The Kingdom of Ndongo (formerly known as Angola or Dongo , also Kimbundu : Utuminu ua Ndongo , Utuminu ua Ngola ) was an early-modern African state located in the highlands between the Lukala and Kwanza Rivers , in what is now Angola .
118-510: The Kingdom of Ndongo is first recorded in the sixteenth century. It was one of multiple vassal states to Kongo , though Ndongo was the most powerful of these with a king called the Ngola . Little is known of the kingdom in the early sixteenth century. "Angola" was listed among the titles of the King of Kongo in 1535, so it was likely somewhat subordinate to Kongo. Its oral traditions, collected in
236-550: A paramount power existed, such as the princely states under the British Raj . In Botswana , South Africa , Ghana and Uganda , the ancient kingdoms and chiefdoms that were met by the colonialists when they first arrived on the continent are now constitutionally protected as regional or sectional entities. Furthermore, in Nigeria , though the hundreds of sub-regional polities that exist there are not provided for in
354-423: A personal union , separate independent states share the same person as monarch, but each realm retains separate laws and government. The fifteen separate Commonwealth realms are sometimes described as being in a personal union with King Charles III as monarch; however, they can also be described as being in a shared monarchy. A regent may rule when the monarch is a minor , absent, or debilitated. A pretender
472-410: A Kitima (or Mpanzu a Nzinga). Mpanzu rebelled against his brother, raised an army in the provinces, and made plans to march on Mbanza Kongo. In the ensuing Battle of Mbanza Kongo , Afonso's adherence to Catholicism was seemingly rewarded; his victory was attributed to a miracle described by the chronicler Paiva Manso, who said the army of Mpanzu a Kitima, though outnumbering Afonso's, fled in terror at
590-402: A board to better regulate the slave trade. Afonso also established a special committee, made up of Kongolese and Portuguese merchants, to determine the legality of the enslavement of those who were being sold. These regulatory efforts greatly slowed or ended the enslavement of free Kongolese in the near term, though sources debate on whether or not the issue resulted in the longer-term erosion of
708-581: A co-principality. Located in the Pyrenees between Spain and France , it has two co-princes: the bishop of Urgell in Spain (a prince-bishop ) and the president of France (derived ex officio from the French kings, who themselves inherited the title from the counts of Foix). It is the only case in which an independent country's (co-)monarch is democratically elected by the citizens of another country. In
826-538: A constitution. Many are so-called crowned republics , surviving particularly in small states. In some nations, however, such as Morocco , Qatar , Liechtenstein , and Thailand , the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state, even if it is by a constitutional mandate. According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations
944-673: A crushing defeat at the hands of Nzinga's army with its Dutch allies in 1647 at the Battle of Kombi . Following the expulsion of the Dutch, however, Filipe began to feel that the Portuguese were not giving him his full due. He became involved in disputes with them over his subordinates and jurisdiction, even as his forces marched into disastrous wars in Kisama and the Dembos. His son and successor
1062-439: A historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. Primogeniture , in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture"
1180-610: A larger federal , composite or unitary monarchy, realm and state. Monarchs can have various titles . Common European titles of monarchs (in that hierarchical order of nobility) are emperor or empress (from Latin : imperator or imperatrix ), king or queen , grand duke or grand duchess, prince or princess , duke or duchess. Some early modern European titles (especially in German states) included elector (German: Kurfürst , Prince-Elector, literally "electing prince"), margrave (German: Markgraf , equivalent to
1298-833: A leader of the entire Muslim community), padishah (emperor), sultan or sultana , shâhanshâh (emperor), shah , malik (king) or malikah (queen), emir (commander, prince) or emira (princess), sheikh or sheikha , imam (used in Oman ). East Asian titles of monarchs include huángdì (emperor) or nǚhuáng (empress regnant), tiānzǐ (son of heaven), tennō (emperor) or josei tennō (empress regnant), wang (king) or yeowang (queen regnant), hwangje (emperor) or yeoje (empress regnant). South Asian and South East Asian titles included mahārāja (high king) or maharani (high queen), raja (king) and rana (king) or rani (queen) and ratu (South East Asian queen). Historically, Mongolic and Turkic monarchs have used
