83-487: Lausanne Conference or Conference of Lausanne may refer to: Lausanne Conference of 1922–1923 , a peace conference to write a new treaty with Turkey Lausanne Conference on Faith and Order , 1927 ecumenical conference Lausanne Conference of 1932 , a conference representing the end of the reparations that related to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference Lausanne Conference of 1949 , related to Palestinian-Jewish negotiations and
166-537: A commercial and military point of view, and remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including Russia and Ukraine . Control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I . The ancient city of Troy
249-620: A commercial and military waterway. In more recent years, the Turkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry. Russian oil, from ports such as Novorossyisk , is exported by tankers primarily to western Europe and the U.S. via the Bosporus and the Dardanelles straits. The Dardanelles were closed in late February 2022 to all foreign warships at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in accordance with
332-668: A large presence in East Anatolia under the treaty and were instead afforded a small homeland in Soviet Armenia , which in 1922 became a part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic . Aside from the redrawing of geographic borders, Robert Gerwarth stated that the conference sanctioned relocation of ethnic and religious populations had inauspicious consequences and "had a significance that went well beyond
415-539: A maximum depth of 103 metres (338 ft) at its narrowest point abreast the city of Çanakkale . The first fixed crossing across the Dardanelles opened in 2022 with the completion of the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge . Most of the northern shores of the strait along the Gallipoli peninsula ( Turkish : Gelibolu ) are sparsely settled, while the southern shores along the Troad peninsula ( Turkish : Biga ) are inhabited by
498-523: A maximum depth of 103 metres (338 ft) at its narrowest point at Nara Burnu , abreast Çanakkale . There are two major currents through the strait: a surface current flows from the Black Sea towards the Aegean Sea, and a more saline undercurrent flows in the opposite direction. The Dardanelles is unique in many respects. The very narrow and winding shape of the strait is more akin to that of
581-816: A new treaty was ratified. Most desirable ones included measures for the protection of the minorities in Turkey, preliminary safeguards of the Armenian population, the satisfaction of Allied requirements of the Ottoman debt, capitulations and the future financial and economic regime in Turkey. Preliminary meetings, taking place in Paris between Curzon and French Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré on 18 November 1922, lasted five hours. Poincaré addressed each of Lord Curzon's aims point by point and reluctantly agreed to most of them. Both then met with Benito Mussolini who quickly agreed to
664-525: A part of Turkey. Britain eventually brought the dispute before the League of Nations, which ruled that neither party had any right to occupy and control the area. The Kurdish population was instead divided between Turkey, Syria and Iraq, which ended any aspirations the Kurds had for self-determination. In return for Turkey's concession, it was then afforded an invitation to join the League of Nations to complete
747-559: A river. It is considered one of the most hazardous, crowded, difficult and potentially dangerous waterways in the world. The currents produced by the tidal action in the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara are such that ships under sail must wait at anchorage for the right conditions before entering the Dardanelles. As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Dardanelles has always been of great importance from
830-596: A separate note from the Allies to Turkey. After a six-hour meeting on the subject between the Allied and the Turkish delegates, the issue was finally settled. At 1.30 a.m. on 9 July 1923, agreement was reached on the debt's interest, on concessions and on the evaluation of the Allies from Constantinople after Turkey had ratified the peace treaty. However, there were still delays over the settlement of other minor issues, and it
913-728: A village of the Gelibolu district, on the European side. It is part of planned expansions to the Turkish National Highway Network. Work on the bridge began in March 2017, and it was opened on March 18, 2022. 2 submarine cable systems transmitting electric power at 400 kV bridge the Dardanelles to feed west and east of Istanbul. They have their own landing stations in Lapseki and Sütlüce. The first, situated in
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#1732765210520996-738: Is an abbreviation of Strait of the Dardanelles . During Ottoman times there was a castle on each side of the strait. These castles together were called the Dardanelles , probably named after Dardanus , an ancient city on the Asian shore of the strait which in turn was said to take its name from Dardanus , the mythical son of Zeus and Electra . The name comes from the Dardani in the Balkans, according to Papazoglu. The ancient Greek name Ἑλλήσποντος ( Hellēspontos ) means "Sea of Helle", and
