" ( German : Westberlin ) or overlaid with a legend or pictures. It was often labelled "Westberlin special political area" ( German : Besonderes politisches Gebiet Westberlin ). The Federal Republic of Germany issued West German passports to West Berliners on request that showed West Berlin as their place of residence. However, West Berliners could not use their passports for crossing East German borders and were denied entrance by any country of

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1272-402: A point between communist and fascists, and forced to act in the peripheries of each group. The group's early policies and actions show some alignment and sympathy with radical nationalist groups, albeit while still holding to the tenets of a form of Marxism that Dugin defined as "Marx minus Feuerbach , i. e. minus evolutionism and sometimes appearing inertial humanism", but a split occurred in

1378-475: A political career in East Germany , which was abruptly ended after the crushing of the 1953 uprising , which resulted in him leaving the party and retiring from politics. Following his retirement, Niekisch moved back to West Berlin and proclaimed himself a 'victim of fascism' due to being blinded while imprisoned, after a long legal battle with West German courts, Niekisch received minor compensation from

1484-457: A practice that the Western Allies regarded as unacceptable. After protests to the Soviets, the patrols continued uncontrolled on both sides, with the tacit agreement that the western Allies would not use their patrolling privileges for helping Easterners to flee to the West. In many ways, West Berlin functioned as the de facto 11th state of West Germany and was depicted on maps published in

1590-591: A second in Berlin- Frohnau , finished on 16 May 1980 with a height of 358 m (1,175 ft). This tower was demolished on 8 February 2009. West Berliners could travel to West Germany and all Western and non-aligned states at all times, except during the Berlin Blockade by the Soviet Union (24 June 1948 to 12 May 1949) when there were restrictions on passenger flight capacity imposed by

1696-425: A springboard from which the revolution could spread to Finland and Scandinavia. His vision was to create a "Scandinavian Socialist Federal Republic" or "red Greater Finland " separate from Russia, which would also include Eastern Karelia. However, to Gylling's chagrin, the borders of Soviet Karelia were drawn in 1924 in such a way that Russians made up more than half of its population, while Karelians and Finns remained

1802-608: A synthesis between radical nationalism (typically referencing Prussianism ) and Bolshevism as it existed in the Soviet Union. One of the early and most prominent pioneers of the National Bolshevik movement in Germany was Ernst Niekisch of the Old Social Democratic Party of Germany . Niekisch was the founder and primary editor of Widerstand , a magazine which advocated for National Bolshevik ideology. Co-publisher and illustrator of Widerstand

1908-590: A victory by the National Bolsheviks. Vladimir Lenin , who did not use the term National Bolshevism, identified the Smenovekhovtsy as a tendency of the old Constitutional Democratic Party who saw Russian communism as just an evolution in the process of Russian aggrandisement. He further added that they were a class enemy and warned against communists believing them to be allies. Liberal philosopher Peter Struve , who Ustryalov greatly admired,

2014-509: A view also shared by David Brandenberger and Evgeny Dobrenko . The National Bolshevik Party (NBP) was founded in 1992 as the National Bolshevik Front , an amalgamation of six minor groups. The party has always been led by Eduard Limonov . Limonov and extreme right-wing ultranationalist activist Aleksandr Dugin sought to unite far-left and far-right radicals on the same platform, with Dugin viewing national-bolsheviks as

2120-731: The 27th Jäger Battalion , who were supposed to act as the revolutionary vanguard who would incite a revolution in Finland against the Russian Imperial government. When the Finnish civil war started, most sided with the White Army but a third sided with the communists. The so-called "Red jägers" were left-wing working class jägers who formed the executive committee of Worker-Jägers that maintained contacts with left-wing revolutionaries back home and in Germany. Influential politicians of

2226-545: The Eastern Bloc , since governments of these countries held the view that West Germany was not authorized to issue legal papers for West Berliners. Since West Berlin was not a sovereign state, it did not issue passports. Instead, West Berliners were issued with "auxiliary identity cards" by the West Berlin authorities. These differed visually from the regular West German identity cards, with green bindings instead of

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2332-600: The House of Representatives , the city's legislature, passed a new constitution, declaring Berlin to be a state of the Federal Republic and the provisions of the Basic Law as binding law superior to Berlin state law (Article 1, clauses 2 and 3). However, that became statutory law only on 1 September and only with the inclusion of the western Allied provision according to which Art. 1, clauses 2 and 3, were deferred for

2438-661: The Potsdam Agreement established the legal framework for the occupation of Germany in the wake of World War II. According to these agreements, Germany would be formally under the administration of four Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union , and France) until a German government "acceptable to all parties" could be established. The territory of Germany, as it existed in 1937, would be reduced by most of Eastern Germany thus creating

