The Nakajima A1N , or Navy Type 3 Carrier Fighter , was a Japanese carrier-based fighter of the late-1920s and early-1930s. It was a licensed copy of the British Gloster Gambet fighter, built by the Nakajima Aircraft Company for the Imperial Japanese Navy . Approximately 150 were built in two versions, the A1N1 and A1N2.
146-630: By 1926, the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Mitsubishi 1MF fighters (also known as Type 10 Carrier Fighters ) were in need of replacement and so it asked three of the leading Japanese aircraft manufacturers, Nakajima, Mitsubishi and Aichi for proposals for a new carrier-based fighter. Nakajima purchased a licence from the British Gloster Aircraft Company for production of the Gloster Gambet. It
292-591: A 500-ton galleon -type ship that transported the Japanese embassy of Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas, which then continued to Europe. From 1604 the Bakufu also commissioned about 350 Red seal ships , usually armed and incorporating some Western technologies, mainly for Southeast Asian trade. For more than 200 years, beginning in the 1640s, the Japanese policy of seclusion (" sakoku ") forbade contacts with
438-539: A Chinese naval force near Korean island of Pungdo , damaging a cruiser, sinking a loaded transport, capturing one gunboat and destroying another. This battle occurred before war was officially declared on 1 August 1894. On 10 August, the Japanese ventured into the Yellow Sea to seek out the Beiyang Fleet, and subsequently bombarded both Weihaiwei and Port Arthur. Finding only small vessels in both harbors,
584-405: A Navy transport ship, Wakamiya Maru was converted into a seaplane carrier capable of carrying two assembled and two disassembled seaplanes. Wakamiya also participated in the naval maneuvers off Sasebo that year. On 23 August 1914, as a result of its treaty with Great Britain , Japan declared war on Germany . The Japanese, together with a token British force, blockaded then laid siege to
730-644: A ban on Wakō piracy; the pirates then became vassals of Hideyoshi, and comprised the naval force used in the Japanese invasion of Korea (1592–1598) . Japan built her first large ocean-going warships in the beginning of the 17th century, following contacts with the Western nations during the Nanban trade period . In 1613, the daimyō of Sendai , in agreement with the Tokugawa Bakufu , built Date Maru ,
876-775: A base unit and 12 to 36 aircraft, plus four to 12 aircraft in reserve. Each naval air group consisted of several Squadrons ( 飛行隊 , Hikōtai ) of nine, 12 or 16 aircraft; this was the main IJN Air Service combat unit and was equivalent to a squadron ( 中隊 , Chutai ) in the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service . Each hikotai was commanded by a Lieutenant (j.g.), Warrant Officer, or experienced Chief Petty Officer, while most pilots were non-commissioned officers . There were usually four sections in each hikotai , each section ( 小隊 , shōtai ) with three or four aircraft; by mid-1944 it
1022-487: A cadre of naval aviators and technicians, the navy also dispatched three officers to Hammondsport and two to France for training and instruction. After their return to Japan at the end of 1912, two of the newly trained naval aviators made the first flights at Oppama on Yokosuka Bay, one in a Curtiss seaplane, the other in a Maurice Farman. In 1912, the Royal Navy had also informally established its own flying branch,
1168-532: A cauldron in Ningbo . Japan undertook major naval building efforts in the 16th century, during the Warring States period when feudal rulers vying for supremacy built vast coastal navies of several hundred ships. Around that time Japan may have developed one of the first ironclad warships when Oda Nobunaga , a daimyō , had six iron-covered Oatakebune made in 1576. In 1588 Toyotomi Hideyoshi issued
1314-523: A cease-fire had been declared on 3 March. Aircrews of Kaga received a special commendation from the commander of the Third Fleet, Vice Admiral Kichisaburō Nomura , for their actions. The actions of the Japanese aviators over Shanghai represented the first significant air operations over East Asia and for the IJN it also marked the first combat operations from its aircraft carriers. The attack on Zhabei
1460-538: A combination of heavily armed large warships, with smaller and more innovative offensive units permitting aggressive tactics. As a result of the conflict, under the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 17, 1895), Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands were transferred to Japan. The Imperial Japanese Navy took possession of the island and quelled opposition movements between March and October 1895. Japan also obtained
1606-537: A completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians...» At the beginning of the Pacific war the Imperial Japanese Navy possessed the most powerful carrier force in the world, through combination of excellent ships, well-designed aircraft, and unsurpassed aviators. The Navy Air Service consisted of five naval air fleets. The Japanese had
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#17327831973111752-657: A decisive encounter at sea, the Japanese decided to send more troops to Korea. Early in September, the Japanese navy was directed to initiate further landings and to support the army on Korea's western coast. As Japanese ground forces moved north to attack Pyongyang, Admiral Ito correctly guessed that the Chinese would attempt to reinforce their army in Korea by sea. On 14 September, the Combined Fleet sailed north to search
1898-407: A document to the daijō-kan titled "Opinions Regarding Naval Expansion" asserting that a strong navy was essential to maintaining the security of Japan. In furthering his argument, Iwakura suggested that domestic rebellions were no longer Japan's primary military concern and that naval affairs should take precedence over army concerns; a strong navy was more important than a sizable army to preserve
2044-542: A dogfight, shooting down at least one Junkers K 47 . A1Ns continued in service until 1935, being replaced in service by the Nakajima A2N or Navy Type 90 Carrier Fighter. Data from Japanese Aircraft 1910-1941 General characteristics Performance Armament Related development Imperial Japanese Navy The Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ; Kyūjitai : 大日本帝國海軍 Shinjitai : 大日本帝国海軍 Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun 'Navy of
2190-560: A draw, and neither side gained decisive control of the sea, army units in Korea would concentrate on maintaining preexisting positions. Lastly, if the Combined Fleet was defeated and consequently lost command of the sea, the bulk of the army would remain in Japan and prepare to repel a Chinese invasion, while the Fifth Division in Korea would be ordered to dig in and fight a rearguard action. A Japanese squadron intercepted and defeated
2336-416: A fleet action and had no clear vision as to the role of air power in naval warfare. But with the continued increase in the range and power of aircraft, carriers became acknowledged for their ability to strike at targets beyond the range of surface guns and torpedoes. Including gunnery staffs as well as naval aviators, the IJN became convinced that carrier aircraft should be used for a preemptive strike against
2482-581: A force of at least six large battleships, supplemented by four armored cruisers of at least 7,000 tons. The centerpiece of this expansion was to be the acquisition of four new battleships, in addition to two that were already being completed in Britain as part of an earlier construction program. Yamamoto was also advocated the construction of a balanced fleet. Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service ( 大日本帝國海軍航空隊 , Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun Kōkū-tai ) ( IJNAS )
2628-407: A high-quality and long-serving pilot corps, who were very successful in the air during the early part of World War II in the Pacific. However, the long duration of the training program, combined with a shortage of gasoline for training, did not allow the IJN to rapidly provide qualified replacements in sufficient numbers. Moreover, Japan, unlike the U.S. or Britain, never altered its program to speed up