1079-469: Is then said to have thrown fetters into the strait, given it three hundred lashes with multiple whips and branded it with red-hot irons as the soldiers shouted at the water. Herodotus commented that this was a "highly presumptuous way to address the Hellespont" but in no way atypical of Xerxes. (vii.35) Harpalus the engineer is said to have eventually helped the invading armies to cross by lashing
1162-1053: The Balkans , the Near East , and Western Eurasia , and specifically connects the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara . The Marmara further connects to the Black Sea via the Bosporus , while the Aegean further links to the Mediterranean . Thus, the Dardanelles allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and the Indian Ocean through
1245-515: The Bosporus , the Dardanelles forms the Turkish Straits . One of the world's narrowest straits used for international navigation , the Dardanelles connects the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean and Mediterranean seas while also allowing passage to the Black Sea by extension via the Bosporus. The Dardanelles is 61 kilometres (38 mi) long and 1.2 to 6 kilometres (0.75 to 3.73 mi) wide. It has an average depth of 55 metres (180 ft) with
1328-726: The Dardanelles Operation — blockaded the straits in 1807. In 1833, following the Ottoman Empire 's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 , Russia pressured the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi —which required the closing of the straits to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. That would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea. This treaty alarmed
1411-496: The Montreux Convention . The waters of the Dardanelles are traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities. The strait also experiences significant amounts of commercial shipping traffic. The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge joins Lapseki , a district of Çanakkale, on the Asian side and Sütlüce ,
1494-683: The Ottoman Empire , who were concerned that the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions could conflict with their own possessions and economic interest in the region. At the London Straits Convention in July 1841, the United Kingdom , France , Austria , and Prussia pressured Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through
1577-743: The Strait of Gallipoli (after the Gallipoli peninsula) and in Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont ( / ˈ h ɛ l ɪ s p ɒ n t / HEL -isp-ont ; Classical Greek : Ἑλλήσποντος , romanized: Hellḗspontos , lit. 'Sea of Helle '), is a narrow, natural strait and internationally significant waterway in northwestern Turkey that forms part of the continental boundary between Asia and Europe and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey. Together with
1660-468: The Suez Canal , making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming in from Russia . The strait is located at approximately 40°13′N 26°26′E / 40.217°N 26.433°E / 40.217; 26.433 . The strait is 61 kilometres (38 mi) long, and 1.2 to 6 kilometres (0.7 to 3.7 mi) wide, averaging 55 metres (180 ft) deep with
1743-469: The straits ", Britain's main concern. The matter of the status of Mosul was deferred since Curzon refused to be budged from the British position that the area was part of Iraq . The French delegation, however, did not achieve any of its goals. On 30 January 1923, it issued a statement that it did not consider the draft treaty to be any more than a basis of discussion. The Turks, therefore, refused to sign
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#17327652105201826-511: The 1949 Armistice Agreements First International Congress on World Evangelization , the Lausanne Conference in 1974 See also [ edit ] Lausanne Congress of Supreme Councils of 1875 , a Freemasonry conference Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Lausanne Conference . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
1909-684: The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles as well as the contiguous islands in the Aegean and in Marmara would be demilitarised. The Lausanne Conference officially recognized the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey internationally. Turkey, in a sense, achieved what the Ottoman Empire had set out to do prior to World War I: receive equal treatment by the Western powers and assert its place in the international political sphere. The treaty restricted
1992-736: The British Foreign Secretary , was the co-ordinator of the conference, which he dominated. France and Italy had assumed that the Chanak Crisis had caused British prestige with Turkey to be irrevocably damaged, but they were shocked to discover that Turkish respect for Britain was undiminished. British troops had held their positions at Chanak, but the French had been ordered to withdraw. The conference lasted for eleven weeks. It heard speeches from Benito Mussolini of Italy and Raymond Poincaré of France. The proceedings of