2544-532: The Smenovekhovtsy (named after a series of articles he published in 1921) Smena vekh (Russian: change of milestones), came to regard themselves as National Bolsheviks, borrowing the term from Niekisch. Similar ideas were expressed by the Evraziitsi movement and writers such as D. S. Mirsky , and the pro-monarchist Mladorossi . Joseph Stalin 's idea of socialism in one country was interpreted as

2650-604: The Third Way , mixing neoliberal economic policies, such as banking privatization, with socially progressive policies. In the United States, Third Way adherents embrace fiscal conservatism to a greater extent than traditional social liberals and advocate some replacement of welfare with workfare , and sometimes have a stronger preference for market solutions to traditional problems (as in pollution markets ), while rejecting pure laissez-faire economics and other right-libertarian positions. This style of governing

2756-561: The Treaty of Versailles , as well as being characterized by an Anti-French sentiment . Paetel's National Bolshevism advocated for soviet democracy , while also emphasizing a strong nationalism , including a return to paganism , and believing that the nation is a prerequisite for building socialism . Following Hitler's rise to power , Paetel fled Germany, initially to Paris and later New York , where he would die in 1975. The National Bolshevik project of figures such as Niekisch and Paetel

2862-754: The executive branch in order to guarantee advantages and allow them to distribute privileges through clientelistic networks. As examples, there are the Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB), Brazil Union (UNIÃO), Progressives (PP), the Social Democratic Party (PSD), Forward (AVANTE), Solidarity (SD), the Democratic Renewal Party (PRD), Act (AGIR) and the Brazilian Woman's Party (PMB). The Falange of Spain , while allied with

2968-666: The first direct elections to the European Parliament were held in 1979, West Berlin's three members were instead indirectly elected by the House of Representatives. However, as West German citizens , West Berliners were able to stand for election in West Germany. For example, Social Democrat Willy Brandt , who eventually became Chancellor, was elected via his party's list of candidates. The West German government considered all West Berliners as well as all citizens of

3074-465: The former eastern territories of Germany . The remaining territory would be divided into four zones, each administered by one of the four allied countries. Berlin, which was surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation —newly established in most of Middle Germany —would be similarly divided, with the Western Allies occupying an enclave consisting of the western parts of the city. According to the agreement,

3180-627: The 2000s which changed this to an extent. This led to the party moving further left in Russia's political spectrum, and led to members of the party denouncing Dugin and his group as fascists. Dugin subsequently developed close ties to the Kremlin and served as an adviser to senior Russian official Sergey Naryshkin . NBP was banned and outlawed in 2007 and its members went on to form a new political party in 2010, The Other Russia . Initially critical of Vladimir Putin , Limonov at first somewhat liberalized

3286-564: The American, British, and French occupation sectors established in 1945. The Berlin Wall , built in 1961, physically separated West Berlin from its East Berlin and East German surroundings until it fell in 1989. On 3 October 1990, the day Germany was officially reunified , East and West Berlin united, joined the Federal Republic as a Stadtstaat (city-state) and eventually became the capital of Germany again. The London Protocol of 1944 and

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3392-620: The Berlin government. Niekisch died in 1967. In modern times, Niekisch and his works have been cited and praised by both neo-fascists , in particular the Autonomous Nationalists , and some elements of the West German far-left. Aleksandr Dugin also referenced Niekisch in his book The Fourth Political Theory in relation to Eurasianism . Another prominent National Bolshevik was Karl Otto Paetel , notable for writing

3498-627: The British or American sectors after 1945, so that parts of West Berlin came to be surrounded by East Germany Furthermore, the Gatow/Staaken exchange in August 1945 resulted in the geographically western half of Berlin-Staaken, which was located in the western outskirts of the city, becoming de jure Soviet occupied. However, the de facto administration remained with the Borough of Spandau in

3604-584: The British sector. Therefore, all inhabitants of Staaken could vote in West Berlin's city state elections in 1948 and 1950. On 1 February 1951, East German Volkspolizei surprised the people of western Staaken by occupying the area and ended its administration by the Spandau Borough; instead, western Staaken became an exclave of the Soviet occupied borough Berlin-Mitte in the city centre. However, on 1 June 1952, western Staaken's de facto administration

3710-540: The British sector: In the French sector: West Berlin's border was identical to the municipal boundary of Berlin as defined in the Greater Berlin Act of 1920 and amended in 1938, and the border between the Soviet sector and the French, British, and American sectors respectively, which followed the boundaries of Berlin administrative boroughs as defined in the same years. Another amendment was added in 1945 at

