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79-614: The Treaty of Nanking was the peace treaty which ended the First Opium War (1839–1842) between Great Britain and the Qing dynasty of China on 29 August 1842. It was the first of what the Chinese later termed the " unequal treaties ". In the wake of China's military defeat, with British warships poised to attack Nanjing (then romanized as Nanking), British and Chinese officials negotiated on board HMS Cornwallis anchored in

158-536: A peace settlement . Payment of reparations often occur as part of a condition to remove occupying troops or under the threat of re-occupation. The legal basis for war reparations in modern international law is Article 3 of the Hague Convention of 1907 . Prominent examples of war reparations include Carthage's indemnity paid to Rome following the First Punic War , French reparations following

237-434: A war by one side to the other. They are intended to cover damage or injury inflicted during a war. War reparations can take the form of hard currency, precious metals, natural resources, industrial assets, or intellectual properties. Loss of territory in a peace settlement is usually considered to be distinct from war reparations. War reparations are often governed by treaties which belligerent parties negotiate as part of

316-593: A Hittite vassal state. The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one in Egyptian hieroglyphs , and the other in Akkadian using cuneiform script; both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. The treaty differs from others, however, in that the two language versions are worded differently. Although the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version claims that

395-560: A conflict that was ended by an armistice, rather than a peace treaty with the Korean Armistice Agreement . However, that war has never technically ended, because a final peace treaty or settlement has never been achieved. A more recent example of a peace treaty is the 1973 Paris Peace Accords that sought to end the Vietnam War . War reparations War reparations are compensation payments made after

474-574: A crushing victory and allowed it to impose a one-sided treaty. The first working draft for articles of a treaty was prepared at the Foreign Office in London in February 1840. The Foreign Office was aware that preparing a treaty containing Chinese and English characters would need special consideration. Given the distance separating the countries, the parties realised that some flexibility and

553-809: A departure from established procedure in preparing treaties might be required. The fundamental purpose of the treaty was to change the framework of foreign trade imposed by the Canton System , which had been in force since 1760. Under Article V, the treaty abolished the former monopoly of the Cohong and their Thirteen Factories in Canton. Four additional " treaty ports " opened for foreign trade alongside Canton ( Shameen Island from 1859 until 1943): Xiamen (or Amoy; until 1930), Fuzhou , Ningbo and Shanghai (until 1943), where foreign merchants were to be allowed to trade with anyone they wished. Britain also gained

632-490: A failed secession , as it implies mutual recognition of statehood. In cases such as the American Civil War , it usually ends when the losing side's army surrenders and its government collapses. By contrast, a successful secession or declaration of independence is often formalized by means of a peace treaty. Treaties are often ratified in territories deemed neutral in the previous conflict and delegates from

711-563: A formal hierarchy in its interactions with other states. Despite this stipulation, the treaty's contents featured entirely concessions from the Chinese side with no reciprocity of provisions on the British side - for instance, Britain received the right to establish consulates in treaty ports that held the right to an audience with local officials, an option denied to China should it have hypothetically wanted to send its own formal diplomatic missions to Britain. The one-sided nature of this treaty as

790-569: A list of concessions, alongside the sovereignty ceded with the terms granting extraterritoriality and joint Sino-British determination of tariff, would earn the Nanking Treaty and similar settlements that followed the name, "unequal treaty," from Chinese nationalists in later centuries. Interestingly, Joanna Waley-Cohen writes that, at the time of its signing, the Qing did not regard the treaty as “of major significance.” According to Waley-Cohen,

869-412: A miniature portrait of Pottinger's wife, Pottinger wrote that Keying "placed [the miniature] on his head—which I am told is the highest token of respect and friendship—filled a glass of wine, held the picture in front of his face, muttered some words in a low voice, drank the wine, again placed the picture on his head and then sat down" to complete the ceremony of long-term amity between the two families and

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948-405: A peace treaty such as the following: In modern history , certain intractable conflict situations may be brought to a ceasefire before they are dealt with via a peace process in which a number of discrete steps are taken on each side to reach the mutually-desired eventual goal of peace and the signing of a treaty. A peace treaty also is often not used to end a civil war, especially in cases of