2774-596: A large part because of Satsuma power, influence, and patronage. Between 19 August and 23 November 1882, Satsuma forces with Iwakura's leadership, worked tirelessly to secure support for the Navy's expansion plan. After uniting the other Satsuma members of the Dajokan, Iwakura approached the emperor the Meiji emperor arguing persuasively just as he did with the Dajokan, that naval expansion was critical to Japan's security and that
2920-486: A lesser naval power) would dispatch a portion of its fleet against Japan. Yamamoto therefore calculated that four battleships would be the most likely strength of any seagoing force that a major power could divert from their other naval commitments to use against Japan, and he also believed that two more battleships might be contributed to such a naval expedition by a lesser hostile power. In order to achieve victory in such an engagement, Yamamoto theorized that Japan should have
3066-482: A mass aerial attack also shifted the emphasis away from the protection of the main battle fleet to attacks on targets over the horizon. Essential to the implementation of such a tactic was the locating of the enemy before the enemy found the Japanese carriers. As a consequence, it was important to the Japanese that naval aircraft be able to "outrange the enemy" in the air, just as Japanese surface forces could do by naval gunnery and torpedo attacks. Subsequently, throughout
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#17327831973113212-762: A military force to defeat the rebels, culminating with the Naval Battle of Hakodate in May 1869. The Imperial side took delivery (February 1869) of the French-built ironclad Kotetsu (originally ordered by the Tokugawa shogunate) and used it decisively towards the end of the conflict. In February 1868 the Imperial government had placed all captured shogunate naval vessels under the Navy Army affairs section. In
3358-685: A minimal role transporting troops from western to eastern Japan. Only the Battle of Awa (28 January 1868) was significant; this also proved one of the few Tokugawa successes in the war. Tokugawa Yoshinobu eventually surrendered after the fall of Edo in July 1868, and as a result most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule, however resistance continued in the North . On 26 March 1868 the first naval review in Japan took place in Osaka Bay , with six ships from
3504-606: A modern fleet, so that by 1885 cost overruns had jeopardized the entire 1883 plan. Furthermore, increased costs coupled with decreased domestic tax revenues, heightened concern and political tension in Japan regarding funding naval expansion. In 1883, two large warships were ordered from British shipyards. The Naniwa and Takachiho were 3,650 ton ships. They were capable of speeds up to 18 kn (33 km/h; 21 mph) and were armed with 54 to 76 mm (2 to 3 in) deck armor and two 260 mm (10 in) Krupp guns. The naval architect Sasō Sachū designed these on
3650-483: A naval air training unit at Kasumigaura, the air station became the principal flight training center for the navy. The Japanese navy had closely monitored the progress of aviation of the three Allied naval powers during World War I and concluded that Britain had made the greatest advances in naval aviation. They had also learned a good deal about naval aviation through their contacts within the Royal Navy. In 1920,
3796-505: A peak of activity during the 16th and 17th centuries at a time of cultural exchange with European powers during the Age of Discovery . After two centuries of stagnation during the country's ensuing seclusion policy under the shōgun of the Edo period , Japan's navy was comparatively antiquated when the country was forced open to trade by American intervention in 1854. This eventually led to
3942-536: A representative had also been sent to Britain to observe air operations off the decks of Furious . In 1921, the Japanese government formally requested that the British dispatch a naval air mission, in order to develop and to provide a professional edge to Japanese naval aviation. There were reservations on the part of the Admiralty , about granting the Japanese unrestricted access to British technology. Despite this
4088-691: A resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations . Lord Cranborne , the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs, expressed his indignation in his own declaration. Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take
4234-490: A result tensions began to rise between the two countries over competing interests in Korea. The Japanese naval leadership was generally cautious and even apprehensive at the prospect of hostilities with China, as the navy had not yet received several modern warships that had been ordered in February 1893, particularly the battleships Fuji and Yashima and the cruiser Akashi . Hence, initiating hostilities at this time
4380-473: A single hypothetical enemy individually, but also to confront any fleet from two combined powers that might be dispatched against Japan from overseas waters. He assumed that given their conflicting global interests, it was highly unlikely that the United Kingdom and Russia would ever join together in a war against Japan, instead considering it more likely that a major power like Russia (in alliance with
4526-422: A single powerful main gun, the 320 mm (13 in) Canet gun . Altogether, Bertin supervised the building of more than 20 units. They helped establish the first true modern naval force of Japan. It allowed Japan to achieve mastery in the building of large units, since some of the ships were imported, and some others were built domestically at the arsenal of Yokosuka: This period also allowed Japan "to embrace
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4672-592: A stable gun platform and was selected in April 1929 for production as the Navy Type 3 Carrier Fighter , with the short designation A1N1 . 50 A1N1s were built. The A1N2 used the 336 kW (450 hp) Nakajima Kotobuki 2 engine, and was introduced in 1930. Production of approximately 100 was completed by 1932. The Gambet was a single-seat, single-bay biplane , of all-wooden construction and powered by an air-cooled Bristol Jupiter radial engine . While similar to
4818-466: A supportive role to drive an invading enemy from the coast. The resulting military organization followed the Rikushu Kaijū (Army first, Navy second) principle. This meant a defense designed to repel an enemy from Japanese territory, and the chief responsibility for that mission rested upon Japan's army; consequently, the army gained the bulk of the military expenditures. During the 1870s and 1880s,
4964-465: A thirty-four-man British naval mission, headed by Lt. Comdr. Archibald Douglas , arrived in Japan. Douglas directed instruction at the Naval Academy at Tsukiji for several years, the mission remained in Japan until 1879, substantially advancing the development of the navy and firmly establishing British traditions within the Japanese navy from matters of seamanship to the style of its uniforms and
5110-492: A total of 50) and delivered the largest contingent of troops among the intervening nations (20,840 Imperial Japanese Army and Navy soldiers, out of a total of 54,000). The conflict allowed Japan to engage in combat alongside Western nations and to acquire first-hand understanding of their fighting methods. Following the war against China, Japan was pressured into renouncing its claim to the Liaodong Peninsula in
5256-526: A total of ten aircraft carriers: six fleet carriers, three smaller carriers, and one training carrier. The 11th Air Fleet : contained most of the Navy's land based strike aircraft. One important advantage exercised by the Japanese at the start of the war was their ability to mass carrier air power. In April 1941 the First Air Fleet was created, concentrating the Navy's carriers into a single powerful striking unit. The Kido Butai (Mobile Unit/Force)
5402-477: A year later. With these two carriers much of Imperial Japanese Navy's doctrines and operating procedures were established. When Hōshō was completed, little thought was given to naval aircraft in an offensive role and moreover with only one carrier there was insufficient consideration given to carrier doctrine within the Japanese naval establishment. However, in 1928 the First Carrier Division