3816-499: The East German government, border guards would calculate the travel duration from the time of entry and exit of the transit route. Excessive time spent for transit travel could arouse their suspicion and prompt questioning or additional checking by the border guards. Western coaches could stop only at dedicated service areas since the East German government was concerned that East Germans might potentially use coaches to escape into

3922-673: The Federation she may, nevertheless, designate a small number of representatives to the meetings of those legislative bodies. Consequently, West Berliners were indirectly represented in the Bundestag in Bonn by 22 non-voting delegates chosen by the House of Representatives. Similarly, the Senate (the city's executive) sent four non-voting delegates to the Bundesrat . In addition, when

4028-434: The GDR to be citizens of West Germany. Male residents of West Berlin were exempt from the Federal Republic's compulsory military service. This exemption made the city a popular destination for West German young people, which resulted in a flourishing counterculture , which in turn became one of the defining features of the city. The Western Allies remained the ultimate political authorities in West Berlin. All legislation of

4134-544: The GDR), replacing the formerly used term Demokratisches Berlin , or simply "Berlin", by East Germany, and "Berlin (Ost)" by the West German Federal government. Other names used by West German media included "Ost-Berlin", "Ostberlin", or "Ostsektor." These different naming conventions for the divided parts of Berlin, when followed by individuals, governments, or media, commonly indicated their political leanings, with

4240-667: The Great Depression. Iivo Ahava was a prominent Karelian nationalist who was a leading figure in the local Red Guards. Yrjö Ruutu , the founder and leader of the interwar Strasserist National Socialist Union of Finland , joined the communist Finnish People's Democratic League after the Second World War. In the 2000s, Communist Party MP Pirkko Turpeinen has associated with the far-right, like Juha Korhonen of Freedom Alliance . Johan Bäckman who has been involved with far-right parties recruiting people for

4346-435: The House of Representatives, whether of the West Berlin legislature or adopted federal law, only applied under the proviso of confirmation by the three Western Allied commanders-in-chief. If they approved a bill, it was enacted as part of West Berlin's statutory law. If the commanders-in-chief rejected a bill, it did not become law in West Berlin; this, for example, was the case with West German laws on military duty. West Berlin

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4452-774: The NBP and joined forces with leftist and liberal groups in Garry Kasparov 's United Civil Front to fight Putin. However, he later expressed support of Putin following the outbreak of the Russo-Ukrainian War . Limonov died in March 2020 and his The Other Russia party re-organized and renamed itself to "The Other Russia of E. V. Limonov" to honor its founder. The term National Bolshevism has sometimes been applied to Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and his brand of anti-communism . However, Geoffrey Hosking argues in his History of

4558-893: The National Bolshevist Manifesto (published 1933), in which he bases himself on Marxism . Originally a figure in the German Youth Movement , and later the KPD , Paetel founded the Arbeitsring junge Front , and later the Group of Social Revolutionary Nationalists , which sought to bring together radicals of left and right in pursuit of a " third way " between the NSDAP and the KPD, encompassing both nationalism and socialist economics. The GRSN, founded in 1930,

4664-590: The Nazi Party; an example of this being his largely unsuccessful attempt to win over a section of the Hitler Youth to his cause. Paetel would later strongly condemn both Nazism and all other forms of fascism in the National Bolshevist Manifesto. Similarly to the National Bolshevism of Niekisch , Paetel's ideology was strongly anti-western , focusing on anti-imperialism and opposition to

4770-614: The Soviet Union that Solzhenitsyn cannot be labelled a National Bolshevik since he was thoroughly anti-Stalinist and wished a revival of Russian culture that would see a greater role for the Russian Orthodox Church , a withdrawal of Russia from its role overseas and a state of international isolationism . Solzhenitsyn and his followers, known as vozrozhdentsy (revivalists), differed from the National Bolsheviks, who were not religious in tone (although not completely hostile to religion) and who felt that involvement overseas

4876-442: The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall! On 9 November 1989, the Wall was opened, and the two parts of the city were once again physically—though at this point not legally—united. The Two Plus Four Treaty , signed by the two German states and the four wartime allies, paved the way for German reunification and an end to

4982-489: The Soviet Union. However, this wording remained on the visas throughout the rest of the entire period of West Berlin's existence. West Berlin remained under military occupation until 3 October 1990, the day of unification of East Germany, East and West Berlin with the Federal Republic of Germany . The West German Federal Government, as well as the governments of most western nations, considered East Berlin to be