1027-516: A problem. The conditions were ripe for a deal. During negotiations, Augustus granted the Kushite envoys all they asked for, and also cancelled the tribute earlier demanded by Rome. Premmis (Qasr Ibrim), and areas north of Qasr Ibrim in the southern portion of the "Thirty-Mile Strip" were ceded to the Kushites. The Dodekaschoinos was established as a buffer zone, and Roman forces were pulled back to

1106-471: A right to seek compensation for wrongs they sustained during warfare through tort law. King Christian IV of Denmark attacked Sweden in the 1611–1613 Kalmar War but failed to accomplish his main objective of forcing it to return to the Kalmar Union . The war led to no territorial changes, but Sweden was forced to pay a war indemnity of 1 million silver riksdaler to Denmark, an amount known as

1185-742: A view to assisting to compensate those countries for the cost of repairing the damage done, by making available the services of the Japanese people in production, salvaging and other work for the Allied Powers in question. War reparations made pursuant to the San Francisco Peace Treaty with Japan (1951) include: reparations amounting to US$ 550 million (198 billion yen 1956) were made to the Philippines , and US$ 39 million (14.04 billion yen 1959) to South Vietnam ; payment to

1264-455: Is more far-reaching than later treaties' simple declaration of the end of hostilities. It also contains a mutual-assistance pact in case one of the empires should be attacked by a third party or in the event of internal strife. There are articles pertaining to the forced repatriation of refugees and provisions that they should not be harmed, which might be thought of as the first extradition treaty. There are also threats of retribution, should

1343-608: The Älvsborg ransom . King Christian used this money to found several towns and fortresses, most notably Glückstadt (founded as a rival to Hamburg ) and Christiania . Following Napoleon 's final loss at the Battle of Waterloo , under the Treaty of Paris (1815) , defeated France was ordered to pay 700 million francs in indemnities. France was also to pay additional money to cover the cost of providing additional defensive fortifications to be built by neighbouring Coalition countries. It

1422-821: The Battle of Waterloo , and the Treaty of Versailles , formally ending the First World War between Germany and the Allies . Despite popular belief, the war did not end completely until the Allies concluded peace with the Ottoman Empire in 1919 at the Treaty of Sèvres , and even then the reaction to this treaty caused the outbreak of the Turkish War of Independence . Upon the victory of the Turkish National Movement in that conflict and

1501-652: The Court of St James's with a copy for ratification by Queen Victoria . The emperor ratified the treaty on 27 October and Queen Victoria added her written assent on 28 December. Ratification was exchanged in Hong Kong on 26 June 1843. Pottinger wrote in a letter to the Earl of Aberdeen the following year that at a feast with Keying celebrating the ratification, Keying insisted they ceremonially exchange miniature portraits of each member of each other's families. Upon receiving

1580-755: The Egyptians came suing for peace, and the Egyptian version claims the reverse. The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a silver plaque, and the "pocket-book" version was taken back to Egypt and carved into the Temple of Karnak . The Treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Hatusiliš III in the twenty-first year of Ramesses' reign ( c.  1258 BC ). Its eighteen articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceed to maintain that their respective people also demand peace. It contains many elements found in more modern treaties, but it

1659-565: The Gulf War , Iraq accepted United Nations Security Council Resolution 687 , which declared Iraq's financial liability for damage caused in its invasion of Kuwait . The United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) was established, and US$ 350 billion in claims were filed by governments, corporations, and individuals. UNCC accepted and awarded compensations claims for $ 52.4 billion to approximately 1.5 million successful claimants; as of July 2019, $ 48.7 billion has been paid and only $ 3.7 billion

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1738-607: The International Committee of the Red Cross to compensate prisoners of war (POW) of 4.5 million pounds sterling (4.54109 billion yen) was made; and Japan relinquished all overseas assets, approximately US$ 23.681 billion (379.499 billion yen). Japan signed the peace treaty with 49 nations in 1952 and concluded 54 bilateral agreements that included those with Burma (US$ 20 million 1954, 1963), South Korea (US$ 300 million 1965), Indonesia (US$ 223.08 million 1958),