5548-537: The 1860 Japanese delegation to the United States . In 1865 the French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build Japan's first modern naval arsenals, at Yokosuka and Nagasaki . The shogunate also allowed and then ordered various domains to purchase warships and to develop naval fleets, Satsuma , especially, had petitioned the shogunate to build modern naval vessels. A naval center had been set up by
5694-552: The Kawanishi N1K-J would not enter service until late 1944–1945, which was too late to have a meaningful impact. The beginnings of Japanese naval aviation were established in 1912, with the creation of a Commission on Naval Aeronautical Research ( Kaigun Kokūjutsu Kenkyūkai ) under the authority of the Technical Department. The commission was charged with the promotion of aviation technology and training for
5840-460: The Kido Butai could wield the aircraft of its three divisions as a single entity bringing masses of aircraft crewed by highly trained aviators onto a single target. During the first six months of the war Japanese naval air power achieved spectacular success and spearheaded offensive operations against Allied forces. On 7 December 1941, the IJN's Kido Butai attacked Pearl Harbor, crippling
5986-610: The Liaodong Peninsula , although was later forced by Russia, Germany and France to return it to China ( Triple Intervention ), only for Russia take possession of it soon after. The Imperial Japanese Navy further intervened in China in 1900 by participating, together with Western Powers, in the suppression of the Chinese Boxer Rebellion . The Japanese navy supplied the largest number of warships (18 out of
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6132-743: The Meiji Restoration . Accompanying the re-ascendance of the Emperor came a period of frantic modernization and industrialization . The IJN saw several successes in combat during the early twentieth century, sometimes against much more powerful enemies, such as in the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War , before being largely destroyed in World War II. Japan has a long history of naval interaction with
6278-595: The Philippines and Darwin in northern Australia . In these battles, the Japanese veterans of the Chinese war did well against inexperienced Allied pilots flying obsolete aircraft. However, their advantage did not last. In the Battle of the Coral Sea , the Battle of Midway , and again in the Guadalcanal Campaign , the Japanese lost many veteran pilots. Because the Japanese pilot training program
6424-553: The Royal Naval Air Service . The Japanese admirals, whose own Navy had been modeled on the Royal Navy and whom they admired, themselves proposed their own Naval Air Service. The Japanese Navy had also observed technical developments in other countries and saw that the airplane had potential. Within a year, the Imperial Japanese navy had begun the operational use of aircraft. In 1913, the following year,
6570-740: The Royal Navy and the United States Navy (USN). It was supported by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service for aircraft and airstrike operations from the fleet. It was the primary opponent of the Western Allies in the Pacific War . The origins of the Imperial Japanese Navy date back to early interactions with nations on the Asian continent , beginning in the early feudal period and reaching
6716-545: The Saga Rebellion (1874) and especially the Satsuma Rebellion (1877), forced the government to focus on land warfare, and the army gained prominence. Naval policy, as expressed by the slogan Shusei Kokubō (literally: "Static Defense"), focused on coastal defenses, on a standing army (established with the assistance of the second French Military Mission to Japan ), and a coastal navy that could act in
6862-831: The Shanghai Incident in 1932 between Japan and China . A1Ns from Kaga scored the Imperial Japanese Navy's first air-to-air combat victory on 22 February 1932 when they shot down a Boeing P-12 (specifically a Model 218, Prototype of the P-12E/F4B-3 variant, after evaluation sold to the Chinese Air Force.) flown by the American volunteer pilot Robert Short. A 15-aircraft formation composed of Mitsubishi B1Ms with A1N escorts attacked Qiaosi Airbase in Hangzhou on 26 February 1932, engaging Chinese fighters in
7008-460: The 1854 Convention of Kanagawa led to the opening of Japan to international trade and interaction. This was soon followed by the 1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce and treaties with other powers . As soon as Japan opened up to foreign influences, the Tokugawa shogunate recognized the vulnerability of the country from the sea and initiated an active policy of assimilation and adoption of Western naval technologies. In 1855, with Dutch assistance,
7154-407: The 1930s, Japanese naval aviation emphasized range in its specifications for new aircraft. In addition to developing carrier-based aviation, the IJN maintained many land-based air groups. In the early 1930s, the Japanese created a new category of aircraft termed rikujo kogeki-ki (land based attack aircraft) or Rikko for short. This was in keeping with the strategy of providing a rapid defense of
7300-414: The 1937–41 air offensives failed in its political and psychological aims, it did reduce the flow of strategic materiel to China and for a time, improved the Japanese military situation in the central and southern parts of the country. The China War was of great importance and value to the Japanese naval aviation in demonstrating how aircraft could contribute to the projection of naval power ashore. Despite
7446-637: The Asian continent, involving transportation of troops between Korea and Japan, starting at least with the beginning of the Kofun period in the 3rd century. Following the attempts at Mongol invasions of Japan by Kubilai Khan in 1274 and 1281, Japanese wakō became very active in plundering the coast of China . In response to threats of Chinese invasion of Japan, in 1405 the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu capitulated to Chinese demands and sent twenty captured Japanese pirates to China, where they were boiled in
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#17327831973117592-530: The Boshin War. Enomoto Takeaki, the admiral of the shōgun ' s navy, refused to surrender all his ships, remitting just four vessels, and escaped to northern Honshū with the remnants of the shōgun ' s navy: eight steam warships and 2,000 men. Following the defeat of pro-shogunate resistance on Honshū, Admiral Enomoto Takeaki fled to Hokkaidō , where he established the breakaway Republic of Ezo (27 January 1869). The new Meiji government dispatched
7738-724: The British government sent an unofficial civil aviation mission to Japan. The Sempill Mission led by Captain William Forbes-Sempill , a former officer in the Royal Air Force experienced in the design and testing of Royal Navy aircraft during the First World War. The mission consisted of 27 members, who were largely personnel with experience in naval aviation and included pilots and engineers from several British aircraft manufacturing firms. The British technical mission left for Japan in September with
7884-466: The Chinese were planning to mount a counteroffensive, the Japanese bombers carried out attacks on Chinese airfields at Hangzhou and Suzhou between 23 and 26 February, destroying a number of aircraft on the ground. On 26 February, six A1N2 fighters from Hōshō , while escorting nine bombers from Kaga on a bombing raid on an airfield at Hangzhou, engaged five Chinese aircraft and shot down three of them. The Japanese carriers returned to home waters after
8030-575: The Circle One expansion moved up to 1937 and an all-out effort was also made to complete the aircraft production of the Circle Two program by the end of the same year. By the end of 1937, the navy possessed 563 land-based aircraft, in addition to the 332 aircraft aboard its carrier fleet. The navy air service had a total of 895 aircraft and 2,711 aircrew, including pilots and navigators, in thirty-nine air groups. Although, this total 895 aircraft