5088-549: The Soviets would accept the offer because East Germany would lose important industry, but hoped that making the proposal would reduce tensions between the western and eastern blocs, and perhaps hurt relations between the USSR and East Germany if they disagreed on accepting the offer. While the Kennedy administration seriously considered the idea, it did not make the proposal to the Soviet Union. NATO also took an increased interest in

5194-620: The Union Address that "the era of big government is over". West Berlin West Berlin ( German : Berlin (West) or West-Berlin , German pronunciation: [ˈvɛstbɛʁˌliːn] ) was a political enclave which comprised the western part of Berlin from 1948 until 1990, during the Cold War . Although West Berlin lacked any sovereignty and was under military occupation until German reunification in 1990,

5300-640: The West as being a part of West Germany. There was freedom of movement (to the extent allowed by geography) between West Berlin and West Germany . There were no separate immigration regulations for West Berlin, all immigration rules for West Germany being followed in West Berlin. West German entry visas issued to visitors were stamped with "for the Federal Republic of Germany, including the State of Berlin", in German " für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland einschl. [einschließlich] des Landes Berlin ", prompting complaints from

5406-510: The West. On 1 September 1951, East Germany, because of a shortage in foreign currencies , started to levy road tolls on cars using the transit routes. At first, the toll amounted to 10 Ostmark per passenger car and 10 to 50 for trucks, depending on size. Ostmarks had to be exchanged into Deutsche Mark at a rate of 1:1. On 30 March 1955, East Germany raised the toll for passenger cars to 30 Deutsche Marks, but after West German protests, in June of

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5512-405: The Western Allies' occupation of West Berlin. On 3 October 1990—the day Germany was officially reunified—East and West Berlin formally reunited as the city of Berlin, which then joined the enlarged Federal Republic as a city-state along the lines of the existing West German city-states of Bremen and Hamburg . Walter Momper , the mayor of West Berlin, became the first mayor of the reunified city in

5618-489: The Western Allies, who continued to view all of Berlin as a jointly occupied territory belonging to neither of the two German states. This view was supported by the continued practice of patrols of all four sectors by soldiers of all four occupying powers. Thus, occasionally Western Allied soldiers were on patrol in East Berlin as were Soviet soldiers in West Berlin. After the Wall was built, East Germany wanted to control Western Allied patrols upon entering or leaving East Berlin,

5724-431: The airlift. Travelling to and from West Berlin by road or train always required passing through East German border checks, since West Berlin was an enclave surrounded by East Germany and East Berlin. On 2 October 1967, six years after the Wall was constructed, tram tracks in West Berlin were removed because the authorities wanted to promote car usage, meaning that the tram system remaining today runs almost entirely within

5830-642: The border between the British sector of Berlin (ceding West-Staaken ) and the Soviet zone (ceding the Seeburg Salient ) so that the Wehrmacht airfield at Berlin-Gatow became part of the British sector and the airfield at Berlin-Staaken became part of the Soviet sector. The resulting borderline was further complicated with a lot of geographical oddities, including a number of exclaves and enclaves that Greater Berlin had inside some neighbouring municipalities since 1920, all of which happened to become part of

5936-631: The brothers Gregor and Otto Strasser , after which the movement was later named, as well as Walther Stennes , Hermann Ehrhardt , and Ernst Röhm . As the Russian Civil War dragged on, a number of prominent Whites switched to the Bolshevik side because they saw it as the only hope for restoring greatness to Russia. Amongst these was Professor Nikolai Ustryalov , initially an anti-communist, who came to believe that Bolshevism could be modified to serve nationalistic purposes. His followers,

6042-477: The centre-right Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung using "Ost-Berlin" and the centre-left Süddeutsche Zeitung using "Ostberlin." After the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1961, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer suggested to U.S. President John F. Kennedy that the United States propose a swap of West Berlin with Thuringia and parts of Saxony and Mecklenburg ; the city's population would have been relocated to West Germany. Adenauer did not believe that

6148-419: The city with food and other goods through the Berlin Airlift . In May 1949, the Soviets lifted the blockade, and West Berlin as a separate city with its own jurisdiction was maintained. Following the Berlin Blockade, normal contacts between East and West Berlin resumed. This was temporary until talks were resumed. In 1952, the East German government began sealing its borders, further isolating West Berlin. As

6254-434: The co-option of aspects of nationalism by Stalin and his ideologue Andrei Zhdanov enjoyed membership of the intellectual elite under the designation non-party Bolsheviks. Similarly, B. D. Grekov 's National Bolshevik school of historiography, a frequent target under Lenin, was officially recognised and even promoted under Stalin, albeit after accepting the main tenets of Stalinism . It has been argued that National Bolshevism