2075-515: The Conference with a document of 24 headings dictated by Poincaré that represented a French demand for substantial concessions to Turkey on most issues to bring about a faster conclusion. Curzon described an " unconditional surrender to the Turks", adamantly refused to accept any of the "eleventh hour proposals" and went on to decide on a fixed date for the departure of the British delegation from
2158-445: The Dardanelles officials 6 follis. Cilician sea-merchants have to pay 3 follis and in addition to that, 1 keration (12 follis) to enter, and 2 keration to exit. – All wheat merchants have to pay the officials 3 follis per modius, and a further sum of 3 follis when leaving. Since the 14th century the Dardanelles have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks. The Dardanelles continued to constitute an important waterway during
2241-486: The Gallipoli peninsula, and the British cabinet ordered its withdrawal in December 1915, after eight months' fighting. Total Allied deaths included 41,000 British and Irish, 15,000 French, 8,700 Australians, 2,700 New Zealanders, 1,370 Indians and 49 Newfoundlanders. Total Turkish deaths were around 60,000. Following the war, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under
2324-582: The Great Powers and Greece , Romania , Bulgaria and Turkey . With the recovery of Turkish power in Anatolia, however, the peace treaty became inoperative within two years. The sessions of the conference devoted to the Straits became a duel between Curzon of Britain and Chicherin of Russia, the latter of whom demanded the passage of military vessels through the Straits to be prohibited at all times and
2407-762: The Greek and Turkish context to which it ostensibly applied. The Convention effectively established the legal right of state governments to expel large parts of their citizens on the grounds of 'otherness'. It fatally undermined cultural, ethnic and religious plurality as an ideal to which to aspire and a reality with which - for all their contestations - most people in the European land empires had dealt with fairly well for centuries". Dardanelles The Dardanelles ( / ˌ d ɑːr d ə ˈ n ɛ l z / DAR -də- NELZ ; Turkish : Çanakkale Boğazı , lit. 'Strait of Çanakkale'; Greek : Δαρδανέλλια , romanized : Dardanéllia ), also known as
2490-404: The Greek delegation threatened to walk out of the conference on Saturday, the 26th, if the Turks did not accept the Greek offer of Karaağaç to replace reparations. Mustafa Kemal intervened, and his government agreed that İsmet could accept Karaagaç instead of reparations if it was coupled with a favourable settlement of the remaining questions. On the afternoon of the 26th, after appeals from all
2573-650: The Lausanne Conference was still in session, both obstinate parties laying claim to the Mosul region, Turkey and Britain, deferred the dispute from the conference's agenda since its deadlock was so firm. Since the First World War, the British had sought to contain the Bolshevik threat by expanding their presence in the Middle Eastern regions around Iraq, Iran, and Turkey. Turkey however remained adamant that
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2656-625: The Soviets were not granted diplomatic protections by the Swiss government. On 16 December, Curzon decided that he would remain at the conference over the Christmas holiday to expedite the conference's conclusion. He intended to draw up a preliminary treaty containing the points already agreed to in the meetings with the Turks and then he would invite İsmet Pasha to accept or reject it as a statement of agreed principle. Curzon would let experts fill in
2739-713: The Turks for making what he considered to be excessive demands. He was met with widespread support by the French and Italians and went on to state that the "exhibition of so firm an Allied front at this stage and on so important an issue took [the] Turks very much by surprise and will probably exercise a decisive influence in our future proceedings". That feeling did not last, however, since by December, Turkish obstruction and stubbornness and Italian concessions had all but halted negotiations. The Soviet delegation arrived in Lausanne on 28 November 1922 with Georgy Vasilyevich Chicherin as its chief spokesman. It demanded to be admitted to
2822-464: The Turks were resolute in their stance. The capitulations and the rules that had allowed foreigners to have their own legal systems in the Ottoman Empire, their own post offices and other extraterritorial rights were ended. Foreigners and minorities were to be governed by the same sets of laws and to have the same rights as Turks. Social and religious institutions of Christians were specifically allowed but not separate political institutions. Furthermore,
2905-402: The agenda because of his overall indifference to the negotiations. The first official meeting of the Lausanne Conference was held on 21 November 1922, and Curzon appointed himself president of the conference and instituted three subcommissions. The first and arguably most important one addressed territorial and military questions, the second one addressed the financial and economic questions and