8176-461: The Combined Fleet returned to Korea to support further landings off the Chinese coast. The Beiyang Fleet, under the command of Admiral Ding, was initially ordered to remain close to the Chinese coast while reinforcements were sent to Korea by land. However, as Japanese troops swiftly advanced northward from Seoul to Pyongyang, the Chinese decided to rush troops to Korea by sea under a naval escort in mid-September. Concurrently, because there not yet been
8322-476: The Dutch flag. Frictions with the foreign ships, however, started from the beginning of the 19th century. The Nagasaki Harbour Incident involving HMS Phaeton in 1808, and other subsequent incidents in the following decades, led the shogunate to enact an Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels . Western ships, which were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling and the trade with China, began to challenge
8468-414: The French during the Boshin War. Also, Japan was uneasy with being dependent on Great Britain, at a time when Great Britain was very close to China. The Meiji government issued its First Naval Expansion bill in 1882, requiring the construction of 48 warships, of which 22 were to be torpedo boats. The naval successes of the French Navy against China in the Sino-French War of 1883–85 seemed to validate
8614-402: The Gamecock, it was fitted with longer-span wings, internal flotation bags and arrestor hooks for carrier operations. The A1N1 entered service in 1929, replacing the Mitsubishi 1-MF. It served on the carriers Hōshō , Akagi , Kaga and Ryūjō . The improved A1N2 entered service in 1930, with production continuing until 1932. The A1N flew from the carriers Hōshō and Kaga during
8760-449: The German colony of Jiaozhou and its administrative capital Qingdao on the Shandong peninsula . During the siege, starting from September, four Farman seaplanes (two active and two reserve) on board Wakamiya conducted reconnaissance and aerial bombardments on German positions and ships. The aircraft had crude bombsights and carried six to ten bombs that had been converted from shells, and were released through metal tubes on each side of
8906-405: The Greater Japanese Empire', or 日本海軍 Nippon Kaigun , 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrender in World War II . The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) was formed between 1952 and 1954 after the dissolution of the IJN. The Imperial Japanese Navy was the third largest navy in the world by 1920, behind
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#17327831973119052-456: The IJN's first aerial combat on 5 February, when three fighters escorting two bombers were engaged by nine Chinese fighters over Zhenru; one Chinese fighter was damaged. On 22 February, while escorting three B1M3 torpedo bombers, three fighters from Kaga operating from Kunda Airfield scored the IJN's first aerial victory when they shot down a Boeing 218 fighter, flown by an American volunteer pilot Robert Short . After gaining intelligence that
9198-415: The Imperial Japanese Navy remained an essentially coastal-defense force, although the Meiji government continued to modernize it. Jo Sho Maru (soon renamed Ryūjō Maru ) commissioned by Thomas Glover was launched at Aberdeen , Scotland on 27 March 1869. In 1870 an Imperial decree determined that Britain's Royal Navy should serve as the model for development, instead of the Netherlands navy. In 1873
9344-405: The Japanese judged that a protracted war with China would increase the risk of intervention by the European powers with interests in East Asia. The army's Fifth Division would land at Chemulpo on the western coast of Korea, both to engage and push Chinese forces northwest up the peninsula and to draw the Beiyang Fleet into the Yellow Sea, where it would be engaged in decisive battle. Depending upon
9490-494: The Japanese political and military leadership, and Japan began to build up its military strength in preparation for future confrontations. The political capital and public support that the navy gained as a result of the recent conflict with China also encouraged popular and legislative support for naval expansion. In 1895, Yamamoto Gombei was assigned to compose a study of Japan's future naval needs. He believed that Japan should have sufficient naval strength to not only deal with
9636-442: The Japanese state. Furthermore, he justified that a large, modern navy, would have the added potential benefit of instilling Japan with greater international prestige and recognition, as navies were internationally recognized hallmarks of power and status. Iwakura also suggested that the Meiji government could support naval growth by increasing taxes on tobacco, sake, and soy. After lengthy discussions, Iwakura eventually convinced
9782-422: The Japanese with secret information on the latest British aviation technology. His espionage work helped Japan rapidly develop its military aircraft and its technologies before the Second World War . Japanese interest in the potential of carrier operations demonstrated by the observations on board Furious led to the inclusion of an aircraft carrier in the eight-eight fleet program of 1918. The 7,470-ton Hōshō
9928-427: The Korean and Chinese coasts and bring the Beiyang Fleet to battle. On 17 September 1894, the Japanese encountered the Beiyang Fleet off the mouth of the Yalu River . The Beiyang Fleet was crippled during the ensuing battle , in which the Chinese lost eight out of 12 warships. The Chinese subsequently withdrew behind the Weihaiwei fortifications. However, they were then surprised by Japanese troops, who had outflanked
10074-413: The Ministry of War was replaced by a separate Army Ministry and Navy Ministry. In October 1873, Katsu Kaishū became Navy Minister. After the consolidation of the government the new Meiji state set about to build up national strength. The Meiji government honored the treaties with the Western powers signed during the Bakumatsu period with the ultimate goal of revising them, leading to a subsided threat from
10220-412: The Russian-led Triple Intervention. The Japanese were well aware that they could not compete with the overwhelming naval power possessed by the three countries in East Asian waters, particularly Russia. Faced with little choice, the Japanese ceded the peninsula back to China for an additional 30 million taels (roughly ¥45 million). The cession of the Liaodong Peninsula was seen as a humiliation by
10366-468: The Satsuma domain in Kagoshima, students were sent abroad for training and a number of ships were acquired. The domains of Chōshū , Hizen , Tosa and Kaga joined Satsuma in acquiring ships. These naval elements proved insufficient during the Royal Navy 's Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 and the Allied bombardments of Shimonoseki in 1863–64. By the mid-1860s the shogunate had a fleet of eight warships and thirty-six auxiliaries. Satsuma (which had
10512-539: The Sempill mission of 1921–22 marked the true beginning of an effective Japanese naval air force. Japanese naval aviation also, both in technology and in doctrine, continued to be dependent on the British model for most of the 1920s. The military in Japan were also aided in their quest to build up their naval forces by Sempill himself, who had become a Japanese spy. Over the next 20 years, the British Peer provided
10658-581: The U.S Pacific Fleet by destroying over 188 aircraft at the cost of 29 aircraft. On 10 December, Japanese naval land based bombers operating from bases in Indochina, were also responsible for the sinkings of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse which was the first time that capital ships were sunk by aerial attack while underway. In April 1942, the Indian Ocean raid drove the Royal Navy from South East Asia. There were also air raids carried out on
10804-491: The Western technological and scientific revolution which allowed Japan to remain aware of naval sciences, such as cartography , optics and mechanical sciences. Seclusion, however, led to the loss of any naval and maritime traditions the nation possessed. Apart from Dutch trade ships, no other Western vessels were allowed to enter Japanese ports. A notable exception was during the Napoleonic wars when neutral ships flew