1817-827: The Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China (1972), the People's Republic of China renounced its demand for war reparations from Japan. In the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , the Soviet Union waived its rights to reparations from Japan, and both Japan and the Soviet Union waived all reparations claims arising from war. Additionally, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), under President J. R. Jayewardene , declined war reparations from Japan. After

1896-698: The Napoleonic Wars , Haiti's reparations to France following the Haitian War of Independence (1791–1804), French reparations to Germany following the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), and German reparations following World War I . Making one party pay a war indemnity is a common practice with a long history. Rome imposed large indemnities on Carthage after the First ( Treaty of Lutatius , 241 BC) and Second Punic Wars . There

1975-1185: The Potsdam conference held between July 17 and August 2, 1945, Germany was to pay the Allies US$ 23 billion mainly in machinery and manufacturing plants . Dismantling in the West stopped in 1950. Reparations to the Soviet Union stopped in 1953 (only paid by the GDR). Beginning before the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the United States pursued a vigorous program of harvesting technological and scientific know-how as well as patents and many leading scientists in Germany (known as Operation Paperclip ). Historian John Gimbel , in his book Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany , states that

2054-555: The Yangtze at the city. On 29 August, British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives Keying , Yilibu , and Niu Jian signed the treaty, which consisted of thirteen articles. The treaty was ratified by the Daoguang Emperor on 27 October and Queen Victoria on 28 December. The exchange of ratification took place in Hong Kong on 26 June 1843. The treaty required the Chinese to pay an indemnity, to cede

2133-520: The "intellectual reparations" (referring to German scientists) taken by the Allies amounted to close to $ 10 billion. German reparations were partly to be in the form of forced labor . By 1947, approximately 4,000,000 German POWs and civilians were used as forced labor (under various headings, such as "reparations labor" or "enforced labor") in Europe, Canada and the United States after the end of

2212-536: The British and American merchants were only subject to the legal control of their permissive consuls. The opium traffic was later legalised in the Treaties of Tianjin , which China concluded after the Second Opium War resulted in another defeat for the Qing dynasty. The Treaty itself contained no provision for the legalization of the opium trade. Stephen R. Platt writes that such a term would have provided

2291-460: The Hittites, with Ramesses II capturing the city of Kadesh and Amurru in his 8th year as king. However, the prospect of further protracted conflict between the two states eventually persuaded both their rulers, Hatusiliš III and Ramesses, to end their dispute and sign a peace treaty. Neither side could afford the possibility of a longer conflict since they were threatened by other enemies: Egypt

2370-591: The Island of Hong Kong to the British as a colony, to essentially end the Canton system that had limited trade to that port and allow trade at Five Treaty Ports . It was followed in 1843 by the Treaty of the Bogue , which granted extraterritoriality and most favoured nation status. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Britain faced a growing trade deficit with China. Britain could offer nothing to China to match

2449-465: The Ottoman Empire. Another famous example would be the series of peace treaties known as the Peace of Westphalia . It initiated modern diplomacy, involving the modern system of nation-states . Subsequent wars were no longer over religion but revolved around issues of state. That encouraged Catholic and Protestant powers to ally, leading to a number of major realignments. The Korean War is an example of

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2528-680: The Philippines (US$ 525 million/52.94 billion yen 1967), Malaysia (25 million Malaysian dollars/2.94 billion yen 1967), Thailand (5.4 billion yen 1955), Micronesia (1969), Laos (1958), Cambodia (1959), Mongolia (1977), Spain ($ 5.5 million 1957), Switzerland , the Netherlands ($ 10 million 1956), Sweden and Denmark . Payments of reparations started in 1955, lasted for 23 years and ended in 1977. For countries that renounced any reparations from Japan, it agreed to pay an indemnity and/or grants in accordance with bilateral agreements. In

2607-600: The Question of Hong Kong , under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with Hong Kong Island and Kowloon (south of Boundary Street) ceded under the Convention of Peking (1860), was transferred to the PRC on 1 July 1997. The treaty was sealed by interpreter John Robert Morrison for the British and Wang Tajin for the Chinese. Harry Parkes , who was a student of Chinese under Morrison, gave his account of