6360-472: The communist regime of Ceaușescu ) as "National Bolshevik" for often seen blending of left-wing and right-wing political viewpoints, including irrendentism , interventionism and anti-globalist approach to foreign policy. In July 2021, the leader of the American Traditionalist Worker Party Matthew Heimbach announced his intention to reform the party along National Bolshevik lines. The Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine , which has been described as

6466-453: The construction of the Berlin Wall . From the legal theory followed by the Western Allies, the occupation of most of Germany ended in 1949 with the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) on 23 May and of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) on 7 October. Under Article 127 of the Basic Law (or constitution) of the Federal Republic, provision was made for federal laws to be extended to Greater Berlin (as Berlin

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6572-406: The doctrine of National Bolshevism, which was a break from the group's fascist outlook under its previous leader. Nathan Yellin-Mor , one of the leaders of Lehi, formulated the group's unique form of Hebrew National Bolshevism. Some have described the Bulgarian Attack party (which considers itself neither left nor right-wing), the Slovenian National Party (position of which is disputed, with

6678-407: The expulsion would likely have happened regardless as Radek previously dismissed the pair as "National Bolsheviks" (which was the first recorded use of the term). National Bolshevism was among several early ultranationalist , and according to some, fascist movements in Germany that predate Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Party . During the 1920s, a number of German intellectuals began a dialogue which created

6784-578: The former East Berlin. As there were no dedicated walled-off-road corridors between West Germany and West Berlin under West German jurisdiction, travellers needed to pass through East Germany. A valid passport was required for citizens of West Germany and other western nationals to be produced at East German border checks. West Berliners could get admission only through their identity cards (see above). For travel from West Berlin to Denmark, Sweden and West Germany via dedicated East German transit routes (German: Transitstrecke ), East German border guards issued

6890-642: The grey standard, they did not show the "Federal Eagle" or coat of arms , and contained no indications as to the issuing State. However, they did have a statement that the holder of the document was a German citizen. From 11 June 1968, East Germany made it mandatory that West Berlin and West German "transit passengers" obtain a transit visa , issued upon entering East Germany, because under its second constitution East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners foreigners. Since identity cards had no pages to stamp visas, issuers of East German visas stamped their visas onto separate leaflets which were loosely stuck into

6996-447: The idea. The Nouvelle Droite tendency was influenced by both left-wing and right-wing doctrines, taking heavy inspiration from Antonio Gramsci , with many supporters of the concept calling themselves "Gramscians of the Right". Former GRECE secretary-general Pierre Vial has praised Che Guevara , the Italian Red Brigades and the Red Army Faction for their opposition towards liberal democracy. GRECE's Alain de Benoist stated that

7102-422: The identity cards, which, until the mid-1980s, were little booklets. Although the West German government subsidized visa fees, they were still payable by individual travellers. In order to enter visa-requiring Western countries, such as the US, West Berliners commonly used West German passports. However, for countries which did not require stamped visas for entry, including Switzerland, Austria, and many members of

7208-426: The insurgent communist movement with dissident nationalist groups in the German army who rejected the Treaty of Versailles . Heinrich Laufenberg and Fritz Wolffheim led the faction and it was primarily based in Hamburg . They were subsequently expelled from the KAPD which Karl Radek justified by stating that it was necessary for the KAPD to be welcomed into the Third Congress of the Third International , although

7314-421: The interim. City-wide elections in December 1990 resulted in the first "all Berlin" mayor being elected to take office in January 1991, with the separate offices of mayors in East and West Berlin expiring by that time, and Eberhard Diepgen (a former mayor of West Berlin) became the first elected mayor of a reunited Berlin. West Berlin comprised the following boroughs ( Bezirke ): In the American sector: In

7420-462: The labor movement at the time, K. H. Wiik , Oskari Tokoi and Yrjö Mäkelin , among others, supported the Jäger movement. The son of the latter, Leo Mäkelin , joined the ranks of the Jägers on February 14, 1916. Edvard Gylling , Commissar of Finance for the Revolutionary "Red" Finnish government and later Chairman of Karelian ASSR implemented a policy to increase the economic independence and to Finnicize Karelian population. According to Gylling,

7526-406: The left-right political divide has "lost any operative value to analyze the field of ideological or political discourse", and he himself supported the French Communist Party during 1984 elections to the European Parliament . In 1944, Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose called for "a synthesis between National Socialism and communism" to take root in India. The All India Forward Bloc

7632-646: The left-wing of the Nazi Party . This was represented by what has now come to be known as Strasserism . Initially one of the stronger factions of the NSDAP, the left-wing slowly started to lose power to Adolf Hitler 's faction; this culminated in much of the wing splitting off to form the Black Front , whereas the rest would be purged in the Night of the Long Knives . Prominent figures of this movement were