10950-544: The air service. The various air operations and activities during peacetime, which were divided between the Navy Ministry and the Navy Technical Department, were now merged into a single Naval Aviation Department. In 1932, an independent Naval Air Arsenal was also established to streamline the testing and development of aircraft and weaponry. During their early years, these organizations were under
11096-401: The army and saw naval strength as paramount. In 1870 the new government drafted an ambitious plan to develop a navy with 200 ships organized into ten fleets. The plan was abandoned within a year due to lack of resources. Financial considerations were a major factor restricting the growth of the navy during the 1870s. Japan at the time was not a wealthy state. Soon, however, domestic rebellions,
11242-717: The attitudes of its officers. From September 1870, the English Lieutenant Horse, a former gunnery instructor for the Saga fief during the Bakumatsu period, was put in charge of gunnery practice on board the Ryūjō . In 1871, the ministry resolved to send 16 trainees abroad for training in naval sciences (14 to Great Britain, two to the United States), among whom was Heihachirō Tōgō. In 1879, Commander L. P. Willan
11388-715: The beginning of the Pacific War. The IJN also maintained a shore-based system of naval air fleets called Koku Kantai and area air fleets called homen kantai containing mostly twin-engine bombers and seaplanes. The senior command was the Eleventh Naval Air Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Nishizō Tsukahara . Land based aircraft provided the bulk of Japan's naval aviation up to the eve of World War II. Each naval air fleet contained one or more naval air flotillas (commanded by Rear Admirals) each with two or more naval air groups. Each naval air group consisted of
11534-641: The building of seaborne units, both floatplanes and carrier aircraft. The Circle Two plan continued the buildup in naval aircraft and authorized the construction of two aircraft carriers. In January 1932, clashes between Chinese and Japanese forces occurred in Shanghai . On 29 January, several aircraft from the seaplane tender Notoro , anchored in the Yangtze river , carried out low-level attacks on Chinese military positions in Zhabei , on artillery positions outside
11680-563: The city and on an armored train at a railway station in the northern part of the city. There were heavy civilian casualties and property losses, partly as a result of crude bombing techniques and mechanisms at the time. The Third Fleet consisting of the First Carrier Division with the carriers Kaga and Hōshō was also dispatched to the city. Kaga arrived off the entrance of the Yangtze River on 1 February, and
11826-584: The cockpit. On 5 September, during the first successful operation, two Farman seaplanes dropped several bombs on the Bismarck battery, the main German fortifications in Tsingtao. The bombs landed harmlessly in the mud, but the aircraft were able to confirm that the light cruiser SMS Emden was not at Tsingtao; this was intelligence of major importance to Allied naval command. On 30 September Wakamiya
11972-473: The command of able air enthusiasts, who played a major role in the rapid expansion of Japanese naval aviation during the following decade. The London Naval Treaty of 1930 had imposed new limitations on warship construction, which caused the Navy General Staff to view naval aviation as a way to make up for the shortcomings in the surface fleet. In 1931, the air service pushed for and established
12118-556: The dispatch of a large force of the Imperial Japanese Navy. As a result, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 was signed, marking the official opening of Korea to foreign trade, and Japan's first example of Western-style interventionism and adoption of "unequal treaties" tactics. In 1878, the Japanese cruiser Seiki sailed to Europe with an entirely Japanese crew. After the Imo Incident in July 1882, Iwakura Tomomi submitted
12264-435: The domains had returned their lands and population registers to the government. In 1871 the domains were abolished altogether and as with the political context the centralization of the navy began with the domains donating their forces to the central government. As a result, in 1871 Japan could finally boast a centrally controlled navy, this was also the institutional beginning of the Imperial Japanese Navy. In February 1872,
12410-470: The early phase of the Boshin War of 1868–1869. All other naval vessels remained under the control of the various domains which had been acquired during the Bakumatsu period. The naval forces mirrored the political environment of Japan at the time: the domains retained their political as well as military independence from the Imperial government. Katsu Kaishū a former Tokugawa navy leader, was brought into
12556-404: The end of 1937. They were to operate out of six new air stations at Ōminato, Saeki, Yokohama , Maizuru, Kanoya, and Kisarazu in the home islands and Chinhae on the southern coast of Korea. Under the pressure of the second Vinson plan , initiated by the United States, the Japanese increased the momentum in building up their land-based air forces. The deadline for completion date of the aviation of
12702-505: The end of World War I, when plans had been drawn up for 17 of them, however these plans were not fully implemented until 1931. They were to be located at six air stations around the Japanese home islands: Yokosuka, Sasebo, Kasumigaura, Omura, Tateyama, and Kure. These units were composed of various types of aircraft which were mostly seaplanes. In absolute numbers, land-based aircraft provided the largest growth in Japaneses naval air power in
12848-434: The enemy's carriers to achieve air superiority in the proximity of the surface battle. Around 1932–33, the IJN began to shift its aerial focus from targeting the enemy's battleships to their aircraft carriers; and by the mid-30s, with the improved performance of bombing aircraft and particularly dive-bombers, the destruction of the enemy's carrier force became the primary focus of Japan's carrier forces. The emerging concept of
12994-687: The fierce rivalry between the military branches, in the fall of 1937 General Matsui Iwane, the Army general in command of the theater, admitted the superiority of the Naval Air Services. His combat troops relied on the Navy for air support. Naval bombers such as the Mitsubishi G3M and Mitsubishi G4M were used to bomb Chinese cities. Japanese fighter planes, notably the Mitsubishi Zero , gained tactical air superiority; control of
13140-533: The following months, military forces of the government came under the control of several organizations which were established and then disbanded until the establishment of the Ministry of War and of the Ministry of the Navy of Japan in 1872. For the first two years (1868–1870) of the Meiji state no national, centrally controlled navy existed, – the Meiji government only administered those Tokugawa vessels captured in
13286-570: The formation of 17 squadrons of these aircraft, but budgetary constraints limited the units to eleven until 1931. Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty two incomplete capital ships were allowed to be rebuilt as carriers, for the Japanese; Akagi and Amagi . However, Amagi was damaged during the Great Kanto earthquake in 1923 and Kaga became a replacement. Akagi was completed in 1927 while Kaga completed
13432-447: The government as Vice Minister of the Navy in 1872, and became the first Minister of the Navy from 1873 until 1878 because of his naval experience and his ability to control Tokugawa personnel who retained positions in the government naval forces. Upon assuming office Katsu Kaishu recommended the rapid centralization of all naval forces – government and domain – under one agency. The nascent Meiji government in its first years did not have
13578-449: The harbor's defenses in coordination with the navy. The remnants of the Beiyang Fleet were destroyed at Weihaiwei . Although Japan had emerged victorious at sea, the two large German-made Chinese ironclad battleships ( Dingyuan and Zhenyuan ) had remained almost impervious to Japanese guns, highlighting the need for bigger capital ships in the Imperial Japanese Navy. The next step of the Imperial Japanese Navy's expansion would thus involve