2686-542: The Second World War. According to the Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947 , Italy agreed to pay reparations of about US$ 125 million to Yugoslavia , US$ 105 million to Greece , US$ 100 million to the Soviet Union, US$ 25 million to Ethiopia , and US$ 5 million to Albania . Hungary agreed to pay reparations of US$ 200 million to the Soviet Union, and US$ 100 million apiece to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Romania agreed to pay reparations of US$ 300 million to

2765-630: The Soviet Union. Romanian economists estimated that by February 1947 the Romanian economy had suffered further losses due to returning seized goods (US$ 320 million), restoring properties to the United Nations and their nationals (US$ 200 million), renouncing German debts (US$ 200 million), irregular requisitioning (US$ 150 million) and maintenance of the Soviet Army unit on its territory (US$ 75 million). Romania paid $ 5.6 million in 1945 and, in

2844-592: The Treaty of Nanking’s terms remarkably resembled another treaty signed with the central Asian state of Kokand, which had also conflicted with the Qing over control of trade along Qing frontiers. Failing to achieve results with a complete trade ban, the Qing arranged a treaty with Kokand that granted Kokandis “the right to live, trade, and levy taxes […] appoint consuls with extraterritorial jurisdiction over their compatriots in China,” alongside an indemnity. The precedent set by

2923-561: The UN Security Council Resolution 1483 , adopted on May 22, 2003, stipulated the postwar regime for the stability and security of Iraq exclusively. One of the UN's roles in peace processes is to conduct post-conflict elections but, on the whole, they are thought to have no effect, or even a negative effect, on peace after civil war. However, when peace agreements transform rebel groups into political parties,

3002-773: The agreement reached at the Lausanne Conference failed to be ratified, Germany had paid only a part of the sum. This still left Germany with debts it had incurred in order to finance the reparations, and these were revised by the Agreement on German External Debts in 1953. After another pause pending the reunification of Germany, the last installment of these debt repayments was paid on 3 October 2010. During World War II, Germany extracted payments from occupied countries, compelled loans, stole or destroyed property. In addition, countries were obliged to provide resources, and forced labour. After World War II , according to

3081-516: The assessment of Digi24 , it was coerced to pay through SovRom $ 2 billion. Finland could only negotiate an interim peace deal with Soviet Union by agreeing to extensive reparations, and was eventually the only country to pay settled war reparations in full. The total amount of reparations rose to US$ 500 million, at the value of the dollar in 1953. The Treaty of Shimonoseki , signed on April 17, 1895, obliged China to pay an indemnity of 200 million silver taels (¥3.61 billion) to Japan; and to open

3160-461: The ceremony: There were four copies of the Treaty signed and sealed. They were bound in worked yellow silk, one Treaty in English and the same in Chinese stitched and bound together formed a copy. This being finished they all came out of the after-cabin and sat down to tiffin , and the different officers seated themselves all round the table, making plenty of guests. Almost directly after the Treaty

3239-547: The effect on peace is positive, especially if international interveners use their moments of power distribution to hold the former combatants to the terms of their peace agreement. Probably the earliest recorded peace treaty, although it is rarely mentioned or remembered, was between the Hittite Empire and the Hayasa-Azzi confederation, around 1350 BC. More famously, one of the earliest recorded peace treaties

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3318-444: The emperor by the Kushite envoys as the treaty also created a favorable impression with other foreign ambassadors present on Samos, including envoys from India, and strengthened Augustus' hand in upcoming negotiations with the powerful Parthians. The settlement ushered in a period of peace between the two empires for around three centuries. Inscriptions erected by Queen Amanirenas on an ancient temple at Hamadab, south of Meroe, record

3397-521: The emperor had given his assent to the treaty and the first instalment of money had been received (Article XII). British troops would remain in Gulangyu and Zhaobaoshan until the Qing government had paid reparations in full (Article XII). In 1841, a rough outline for a treaty was sent for the guidance of Plenipotentiary Charles Elliot . It had a blank after the words "the cession of the islands of". Pottinger sent this old draft treaty on shore, with