7738-469: The nationalist right side during the Spanish Civil War and being widely considered to be far right , presented itself definitively as syncretic. Falangism has attacked both the left and the right as its "enemies", declaring itself to be neither left nor right, but a Third Position . In the United Kingdom, the emergence of New Labour under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown was a pitch for

7844-703: The notions that the Russians were "the noblest in the world" and that "tsarism and Bolshevism [...] [were] equally irreproachable", defining this as the core of the National Bolshevism to which he was opposed. The Eurasia Movement is a National Bolshevik Russian political movement founded in 2001 by the political scientist Aleksandr Dugin . The organization follows the neo-Eurasian ideology, which adopts an eclectic mixture of Russian patriotism , Orthodox faith , anti-modernism , and even some Bolshevik ideas. The organization opposes "American" values such as liberalism , capitalism , and modernism . The patriotism of

7950-480: The occupation of Berlin could end only as a result of a quadripartite agreement. The Western Allies were guaranteed three air corridors to their sectors of Berlin, and the Soviets also informally allowed road and rail access between West Berlin and the western parts of Germany (see section on traffic). At first, this arrangement was intended to be of a temporary administrative nature, with all parties declaring that Germany and Berlin would soon be reunited. However, as

8056-645: The party refusing to set itself on the political spectrum), the Bosnian-Serb Alliance of Independent Social Democrats (which has gradually abandoned its reformist ideology for a more assertive advocacy of Serbian nationalism ), the Macedonian Levica (which was described with many terms, including fascist ) and the Greater Romania Party (that expressed nostalgia for both Axis -aligned dictatorship of Ion Antonescu and

8162-491: The privacy of telecommunications) guaranteed by the Basic Law were also valid in West Berlin. In addition, West German federal statutes could only take effect in West Berlin with the approval of the city's legislature. The ambiguous legal status of the city, then still legally styled as Greater Berlin (although technically only comprising the western sectors), meant that West Berliners were not eligible to vote in federal elections. In their notification of permission of 12 May 1949

8268-463: The relations between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union soured and the Cold War began, the joint administration of Germany and Berlin broke down. Soon, Soviet-occupied Berlin and western-occupied Berlin had separate city administrations. In 1948, the Soviets tried to force the Western Allies out of Berlin by imposing a land blockade on the western sectors—the Berlin Blockade . The West responded by using its air corridors for supplying their part of

8374-492: The short code 0372. Conversely, those made to West Berlin from East Berlin only required the short code 849. In order to reduce eastern wiretapping of telecommunications between West Berlin and West Germany, microwave radio relay connections were built, which transmitted telephone calls between antenna towers in West Germany and West Berlin by radio. Two such towers were built, one antenna in Berlin- Wannsee and later

8480-460: The specific issue related to West Berlin, and drafted plans to ensure to defend the city against an eventual attack from the East. A tripartite planning group known as LIVE OAK , working together with NATO, was entrusted with potential military responses to any crisis. On 26 June 1963, President Kennedy visited West Berlin. On his triumphant tour, cheered by hundred of thousands of West Berliners in

8586-491: The status of West Berlin. While many restrictions remained in place, it also made it easier for West Berliners to travel to East Germany and it simplified the regulations for Germans travelling along the autobahn transit routes. At the Brandenburg Gate in 1987, U.S. President Ronald Reagan provided a challenge to the then Soviet leader: General Secretary Gorbachev , if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for

8692-663: The streets, he stopped at the Congress Hall, near the Brandenburg Gate , and at Checkpoint Charlie , before delivering at West Berlin's city hall a speech, which became famous for its phrase " Ich bin ein Berliner " and a hallmark of America's solidarity with the city. The Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971) and the Transit Agreement (May 1972) helped to significantly ease tensions over

8798-597: The successful construction of socialism in Karelia required " the implementation of nationalist politics in a communist spirit ", which would win the support of the anti-Russian peasant population. Among his nationalist policies was the Finnicization of the Karelians, because the ultimate goal was the unification of the region with Finland. He believed that the autonomous Finnish-speaking Soviet Karelia could act as

8904-577: The territory was claimed by the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or West Germany), despite being entirely surrounded by the German Democratic Republic (GDR or East Germany). The legality of this claim was contested by the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries. However, West Berlin de facto aligned itself politically with the FRG from May 1949 and was thereafter treated as a de facto city-state of that country. After 1949, it