13724-557: The home islands against the possible westward advance of an American naval offensive across the Pacific. Land-based aircraft actually provided the bulk of Japanese naval aviation up to the eve of the Pacific War. In this regard, Japan was unique among the three major naval powers during the interwar period and the immediate prewar years with only the two air wings of the US Marine Corps being analogous to Japan's land based naval air units. The creation of these air units had begun at
13870-494: The increase in aircraft performance) as a means to attack battleships and other surface targets. Naval aviators however, had a different perspective. Believing that a major aerial engagement to clear the space over the opposing fleets would precede the final surface battle, they increasingly considered the enemy's carriers as the main targets of naval air power. Hence, in the early 1930s, the Imperial Japanese Navy adhered to no unified doctrine as to how carriers would be utilized in
14016-528: The largest domain fleet) had nine steamships, Choshu had five ships plus numerous auxiliary craft, Kaga had ten ships and Chikuzen eight. Numerous smaller domains also had acquired a number of ships. However, these fleets resembled maritime organizations rather than actual navies with ships functioning as transports as well as combat vessels; they were also manned by personnel who lacked experienced seamanship except for coastal sailing and who had virtually no combat training. The Meiji Restoration in 1868 led to
14162-462: The line of the Elswick class of protected cruisers but with superior specifications. An arms race was taking place with China however, who equipped herself with two 7,335 ton German-built battleships ( Ting Yüan and Chen-Yüan ). Unable to confront the Chinese fleet with only two modern cruisers, Japan resorted to French assistance to build a large, modern fleet which could prevail in
14308-737: The mission also brought to Kasumigaura well over a hundred aircraft comprising twenty different models, five of which were then currently in service with the Royal Air Force, including the Sparrowhawk. These planes eventually provided the inspiration for the design of a number of Japanese naval aircraft. Technicians became familiar with the newest aerial weapons and equipment - torpedoes, bombs, machine guns, cameras, and communications gear. Naval aviators were trained in various techniques such as torpedo bombing, flight control and carrier landing and take-offs; skills that would later be employed in
14454-483: The most powerful domains as the government did not have enough naval power to put down the rebellion on its own. Although the rebel forces in Hokkaidō surrendered, the government's response to the rebellion demonstrated the need for a strong centralized naval force. Even before the rebellion the restoration leaders had realized the need for greater political, economic and military centralization and by August 1869 most of
14600-409: The navy secured the ¥6.5 million required annually to support an eight-year expansion plan, this was the largest that the Imperial Japanese Navy had secured in its young existence. However, naval expansion remained a highly contentious issue for both the government and the navy throughout much of the 1880s. Overseas advances in naval technology increased the costs of purchasing large components of
14746-557: The navy. Initially was focus was in non-rigid airships but it quickly moved on to the development of winged and powered aircraft. That year, the commission decided to purchase foreign winged aircraft and to send junior officers abroad to learn how to fly and maintain them. The navy purchased two seaplanes from the Glenn Curtiss factory in Hammondsport , New York, and two Maurice Farman seaplanes from France. To establish
14892-456: The necessary political and military force to implement such a policy and so, like much of the government, the naval forces retained a decentralized structure in most of 1869 through 1870. The incident involving Enomoto Takeaki's refusal to surrender and his escape to Hokkaidō with a large part of the former Tokugawa Navy's best warships embarrassed the Meiji government politically. The imperial side had to rely on considerable naval assistance from
15038-534: The objective of helping the Imperial Japanese Navy develop and improve the proficiency of its naval air arm. The British government also hoped it would lead to a lucrative arms deal . The mission arrived at Kasumigaura Naval Air Station the following month, in November 1921, and stayed in Japan for 18 months. The Japanese were trained on several British aircraft such as the Gloster Sparrowhawk ; as
15184-619: The order of a revolutionary torpedo boat, Kotaka , which was considered the first effective design of a destroyer, in 1887 and with the purchase of Yoshino , built at the Armstrong works in Elswick , Newcastle upon Tyne , the fastest cruiser in the world at the time of her launch in 1892. In 1889, she ordered the Clyde-built Chiyoda , which defined the type for armored cruisers . Between 1882 and 1918, ending with
15330-455: The outcome of this engagement, Japanese decisionmakers anticipated that they would be faced with one of three choices. If the Combined Fleet were to win decisively at sea, the larger part of the Japanese army could immediately land in force on the Korean coast between Shanhaiguan and Tianjin in order to defeat the Chinese army and bring the war to a swift conclusion. If the naval engagement was
15476-526: The outside world and prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships on pain of death. Contacts were maintained, however, with the Dutch through the port of Nagasaki , the Chinese also through Nagasaki and the Ryukyus and Korea through intermediaries with Tsushima. The study of Western sciences, called " rangaku " through the Dutch enclave of Dejima in Nagasaki led to the transfer of knowledge related to
15622-468: The overthrow of the shogunate. From 1868, the newly formed Meiji government continued with reforms to centralize and modernize Japan. Although the Meiji reformers had overthrown the Tokugawa shogunate, tensions between the former ruler and the restoration leaders led to the Boshin War (January 1868 to June 1869). The early part of the conflict largely involved land battles, with naval forces playing
15768-478: The pilots were the carrier-based air groups ( Kōkūtai , later called koku sentai ) whose size (from a handful to 80 or 90 aircraft) was dependent on both the mission and type of aircraft carrier that they were on. Fleet carriers had three types of aircraft: fighters, level/torpedo planes, and dive bombers. Smaller carriers tended to have only two types, fighters and level/torpedo planes. The carrier-based Kōkūtai numbered over 1,500 pilots and just as many aircraft at
15914-565: The potential of torpedo boats, an approach which was also attractive to the limited resources of Japan. In 1885, the new Navy slogan became Kaikoku Nippon (Jp:海国日本, "Maritime Japan"). In 1885, the leading French Navy engineer Émile Bertin was hired for four years to reinforce the Japanese Navy and to direct the construction of the arsenals of Kure and Sasebo . He developed the Sankeikan class of cruisers; three units featuring
16060-459: The private domain navies of Saga , Chōshū, Satsuma , Kurume , Kumamoto and Hiroshima participating. The total tonnage of these ships was 2,252 tons, which was far smaller than the tonnage of the single foreign vessel (from the French Navy) that also participated. The following year, in July 1869, the Imperial Japanese Navy was formally established, two months after the last combat of
16206-448: The relative precision of its bombing techniques during clear weather. From the onset of hostilities in 1937 until forces were diverted to combat for the Pacific war in 1941, naval aircraft played a key role in military operations on the Chinese mainland. The IJN had two primary responsibilities: the first was to support of amphibious operations on the Chinese coast and the second was the strategic aerial bombardment of Chinese cities. This