3476-449: The end of World War II, United Nations Charter Article 2 restricts the use of military force. The UN Charter allows only two exceptions: "military measures by UN Security Council resolutions" and "exercise of self-defense " in countries subjected to armed attacks in relation to the use of force by states. Under the current UN system, war is triggered only by the enforcement of military measures under UN Security Council resolutions or

3555-478: The exercise of self-defense rights against illegal armed attacks. Therefore, if the use of military force arises, it is called 'international armed conflict' instead of 'war'. The fact that the current international law system avoids the use of the term 'war' also avoids the conclusion of a peace treaty based on the existence of war . A peace treaty was not signed after the end of the Iraq War in 2003, and only

3634-421: The fact that even when a war is actually over and fighting has ceased, the legal state of war is not automatically terminated upon the end of actual fighting and the belligerent parties are still legally defined as enemies. This is evident from the definition of a "state of war" as "a legal state created and ended by official declaration regardless of actual armed hostilities and usually characterized by operation of

3713-423: The fixed trade tariff, extraterritoriality , the most favoured nation provisions and freeing the importation of British opium which continued to have social and economic consequences for the Chinese people. These terms were imposed by the British and extended to other Western powers with most favoured nation status, and were conceded by the ruling Qing dynasty in order to avert continued military defeats and under

3792-400: The following treaties of 1843, 1858, and 1860, ended the Canton System as created in 1760. These treaties created a new framework for China's foreign relations and overseas trade, which would last for almost a hundred years and marked the start of what later nationalists called China's " century of humiliation ." From the perspective of modern Chinese nationalists, the most injurious terms were

3871-399: The growing importation of Chinese goods to Britain, such as tea and porcelain. In British India , opium was grown on plantations and auctioned to merchants, who then sold it to Chinese who smuggled it into China (Chinese law forbade the importation and sale of opium). The use of opium within China had become a nation wide emergency. China's social stability had significantly decreased because

3950-541: The hope that most favoured nation provision would set the foreigners against each other. Although China regained tariff autonomy in the 1920s, extraterritoriality was not formally abolished until the 1943 Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China . The stipulation of legal equality in diplomatic proceedings between Britain and China ended the centuries-long Sinocentric tributary system of interstate relations that placed China atop

4029-615: The last installment of the indemnity was paid in September 1873, ahead of schedule. Following the Greco-Turkish War (1897) , defeated Greece was forced to pay a large war indemnity to Turkey (£4 million). Greece, which was already in default, was compelled to permit oversight of its public finances by an international financial commission. Russians agreed to pay reparations to the Central Powers when Russia exited

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4108-482: The legal framework governing the post conflict period, or jus post bellum . Since 1950, the rate at which interstate wars end with a formal peace treaty has substantially declined. The content of a treaty usually depends on the nature of the conflict being concluded. In the case of large conflicts between numerous parties, international treaty covering all issues or separate treaties signed between each party. There are many possible issues that may be included in

4187-432: The letter s struck out of islands and the words Hong Kong placed after it. Robert Montgomery Martin , treasurer of Hong Kong, wrote in an official report: The terms of peace having been read, Elepoo the senior commissioner paused, expecting something more, and at length said "is that all?" Mr. Morrison enquired of Lieutenant-colonel Malcolm [Pottinger's secretary] if there was anything else, and being answered in

4266-501: The lower class had been all but demolished from the easy access citizens had to opium. This in turn led to major health concerns and labor productivity within China also dropping drastically. When Lin Zexu seized this privately owned opium and ordered the destruction of opium at Humen , Britain first demanded reparations, then declared what became known as the First Opium War . Britain's use of recently invented military technology produced

4345-528: The money that was not paid in a timely manner (Article VII). The Qing government undertook to release all British prisoners of war (Article VIII), and to give a general amnesty to all Chinese subjects who had cooperated with the British during the war (Article IX). The British on their part, undertook to withdraw all of their troops from Nanjing, the Grand Canal and the military post at Zhenhai , as well as not to interfere with China trade generally, after