9010-470: The then European Economic Community , including the United Kingdom , West Berlin identity cards were also acceptable for entry. Active immigration and asylum politics in West Berlin triggered waves of immigration in the 1960s and 1970s. As of 2017, Berlin was home to at least 178,000 Turkish and Turkish German residents, making it the largest Turkish community outside of Turkey. West Berlin

9116-509: The three western military governors for Germany explained their proviso in No. 4, as follows: A third reservation concerns the participation of Greater Berlin in the Federation. We interpret the effect of Articles 23 and 144 (2) of the Basic Law as constituting acceptance of our previous request that while Berlin may not be accorded voting membership in the Bundestag or Bundesrat nor be governed by

9222-546: The time being; the clauses became valid law only on 3 October 1990 (the day of Germany's unification). It stated: Article 87 is interpreted as meaning that during the transitional period Berlin shall possess none of the attributes of a twelfth Land. The provision of this Article concerning the Basic Law will only apply to the extent necessary to prevent a conflict between this Law and the Berlin Constitution.... Thus, civic liberties and personal rights (except for

9328-1351: The transit routes, and occasional traffic checkpoints would check for violators. There were four transit routes between West Berlin and West Germany: The latter three routes used autobahns built during the Nazi era. They left West Berlin at Checkpoint Dreilinden , also called Checkpoint Bravo (W)/ Potsdam -Drewitz (E). Transit routes to Poland were via today's A 11 to Nadrensee -Pomellen (East Germany, GDR)/ Kołbaskowo (Kolbitzow) (PL), eastwards via today's A 12 to Frankfurt upon Oder (GDR)/ Słubice (PL), or southeastwards via today's A 13 and A 15 to Forst in Lusatia/Baršć (GDR)/ Zasieki (Berge) (PL). Additional routes led to Denmark and Sweden by ferry between Warnemünde (GDR) and Gedser (DK) and by ferry between Sassnitz (GDR) and Rønne (DK) or Trelleborg (S). Routes to Czechoslovakia were via Schmilka (GDR)/ Hřensko (Herrnskretschen) (ČSSR) and via Fürstenau (a part of today's Geising ) (GDR)/ Cínovec (Cinvald/Böhmisch Zinnwald) (ČSSR). The transit routes were also used for East German domestic traffic. This meant that transit passengers could potentially meet with East Germans and East Berliners at restaurants at motorway rest stops. Since such meetings were deemed illegal by

9434-573: The war in Ukraine was a candidate of the communist Workers' Party of Finland . Hannu Rainesto who identifies as a communist and runs a group called the Red Guard has been active in the far-right Finns Party . The Franco-Belgian Parti Communautaire National-Européen shares National Bolshevism's desire for the creation of a united Europe as well as many of the NBP's economic ideas. French political figure Christian Bouchet has also been influenced by

9540-502: The western occupying powers. Most Westerners called the Western sectors "Berlin" unless further distinction was necessary. The West German Federal government officially called West Berlin "Berlin (West)", although it also used the hyphenated "West-Berlin", whereas the East German government commonly referred to it as "Westberlin." Starting from 31 May 1961, East Berlin was officially called Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR (Berlin, Capital of

9646-411: The working class is profoundly progressive and revolutionary...By overthrowing the rule of the exploiting classes the working class creates the conditions for the fullest possible manifestation of its patriotism, for it itself is the true bearer of patriotism in our time...This does not in any way mean, however, that while belonging to the single international army of working people, the worker ceases to be

9752-457: Was a direct response to the challenge posed by the rise in popularity of the Nazis. While initially somewhat receptive to Nazism , Paetel quickly grew disillusioned with the NSDAP as he no longer believed they were genuinely committed to either revolutionary activity or socialist economics . Similarly to the Communists and Strasserists , Paetel too, tried to split off vulnerable elements of

9858-561: Was also a destination for many people fleeing East Germany both before and after the construction of the Berlin Wall. As many immigrants from East Germany did not intend to stay in Berlin , flights – the only option for those people to reach West Germany without coming into contact with East German authorities – were subsidized by the West German government despite being operated only by companies registered in and owned by nationals of

9964-436: Was called during the 1920 expansion of its municipal boundaries ) as well as Baden , Rhineland-Palatinate and Württemberg-Hohenzollern within one year of its promulgation. However, because the occupation of Berlin could be ended only by a quadripartite agreement, Berlin remained an occupied territory under the formal sovereignty of the allies. Hence, the Basic Law was not fully applicable to West Berlin. On 4 August 1950,

10070-476: Was completely integrated with West Germany's, using the same postal code system. West Berlin was also integrated into the West German telephone network, using the same international dialling code as West Germany, +49 , with the area code 0311, later changed to 030 . Unlike West Germany, from where calls to East Berlin were made using the prefix 00372 (international access code 00, East German country code 37, area code 2), calls from West Berlin required only