16352-580: The remainder of the 17 air squadrons that had been projected in the 1923 expansion plans. These were eventually combined into six air groups ( kokutai ) located at six bases around Japan. Furthermore, the Circle naval expansion programs featured an additional 12 air groups. They also included the development of specific aviation technologies and the acceleration of air crew training. The Circle One plan concentrated on developing new aircraft types, including large flying boats and land-based attack aircraft, as well as
16498-703: The rest of the war, particularly in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . In the Battle of Leyte Gulf a few months later, the First Air Fleet was used only as a decoy force to draw the main American fleet away from Leyte. The remnants of Japanese naval aviation were then limited to land-based operations, increasingly characterized by kamikaze attacks on American invasion fleets. From 16 December 1941 to 20 March 1945 IJN aviation casualties killed were 14,242 aircrew and 1,579 officers. The IJNAS had over 3,089 aircraft in 1941 and 370 trainers. The elite of
16644-595: The revolutionary new technologies embodied in torpedoes , torpedo-boats and mines , of which the French at the time were probably the world's best exponents". Japan acquired its first torpedoes in 1884, and established a "Torpedo Training Center" at Yokosuka in 1886. These ships, ordered during the fiscal years 1885 and 1886, were the last major orders placed with France. The unexplained sinking of Unebi en route from France to Japan in December 1886, created embarrassment however. Japan turned again to Britain, with
16790-423: The ruling coalition to support Japan's first multi-year naval expansion plan in history. In May 1883, the government approved a plan that, when completed, would add 32 warships over eight years at a cost of just over ¥26 million. This development was very significant for the navy, as the amount allocated virtually equaled the navy's entire budget between 1873 and 1882. The 1882 naval expansion plan succeeded in
16936-424: The sea. This however led to conflict with those disgruntled samurai who wanted to expel the westerners and with groups which opposed the Meiji reforms. Internal dissent – including peasant uprisings – become a greater concern for the government, which curtailed plans for naval expansion as a result. In the immediate period from 1868 many members of the Meiji coalition advocated giving preference to maritime forces over
17082-592: The seclusion policy. The Morrison Incident in 1837 and news of China's defeat during the Opium War led the shogunate to repeal the law to execute foreigners, and instead to adopt the Order for the Provision of Firewood and Water. The shogunate also began to strengthen the nation's coastal defenses. Many Japanese realized that traditional ways would not be sufficient to repel further intrusions, and western knowledge
17228-405: The shallow waters of Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The mission also brought the plans of the most recent British aircraft carriers, such as HMS Argus and HMS Hermes , which influenced the final stages of the development of the carrier Hōshō . By the time the last members of the mission had returned to Britain, the Japanese had acquired a reasonable grasp of the latest aviation technology and
17374-709: The shogunate acquired its first steam warship, Kankō Maru , and began using it for training, establishing a Naval Training Center at Nagasaki. Samurai such as the future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki (1836–1908) was sent by the shogunate to study in the Netherlands for several years. In 1859 the Naval Training Center relocated to Tsukiji in Tokyo . In 1857 the shogunate acquired its first screw-driven steam warship Kanrin Maru and used it as an escort for
17520-527: The skies over China belonged to the Japanese. Unlike other naval airforces, the IJNAS was responsible for strategic bombing and operated long ranged bombers. The Japanese strategic bombing was mostly done against Chinese big cities, such as Shanghai , Wuhan and Chongqing , with around 5,000 raids from February 1938 to August 1943. The bombing of Nanjing and Guangzhou , which began on 22 and 23 September 1937, called forth widespread protests culminating in
17666-472: The standing army of forty thousand men was more than sufficient for domestic purposes. While the government should direct the lion's share of future military appropriations toward naval matters, a powerful navy would legitimize an increase in tax revenue. On November 24, the emperor assembled select ministers of the daijō-kan together with military officers, and announced the need for increased tax revenues to provide adequate funding for military expansion, this
17812-533: The training process of its recruits. The resultant decrease in quantity and quality, among other factors, resulted in increasing casualties toward the end of the war. Japanese navy aviators, like their army counterparts , preferred maneuverable aircraft, leading to lightly built but extraordinarily agile types, most famously the A6M Zero , which achieved its feats by sacrificing armor and self-sealing fuel tanks. Aircraft with armor and self-sealing fuel tanks, such as
17958-457: The upcoming conflict. During the 1880s, France took the lead in influence, due to its " Jeune École " ("young school") doctrine, favoring small, fast warships, especially cruisers and torpedo boats , against bigger units. The choice of France may also have been influenced by the Minister of the Navy, who happened to be Enomoto Takeaki at that time (Navy Minister 1880–1885), a former ally of
18104-574: The visit of the French Military Mission to Japan , the Imperial Japanese Navy stopped relying on foreign instructors altogether. In 1886, she manufactured her own prismatic powder , and in 1892 one of her officers invented a powerful explosive, the Shimose powder . Japan continued the modernization of its navy, especially driven by Chinese efforts to construct a powerful modern fleet with foreign (especially German) assistance, and as
18250-418: The world's first purpose-built aircraft carrier, Hōshō , in 1922. Afterwards they embarked on a conversion program of several excess battlecruisers and battleships into aircraft carriers. The IJN Air Service had the mission of national air defence, deep strike, naval warfare, and so forth. It retained this mission to the end. The Japanese pilot training program was very selective and rigorous, producing
18396-459: The years before the Pacific War. The Circle One naval expansion program which had been formulated in 1927 and put into effect in 1931 called for the creation of 28 new air groups. Although only 14 groups were actually established by 1934, which was a response to American naval expansion under the first Vinson plan, the Circle Two program called for eight additional air groups to be created by
18542-537: Was a private venture design for a carrier-based derivative of their earlier Gloster Gamecock fighter. The prototype Gambet was built by Gloster and first flew on 12 December 1927. The prototype Gambet was shipped to Japan early in 1928. After modifications were made and it was fitted with a Nakajima-built Bristol Jupiter engine, the Gambet was evaluated by the Japanese navy against competitors from Aichi and Mitsubishi. It proved to be more manoeuvrable while still being
18688-567: Was also the most destructive aerial attack on an urban area until the Condor Legion 's attack on Guernica , five years later. Although perceived as insignificant skirmishes, the resulting aerial campaign led to several conclusions: though the A1N2 fighter proved to be inferior in performance to the Boeing 218, the campaign had demonstrated the above average flying skills of the IJN's pilots and
18834-407: Was considerably less than total American naval air strength for the same period, Japan's land based aviation force was substantially larger. The substantial land-based air power worked to Japan's advantage when the nation went to war in 1937 with China. By 1927 Japanese naval aviation had grown sufficiently in size and complexity that it was necessary to consolidate the administrative organization of