4424-557: The negative, Elepoo immediately and with great tact closed the negotiation by saying, " all shall be granted—it is settled—it is finished ." The Qing government agreed to make Hong Kong Island a crown colony , ceding it to the Queen Victoria of Great Britain , in perpetuity ( 常 遠 , Cháng yuǎn , in the Chinese version of the treaty), to provide British traders with a harbour where they could "careen and refit their ships and keep stores for that purpose" (Article III). Pottinger

4503-428: The neutral countries acting as witnesses to the signatories . Since its founding after World War II the United Nations has sought to act as a forum for resolution in matters of international conflict. A number of international treaties and obligations are involved in which member states seek to limit and control behavior during wartime. The action of declaring war is now very unlikely to be undertaken. Since

4582-442: The old Greek Ptolemaic border at Maharraqa. Roman emperor Augustus signed the treaty with the Kushites on Samos. The settlement bought Rome peace and quiet on its Egyptian frontier, as well as increased the prestige of Roman Emperor Augustus, demonstrating his skill and ability to broker peace without constant warfare, and do business with the distant Kushites, who a short time earlier had been fighting his troops. The respect accorded

4661-452: The opium that had been confiscated by Lin Zexu in 1839 (Article IV), 3 million dollars in compensation for debts that the merchants in Canton owed British merchants (Article V), and a further 12 million dollars in war reparations for the cost of the war (Article VI). The total sum of 21 million dollars was to be paid in instalments over three years and the Qing government would be charged an annual interest rate of 5 percent for

4740-438: The opponents of Lord Palmerston, who headed the Conservative government that launched the war, with a seeming confirmation for their claim that the war was fought to support the opium trade. Instead, Palmerston asked his negotiators to request the Chinese to legalize the sale of opium on their own initiative, outside of the treaty’s terms, which they refused. These treaties had deep and lasting effect. Nanking Treaty, together with

4819-406: The parties concluded the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue at the Bocca Tigris outside Canton. Nevertheless, the treaties of 1842–43 left several unsettled issues. In particular they did not resolve the status of the opium traffic in favour of the British Empire. Although the Treaty of Wanghia with the Americans in 1844 explicitly banned Americans from selling opium, the trade continued as both

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4898-442: The ports of Shashi , Chongqing , Suzhou and Hangzhou to Japanese trade. According to Article 14 of the Treaty of San Francisco (1951): It is recognized that Japan should pay reparations to the Allied Powers for the damage and suffering caused by it during the war....Japan will promptly enter into negotiations with Allied Powers so desiring, whose present territories were occupied by Japanese forces and damaged by Japan, with

4977-409: The right to send consuls to the treaty ports, which were given the right to communicate directly with local Chinese officials (Article II). The treaty stipulated that trade in the treaty ports should be subject to fixed tariffs, which were to be agreed upon between the British and the Qing governments (Article X). The Qing government was obliged to pay the British government 6 million silver dollars for

5056-402: The rules of war". As a result, even when hostilities are over, a peace treaty is required for the former belligerents in order to reach agreement on all issues involved in transition to legal state of peace. The art of negotiating a peace treaty in the modern era has been referred to by legal scholar Christine Bell as the lex pacificatoria , with a peace treaty potentially contributing to

5135-415: The signing of the Treaty of Lausanne , the last major diplomatic extension of the First World War came to an end. The Treaty of Versailles, as well as the Kellogg-Briand Pact , is possibly the most notorious of peace treaties, and is blamed by many historians for the rise of Nazism in Germany and the eventual outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. The costly reparations that Germany was forced to pay

5214-408: The treaty be broken. The treaty is considered of such importance in the field of international relations that a replica of it hangs in the UN's headquarters. Following the five years war between Kushite Kandake , Amanirenas and Augustus of Rome , a peace treaty was conducted in the year 21/20 BC. Mediators were sent from Kush to Augustus who was in Samos at that time. An entente between

5293-431: The treaty with Kokand made the Nanking Treaty palpable enough that the Qing did not immediately regard this settlement as a disastrous capitulation. A copy of the treaty is kept by the British government while another copy is kept by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Republic of China at the National Palace Museum in Taipei , Taiwan. Peace treaty The need for a peace treaty in modern diplomacy arises from