10176-485: Was directly or indirectly represented in the institutions of the FRG, and most of its residents were citizens of the FRG. West Berlin was formally controlled by the Western Allies and entirely surrounded by East Berlin and East Germany. West Berlin had great symbolic significance during the Cold War, as it was widely considered by westerners an "island of freedom ." It was heavily subsidized by West Germany as

10282-428: Was firmly adopted and partly redefined during the administration of President Bill Clinton . Political scientist Stephen Skowronek introduced the term "Third Way" into the interpretation of American presidential politics. Such Presidents undermine the opposition by borrowing policies from it in an effort to seize the middle and with it to achieve political dominance. This technique is known as triangulation and

10388-554: Was formed by Bose in 1939 as a left-wing nationalist and socialist party, and exists to this day, designated by ECI as a State Party. Subhas Chandra Bose formed also a pro-nazi military force in a form of a Free India Legion , which was composed of 3,000 POWs captured by Erwin Rommel . After the death of Avraham Stern , the new leadership of the Israeli paramilitary organization Lehi moved towards support for Joseph Stalin and

10494-488: Was important for the prestige and power of Russia. There was open hostility between Solzhenitsyn and Eduard Limonov , the head of Russia's unregistered National Bolshevik Party . Solzhenitsyn had described Limonov as "a little insect who writes pornography" and Limonov described Solzhenitsyn as a traitor to his homeland who contributed to the downfall of the Soviet Union. In The Oak and the Calf , Solzhenitsyn openly attacked

10600-408: Was initially sympathetic to calling it the most interesting movement to emerge among the emigre community, but soon turned against the movement denouncing it as superficial and a Trojan horse for the Bolshevik regime. Ustryalov and others sympathetic to the Smenovekhovtsy cause, such as Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy and Ilya Ehrenburg , were eventually able to return to the Soviet Union and following

10706-410: Was placed with neighbouring East German Falkensee in the East German district Nauen . West Berlin had its own postal administration first called Deutsche Post Berlin (1947–1955) and then Deutsche Bundespost Berlin , separate from West Germany's Deutsche Bundespost , and issuing its own postage stamps until 1990. However, the separation was merely symbolic; in reality, West Berlin's postal service

10812-419: Was run by the elected Governing Mayor and Senate seated at Rathaus Schöneberg . The Governing Mayor and Senators (ministers) had to be approved by the Western Allies and thus derived their authority from the occupying forces, not from their electoral mandate. The Soviets unilaterally declared the occupation of East Berlin at an end along with the rest of East Germany. This move was, however, not recognised by

10918-535: Was the main impetus for the revival of nationalism as an official part of state ideology in the 1930s. Many of the original proponents of National Bolshevism, such as Ustryalov and members of the Smenovekhovtsy were suppressed and executed during the Great Purge for " anti-Soviet agitation ", espionage and other counter-revolutionary activities. Russian historian Andrei Savin stated that Stalin's policy shifted away from internationalism towards National Bolshevism

11024-821: Was the openly antisemitic A. Paul Weber , who saw himself primarily concerned with the future of Germany due to the growing popularity of Nazism . Other authors of the magazine included Otto Petras , Friedrich Georg Jünger , Hugo Fischer , Hans Bäcker , Friedrich Reck-Mellecze , and Alexander Mitscherlich . The ideology of Ernst Niekisch and the group which had formed around the publication, named Widerstandskreis , has been described as anti-democratic , nationalist , anti-capitalist , anti-western , as well as exhibiting racist and fascist traits. Others have called his ideology outright fascist, despite Niekisch condemning and critiquing fascism , primarily in his work "Hitler - ein deutsches Verhängnis" . Niekisch strongly and publicly condemned Adolf Hitler , who he perceived as

11130-446: Was typically presented as just another strand of Bolshevism by the Nazi Party , and was thus viewed just as negatively and as part of a " Jewish conspiracy ". After Hitler's rise to power , many National Bolsheviks were arrested and imprisoned or fled the country. Despite opposition to National Bolshevism, usually on the grounds that it tends to take Marxist influence, a similarly syncretic, but non-Marxist, tendency had developed in

11236-466: Was used by Bill Clinton and other New Democrats who sought to move beyond the party's New Deal liberalism reputation in response to the political realignment of the 1980s. Through this strategy, Clinton adopted themes associated with the Republican Party , such as fiscal conservatism, welfare reform , deregulation and law and order policies. Famously, he declared in the 1996 State of

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