18980-487: Was damaged by a mine and later sent back to Japan for repairs. But the seaplanes, by transferring on to the shore, continued to be used against the German defenders until their surrender on 7 November 1914. Wakamiya conducted the world's first naval-launched aerial raids in history and was in effect the first aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy. By the end of the siege the aircraft had conducted 50 sorties and dropped 200 bombs, although damage to German defenses
19126-466: Was followed by an imperial re-script. The following month, in December, an annual ¥7.5-million tax increase on sake, soy, and tobacco was fully approved, in the hopes that it would provide ¥3.5 million annually for warship construction and ¥2.5 million for warship maintenance. In February 1883, the government directed further revenues from other ministries to support an increase in the navy's warship construction and purchasing budget. By March 1883,
19272-478: Was formed with three carriers and the study of the role of aircraft carriers in a naval engagement was initiated. Because of the short range of carrier aircraft at the time, many in the naval hierarchy were still very much surface oriented . They viewed carrier aircraft to be employed as support for the main battle fleet and not as offensive weapons. Aircraft were to act as scouts and spotters, layers of smoke screens for naval gunfire, fleet air defense, and later (with
19418-590: Was hired to train naval cadets. Ships such as the Fusō , Kongō and Hiei were built in British shipyards, and they were the first warships built abroad specifically for the Imperial Japanese Navy. Private construction companies such as Ishikawajima and Kawasaki also emerged around this time. During 1873, a plan to invade the Korean Peninsula , the Seikanron proposal made by Saigō Takamori ,
19564-505: Was joined by Hōshō two days later. On board Hōshō were ten fighters and nine torpedo bombers, while Kaga had 16 fighters and 32 torpedo bombers. Altogether, the Japanese had eighty aircraft that could be deployed over Shanghai, mostly Nakajima A1N2 fighters and Mitsubishi B1M3 torpedo bombers. On 3 February, a number of the aircraft from the two carriers were deployed to Kunda Airfield, where they flew missions in support of Japanese ground forces. Aircraft from Hōshō participated in
19710-511: Was laid down in December 1919 at Yokohama. Hōshō was the second warship after the British Hermes to be designed from the keel up as an aircraft carrier and the first one to be completed as from the keel up. In the 1920s, the larger percentage of aircraft that were initially acquired and inducted into service were land based seaplanes whose main tasks were reconnaissance and anti-submarine patrols. The Japanese had drawn up plans for
19856-596: Was light. In 1916, the Commission on Naval Aeronautical Research was disbanded and the funds supporting it were reallocated for the establishment of three naval air units ( hikotai ) which would fall under the authority of the Naval Affairs Bureau of the Navy Ministry . The first unit was established at Yokosuka in April 1916, however, the lack of a specific naval air policy in these early years
20002-611: Was made apparent by the fact that the Yokosuka Air Group operated with the fleet only once a year when it was transported briefly to whatever training area the IJN was then using for maneuvers. Japanese naval aviation, though, continued to make progress. In 1917, officers at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal designed and built the first Japanese seaplane, the Ro-Go Ko-gata reconnaissance seaplane, which
20148-487: Was much more useful at sea and much safer than the Maurice Farman aircraft that the navy had been using up to that point. The aircraft was eventually mass-produced and became the mainstay of the navy's air arm until the mid-1920s. Japanese factories by the end of the war, in increasing numbers, were beginning to turn out engines and fuselages based on foreign designs. A major expansion in Japanese naval air strength
20294-735: Was narrowly abandoned by decision of the central government in Tokyo. In 1874, the Taiwan expedition was the first foray abroad of the new Imperial Japanese Navy and Army after the Mudan Incident of 1871 , however the navy served largely as a transport force. Various interventions in the Korean Peninsula continued in 1875–1876, starting with the Ganghwa Island incident provoked by the Japanese gunboat Un'yō , leading to
20440-483: Was part of the 1918 naval expansion program which made possible a new air group and a naval air station at Sasebo. In 1918, the IJN secured land around Lake Kasumigaura in Ibaraki Prefecture , northeast of Tokyo. The following year, a naval air station for both land and sea aircraft was established, and subsequently, naval air training was transferred to Kasumigaura, from Yokosuka. After the establishment of
20586-459: Was perceived as ill-advised, and the navy was far less confident than their counterparts in the Japanese army about the outcome of a war with China. Japan's main strategy was to swiftly obtain naval superiority, as this was critical to the success of operations on land. An early victory over the Beiyang fleet would allow Japan to transport troops and material to the Korean Peninsula; additionally,
20732-493: Was the air arm of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). The organization was responsible for the operation of naval aircraft and the conduct of aerial warfare in the Pacific War . The Japanese military acquired their first aircraft in 1910 and followed the development of air combat during World War I with great interest. They initially procured European aircraft but quickly built their own and launched themselves onto an ambitious aircraft carrier building program. They launched
20878-490: Was the First Air Fleet's operational component. At the start of the war, three carrier divisions made up the Kido Butai . Unlike in the United States Navy where carrier divisions served only in an administrative capacity, the carrier divisions of the Kido Butai were operational entities. The two carriers in a division fought together, often exchanging aircraft squadrons and commanders on strikes. The commander of
21024-714: Was unable to increase its production rate, those veterans could not be replaced. Meanwhile, the American pilot training program went from strength to strength. The American aircraft industry rapidly increased production rates of new designs that rendered their Japanese opponents obsolescent. Examination of crashed or captured Japanese aircraft revealed that they achieved their superior range and maneuverability by doing without cockpit armor and self-sealing fuel tanks . Flight tests showed that they lost maneuverability at high speeds. American pilots were trained to take advantage of these weaknesses. The outdated Japanese aircraft and poorly trained pilots suffered great losses in any air combat for
21170-612: Was unique in naval history, as it was the first time that any naval air service had ever carried out such an effort. The campaign initially began in 1937, taking place largely in the Yangtze River basin with attacks on military installations along the Chinese coast by Japanese carrier aircraft. Naval involvement reached its peak in 1938–39 with the ferocious bombardment of cities deep in the Chinese interior by land-based medium bombers and concluded during 1941 with an attempt by tactical aircraft, both carrier and land-based, to cut communication and transportation routes in southern China. Although,
21316-497: Was utilized through the Dutch at Dejima to reinforce Japan's capability to repel the foreigners; field guns, mortars, and firearms were obtained, and coastal defenses reinforced. Numerous attempts to open Japan ended in failure, in part to Japanese resistance, until the early 1850s. During 1853 and 1854, American warships under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry , entered Edo Bay and made demonstrations of force requesting trade negotiations. After two hundred years of seclusion,
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