2988-726: The boundaries of Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey and formally relinquished all Turkish claims on the Dodecanese Islands, Cyprus, Egypt and Sudan, Syria and Iraq. In Article 3, Turkey had its southern border also become rigidly defined, and it officially ceded the territories of Yemen, Asir, and parts of Hejaz, including Medina. Turkey also officially ceded Adakale Island in the River Danube to Romania by Articles 25 and 26. According to Article 10, Turkey gave up any of its privileges in Libya. The Armenians also lost hope of reestablishing
3071-454: The city of Çanakkale's urban population of 110,000. The contemporary Turkish name Çanakkale Boğazı , meaning ' Çanakkale Strait', is derived from the eponymous midsize city that adjoins the strait, itself meaning 'pottery fort'—from چاناق ( çanak , 'pottery') + قلعه ( kale , 'fortress')—in reference to the area's famous pottery and ceramic wares, and the landmark Ottoman fortress of Sultaniye. The English name Dardanelles
3154-475: The conference as a whole, and when the Straits Commission officially met on 5 December, it also demanded the closure of the Straits, both in peace and war, to warships and aircraft of all nations except Turkey. Both proposals were rejected, and any Soviet protest was ignored. Soviet envoy Vatslav Vorovsky was granted entry as an observer to the orient conference, but not as an official delegate, and
3237-413: The conference were notable for the stubborn diplomacy of İsmet Pasha. Already partially deaf, he would simply turn off his hearing aid when Curzon launched into lengthy speeches denouncing the Turkish position. Once Curzon was finished, İsmet Pasha would restate his original demands and be oblivious to Curzon's denunciations. At the conclusion, Turkey assented to the political clauses and the "freedom of
3320-465: The conference. On that day, he explained, the Turks would be asked to accept or to reject the text of the treaty that Britain was drawing up without including any of Poincaré's amendments. When the draft was presented to the Turks on 31 January, İsmet asked for an adjournment of eight days. There were further meetings of the Allied delegations on the morning of 2 February during which Curzon reluctantly agreed to further modifications on capitulations and
3403-641: The control of the League of Nations . The Ottoman Empire's non-ethnically Turkish territories were broken up and partitioned among the Allied Powers, and Turkish jurisdiction over the straits curbed. After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following a lengthy campaign by Turks as part of the Turkish War of Independence against both the Allied Powers and the Ottoman court, the Republic of Turkey
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3486-503: The customs office of the Dardanelles. Translation: ... Whoever dares to violate these regulations shall no longer be regarded as a friend, and he shall be punished. Besides, the administrator of the Dardanelles must have the right to receive 50 golden Litrons, so that these rules, which we make out of piety, shall never ever be violated... ... The distinguished governor and major of the capital, who already has both hands full of things to do, has turned to our lofty piety in order to reorganize
3569-428: The delegates at the conference, İsmet accepted the compromise, which was coupled with rather-vague assurances by the Allies that every effort would be made to satisfy Turkish requirements on other issues. However, after a further appeal to Poincaré by Crewe on 6 July, the former accepted a British proposal that a declaration about the debt interest should be omitted from the treaty, and the matter should be dealt with by
3652-436: The entry and exit of all ships through the Dardanelles... ... Starting from our day and also in the future, anybody who wants to pass through the Dardanelles must pay the following: – All wine merchants who bring wine to the capital (Constantinopolis), except Cilicians , have to pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis and 2 sextarius of wine. – In the same manner, all merchants of olive-oil, vegetables and lard must pay
3735-481: The first day by the French or Italians". He demanded a preliminary meeting of the three nations to reach a preliminary strategy before he travelled to Lausanne. Curzon prepared a list of British demands separated into two categories. Essential ones included the Greek retention of Western Thrace, the freedom of the Straits to shipping, demilitarised zones on the coasts and the retention of Allied troops in Istanbul until
3818-488: The heart of Turkish independence, İsmet eventually accepted Allied wishes to secure Turkey's place in the future economy. He easily accepted British and French colonial rule in Palestine, Syria and Iraq. Although İsmet would surely have loved to negate the old Ottoman debt, a great weight on the new state, he accepted a proportional division of the debt among the successor states of the empire. On matters on independence,
3901-412: The inhabitants were racially Kurds who were of Indo-European origin and fundamentally different from the Turks, most of the trade of Mosul was with Iraq but not Anatolia, the British government had been legally entrusted with the mandate over Iraq by the League of Nations and the frequent Kurdish revolts during the nineteenth century immediately before the war demonstrated that the Kurds were unwilling to be