5372-411: The two parties was beneficial to both. The Kushites were a regional power in their own right and resented paying tribute. The Romans also sought a quiet southern border for their absolutely essential Egyptian grain supplies, without constant war commitments, and welcomed a friendly buffer state in a border region beset with raiding nomads. The Kushites too appear to have found nomads like the Blemmyes to be

5451-448: The two peoples. This extravagant display has been analysed as showing an "erotically charged ... reciprocity [in] this symbolic gesture of swapping images of wives. Because of the brevity of the Treaty of Nanking and its terms being phrased only as general stipulations, the British and Chinese representatives agreed that a supplementary treaty should be concluded to establish more detailed regulations for relations. On 3   October 1843,

5530-422: The victors, the fact that Germany had to accept sole responsibility for starting the war, and the harsh restrictions on German rearmament were all listed in the Treaty of Versailles and caused massive resentment in Germany. Whether or not the treaty can be blamed for starting another war, it exemplifies the difficulties involved in making peace. However, no such conflict resulted from the more punitive settlement with

5609-429: The war and the favorable outcome from the Kushite perspective. Along with his signature on the official treaty, Roman emperor Augustus marked the agreement by directing his administrators to collaborate with regional priests in the erection of a temple at Dendur, and inscriptions depict the emperor himself celebrating local deities. Famous examples include the Treaty of Paris (1815) , signed after Napoleon 's defeat at

5688-589: The war in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (which was repudiated by the Bolshevik government eight months later). Bulgaria paid reparations of 2.25 billion gold francs (90 million pounds) to the Entente, according to the Treaty of Neuilly . Germany agreed to pay reparations of 132 billion gold marks to the Triple Entente in the Treaty of Versailles . When Germany stopped making payments in 1932 after

5767-742: Was also the case of 230 million silver taels in reparations imposed on defeated China after the First Sino-Japanese War led Japan to a similar decision. There have been attempts to codify reparations both in the Statutes of the International Criminal Court and the UN Basic Principles on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims, and some scholars have argued that individuals should have

5846-515: Was concluded between the Hittite and the Egyptian Empires after 1274 BC Battle of Kadesh (see Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty ). The battle took place in what is modern-day Syria , the entire Levant being at that time contested between the two empires. After an extremely costly four-day battle, in which neither side gained a substantial advantage, both sides claimed victory. The lack of resolution led to further conflict between Egypt and

5925-578: Was faced with the task of defending its long western border with Libya against the incursion of Libyan tribesmen by building a chain of fortresses stretching from Mersa Matruh to Rakotis, and the Hittites faced a more formidable threat in the form of the Assyrian Empire, which "had conquered Hanigalbat, the heartland of Mitanni, between the Tigris and the Euphrates" rivers, which had previously been

6004-815: Was later appointed the first Governor of Hong Kong . In 1860, the colony was extended with the addition of the Kowloon peninsula under the Convention of Peking and in 1898, the Second Convention of Peking further expanded the colony with the 99-year lease of the New Territories . In 1984, the governments of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China (PRC) concluded the Sino-British Joint Declaration on

6083-574: Was left to be paid to Kuwait on behalf of the Kuwait Petroleum Corporation. The UNCC says that its prioritization of claims by natural people, ahead of claims by governments and entities or corporations (legal persons), "marked a significant step in the evolution of international claims practice". Funds for these payments were to come from a 30% share of Iraq's oil revenues from the oil for food program. Certain groups in Iraq and

6162-465: Was signed, a yellow flag for China at the main and a Union Jack for England at the mizen were hoisted, and at the same time a royal salute of twenty-one guns was fired. The Daoguang Emperor gave his assent for the treaty on 8 September. After his assent arrived in Nanjing on 15 September, Pottinger's secretary George Alexander Malcolm was dispatched on board the steamer Auckland the next morning to

6241-469: Was the most expensive war reparation ever paid by a country (in proportion to its GDP). After the Franco-Prussian War , according to conditions of Treaty of Frankfurt (May 10, 1871), France was obliged to pay a war indemnity of 5 billion gold francs in five years. The indemnity was proportioned, according to population, to be the exact equivalent to the indemnity imposed by Napoleon on Prussia in 1807 . German troops remained in parts of France until

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