3984-514: The isolation of Bolshevik Russia . The Straits question of the conference further emphasised the prevailing paranoia of the encroaching Bolsheviks, especially by the Allies. At the end of the war, the victorious powers imposed the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres, which placed the control of the Straits under the Commission of the Straits. The commission would be composed of the representatives of
4067-467: The land campaign. The Turks mined the straits to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them but, in minor actions two submarines, one British and one Australian, did succeed in penetrating the minefields. The British submarine sank an obsolete Turkish pre-dreadnought battleship off the Golden Horn of Istanbul. Sir Ian Hamilton 's Mediterranean Expeditionary Force failed in its attempt to capture
4150-429: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lausanne_Conference&oldid=1112131641 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Lausanne Conference of 1922%E2%80%931923 The Conference of Lausanne
4233-560: The northeast quarter portion of the strait, was energised in April 2015 and provides 2 GW via 6 phases 400 kV AC 3.9 km far through the sea. The second, somewhat in the middle of the strait, was still under construction in June 2016 and will provide similar capabilities to the first line. Both subsea power lines cross 4 optical fibre data lines laid earlier along the strait. A published map shows communication lines leading from Istanbul into
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#17327652105204316-412: The partition of Anatolia . The treaty demanded the occupation of French and Italian zones of occupation in the southeast and southwest, the cession of much of western Anatolia to Greece and the establishment of two independent states: Armenia and Kurdistan in the east and the southwest. The Ottoman state was to have a small army and navy without heavy artillery, aeroplanes or battleships, and its budget
4399-514: The payment of reparations to the Allies by Turkey although, as Curzon pointed out, the Allies had agreed to abandon them in February. No agreement be reached with Turks on the future judicial regime for foreigners in their country. Finally, the Turkish insistence for the Greeks to pay reparations to Turkey for war damage in İzmir almost led to a renewal of Turkish-Greek hostilities. On 24 April,
4482-429: The period of the Ottoman Empire , which conquered Gallipoli in 1354. Ottoman control of the strait continued largely without interruption or challenges until the 19th century, when the Empire started its decline . Gaining control of, or guaranteed access to, the strait became a key foreign-policy goal of the Russian Empire during the 19th century. During the Napoleonic Wars , Russia—supported by Great Britain in
4565-436: The poverty of Greece. Although the Allies agreed to further slight changes in the economic clauses, the Turks still refused to sign the treaty on the grounds that the economic and the judicial clauses were still unsatisfactory. It was then reported that for the next several hours, İsmet Pasha feigned total ineptitude in the understanding of the simplest of propositions. The ploy of stubbornness aimed to force another revision of
4648-404: The priestess Hero, but was ultimately drowned in a storm. The Dardanelles were vital to the defence of Constantinople during the Byzantine period. Also, the Dardanelles was an important source of income for the ruler of the region. At the Istanbul Archaeological Museum a marble plate contains a law by the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD), that regulated fees for passage through
4731-400: The region was owed to them based on the racial unity of the Turks and the Kurds, arguments that most of the disputed area's trade was with Anatolia, the illegal occupation of the Allies in Mosul and the presence of self-determination from which the inhabitants actually wanted to be a part of Turkey. Lord Curzon, however, addressed each of these claims individually claiming that most majority of
4814-407: The rest. After Christmas, however, the increasing Turkish inflexibility on generally all significant clauses and rumors of an imminent Turkish military advance on Istanbul led Curzon to seek a private meeting with İsmet. Curzon found the Turkish foreign minister "impervious to argument, warning or appeal, and can only go on repeating the same catchwords, indulging in the same futil quibbles, and making
4897-405: The restoration of full Turkish sovereignty over the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles with an unrestricted right to fortify their shores. Eventually, the British prevailed by enacting Article I of the Straits Convention of 24 July 1923, which stated the principle of freedom of transit and of navigation through the Straits during both peace and war. Furthermore, Article IV stipulated that the shores of
4980-401: The same childish complaints". Curzon's intention of presenting the Turks with a preliminary treaty was further hindered by a lack of correspondence from Poincaré in regards to the acceptability of the conditions presented to France. In mid-January 1923, Maurice Bompard , who had taken the place of the sickly Barrere as chief French delegate, visited Paris to relay with Poincaré and returned to
5063-429: The ships together with their bows facing the current and adding two additional anchors to each ship. From the perspective of ancient Greek mythology Helle , the daughter of Athamas, supposedly was drowned at the Dardanelles in the legend of the Golden Fleece . Likewise, the strait was the scene of the legend of Hero and Leander , wherein the lovesick Leander swam the strait nightly in order to tryst with his beloved,
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#17327652105205146-469: The straits area over the following decade. Following extensive diplomatic negotiations, the reversion was formalized under the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits on 20 July 1936. That convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane while allowing Turkey to retain the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea states. During World War II , through February 1945, when Turkey
5229-454: The straits to defend the Danube front and to attack the Crimean Peninsula during the Crimean War of 1853–1856 – but they did so as allies of the Ottoman Empire. Following the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, the Congress of Paris in 1856 formally reaffirmed the London Straits Convention. In 1915 the Allies sent a substantial invasion force of British, Indian, Australian, New Zealand, French and Newfoundland troops to attempt to open up
5312-445: The straits. In the Gallipoli campaign , Turkish troops trapped the Allies on the coasts of the Gallipoli peninsula. The campaign damaged the career of Winston Churchill , then First Lord of the Admiralty (in office 1911–1915), who had eagerly promoted the (unsuccessful) use of Royal Navy sea power to force open the straits. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , subsequent founder of the Republic of Turkey , served as an Ottoman commander during
5395-448: The tariffs, the abandonment of reparations due from Turkey and the removal of all restrictions on the size of the Turkish Army in Thrace . On 4 February, the Turks accepted all territorial terms of the draft treaty with a reservation about Mosul, but they rejected the judicial, economic and financial clauses and demanded reparations from Greece for the damage its army caused in İzmir , a demand that Curzon had already rejected because of
5478-427: The territorial clauses already resolved. Between 21 and 27 March 1923, British, French, Italian and Japanese experts met in London to discuss Allied criteria for the settlement of the still-unresolved issues of the conference. The conference eventually reopened at Lausanne on 23 April 1923. Once again three commissions were set up. The first dealt with the remaining territorial questions and the rights of foreigners and
5561-488: The third was meant to answer the future of judicial status of foreigners in Turkey. The first was chaired by Lord Curzon, the second by French Ambassador Camille Barrère and the third by the Italian diplomat Marquis Garone . On 23 November, Curzon's commission began its processions. İsmet Pasha delivered a long speech in which he demanded the cession of Karaagac, a suburb of Edirne , which had been retained by Greece as part of Western Thrace . Curzon responded by chastising
5644-400: The tolerance between the cultures. Most of the Turks of Greece, in fact, had been expelled after 1878, especially in the Balkan Wars. Most Anatolian Greeks had fled in 1922. At Lausanne, Greece and Turkey agreed to relocate most of the Muslims and Greeks who had remained in the other's country. Only the Greeks of Istanbul and the Turks of western Thrace were excluded. On 4 February 1923, while
5727-410: The treaty attempted to rectify the expulsion of entire populations in the Balkans by a population exchange . Greeks had lived in Anatolia for thousands of years, and the Turks had lived in what is now Greece for more than 500 years, but both Greece and Turkey had come to realise that the two populations could no longer live together in co-operation. The viciousness of the Balkan Wars essentially destroyed
5810-440: The treaty. Every warning, argument or plea to İsmet lacked even the smallest effect. Then, negotiations broke down, and all parties returned to their respective capitals. In early March 1923, a Turkish note suggested new propositions towards the still-unsettled financial, economic and judicial questions. Curzon accepted the Turkish proposals on the basis that the conference would be revived, but he ruled out any further revisions of
5893-404: The treaty. On 4 February 1923, Curzon made a final appeal to İsmet Pasha to sign, and when he refused, Curzon broke off negotiations and left that night on the Orient Express . The Treaty of Lausanne was finally signed on 24 July 1923. The harsh Treaty of Sèvres imposed upon the government of the Ottoman Empire after World War I by the Allied Powers included provisions that demanded
5976-532: The width of the Hellespont at Abydos , in order that his huge army could cross from Persia into Greece . This crossing was named by Aeschylus in his tragedy The Persians as the cause of divine intervention against Xerxes. According to Herodotus (vv.34), both bridges were destroyed by a storm and Xerxes had those responsible for building the bridges beheaded and the strait itself whipped. The Histories of Herodotus vii.33–37 and vii.54–58 give details of building and crossing of Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges . Xerxes
6059-617: Was a conference held in Lausanne , Switzerland, during 1922 and 1923. Its purpose was the negotiation of a treaty to replace the Treaty of Sèvres , which, under the new government of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , was no longer recognized by Turkey . The conference opened in November 1922, with representatives from Great Britain, France, Italy and Turkey. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey selected İsmet İnönü , Rıza Nur and Chief Rabbi Chaim Nahum as their representatives. Lord Curzon ,
6142-419: Was chaired by Sir Horace Rumbold , the primary British delegate, since Curzon refused to return to Lausanne. The second was under General Maurice Pellé , now the main French delegate, and dealt with financial questions. The third was under , the chief Italian delegate, and dealt with economic questions. Most of the proceedings were of a highly-technical nature and progressed slowly. France renewed its demand for
6225-563: Was chosen as a neutral venue by Britain, France and Italy to discuss their new policies in the Near East . Representatives of the Soviet Union would be invited solely to renegotiate the Straits Convention . Before the conference even began, Lord Curzon of Britain expressed doubts upon the reliability of France and Italy for support and stated, "I am not going into the conference in order to find myself let down very likely on
6308-434: Was created in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne , which established most of the modern sovereign territory of Turkey and restored the straits to Turkish territory, with the condition that Turkey keep them demilitarized and allow all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely. As part of its national security strategy, Turkey eventually rejected the terms of the treaty, and subsequently remilitarized
6391-487: Was known from early on in the conference that Turkey was left in a perilous position since much of it had been destroyed in the War of Independence. The Turks needed an end to conflict and normal relations with Europe to build and sustain their economy. Though İsmet Pasha, was extremely stubborn and near unworkable during the conference, he acted so mainly in matters that threatened Turkish independence. On matters that did not touch
6474-680: Was located near the western entrance of the strait, and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the Trojan War . Troy was able to control the marine traffic entering this vital waterway. The Persian army of Xerxes I of Persia and later the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in 480 BC and 334 BC respectively. Herodotus says that, circa 482 BC, Xerxes I (the son of Darius ) had two pontoon bridges built across
6557-414: Was neutral for most of the length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations. Turkey declared war on Germany in February 1945, but it did not employ any offensive forces during the war. In July 1946, the Soviet Union sent a note to Turkey proposing a new régime for the Dardanelles that would have excluded all nations except the Black Sea powers. The second proposal
6640-490: Was only on 24 July 1923 that the treaty was signed at a plenary session of the conference. Meanwhile, on 10 May 1923 Vorovsky was shot dead and two other Soviet envoys were wounded in a busy restaurant by Maurice Conradi , a Russian expat. The trial, with unapologetic defendants who disputed few facts, quickly became a moral indictment of the Bolshevik government itself, and was an international sensation. Conradi's acquittal severed formal Swiss-Russian relations until 1946. It
6723-529: Was that the straits should be put under joint Turkish-Soviet defence. This meant that Turkey, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Romania would be the only states having access to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles. The Turkish government however, under pressure from the United States, rejected these proposals. Turkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording its straits even more strategic importance as
6806-533: Was the ancient name of the narrow strait. It was variously named in classical literature Hellespontium Pelagus , Rectum Hellesponticum , and Fretum Hellesponticum . It was so called from Helle , the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of the Golden Fleece . As a maritime waterway , the Dardanelles connects various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean ,
6889-532: Was to be placed under the supervisions of an Allied financial commission. Turkish nationalists were vehemently opposed to those clauses and decided to fight to inhibit their effectiveness. In the Turkish War of Independence that followed, the Turkish Nationalist Army defeated the Greeks and created resolutions with the French and Italians to secure a sovereign, independent Turkish state in Anatolia. The location of Lausanne , Switzerland ,
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