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#17327656499481416-531: A monarchy is deposed, often former monarchs and their descendants are given alternative titles (the King of Portugal was given the hereditary title Duke of Braganza ). A non-sovereign monarchy is one where the monarch is subject to a temporal authority higher than their own. Some are dependent on other powers (see vassals , suzerainty , puppet state , hegemony ). In the British colonial era, indirect rule under
1534-427: A morally based, balanced monarchy was stressed as the ideal form of government, and little attention was paid to modern-day ideals of egalitarian democracy: e.g. Saint Thomas Aquinas unapologetically declared: "Tyranny is wont to occur not less but more frequently on the basis of polyarchy [rule by many, i.e. oligarchy or democracy] than on the basis of monarchy." ( On Kingship ). However, Thomas Aquinas also stated that
1652-495: A puppet government to allow Portuguese rule. Mendes de Vasconcelos' successor, João Correia de Sousa, tried to make peace with Ndongo. In 1621, Ngola Mbandi sent his sister, Nzinga Mbandi to Luanda to negotiate. She negotiated a peace treaty in which Portugal agreed to withdraw its advance fort of Ambaca on the Lukala, which had served as a base for the invasion of Ndongo, return a large number of captive ijiko to Ndongo, and force
1770-408: A ruling monarch, while " queen consort " refers to the wife of a reigning king. Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some family dictatorships (and also political families ) in many democracies . The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership (as evidenced in the classic phrase " The King is dead. Long live
1888-540: A second war with Portugal. Sousa's army defeated Nzinga again in 1628, forcing her to flee the islands. Nzinga narrowly escaped capture, at one point having to descend into the Baixa de Cassange on ropes with only a few hundred of her followers remaining. Desperate, Nzinga joined forces with the Imbangala band of Kasanje, who forced her to accept a humiliating position as wife and give up her royal regalia. Nevertheless, she
2006-403: A single at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word monarchy usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule, as elective monarchies are quite rare. The similar form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as Mesopotamia , Ancient Egypt and
2124-429: A situation known as diarchy . Historically this was the case in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta . There are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses, parent and child or other relatives (such as William III and Mary II in the kingdoms of England and Scotland , Tsars Peter I and Ivan V of Russia , and Charles I and Joanna of Castile ). Andorra currently is the world's only constitutional diarchy,
2242-484: A sort of punji trap during his army's rout, or after being captured and then executed. The Portuguese are not mentioned as participating in the battle either by the missionaries present in the kingdom or by Afonso in his letters to Portugal's king. Afonso capitalized on his victory over his traditionalist brother; Christianity became the royal faith from then on, and the "miracle" resulting in Afonso victory at Mbanza Kongo
2360-497: A spiritual leader believed to have a supernatural connection to the ancestors. These political units were often grouped into larger units called kanda and sometimes provinces. O-mbala is the name of the court, and se-kulu , chieftain means "old father" in the Mbundu language, is the chieftain's name. Di-kanda is the name for a count, mvunda is a duke, and mbanza means a baron. Larger kingdoms may have emerged earlier, but in
2478-514: A time there would be two kings in coregency —a senior king and a junior king. Examples were Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France. Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. Afonso I of Kongo Mvemba a Nzinga , Nzinga Mbemba , Funsu Nzinga Mvemba or Dom Alfonso (c. 1456–1542 or 1543), also known as King Afonso I ,
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#17327656499482596-589: A trading outpost in Luanda , thereby opening a new market for slaves independent of the Kongolese market. The kingdom of Ndongo also began growing in power, breaking free of Kongolese influence and skirmishing with Kongo on its southern border. Portuguese merchants, eager for a new supply of slaves, provided limited support to the Ndongans, further destabilizing the region. Afonso reacted by instituting new tolls on
2714-401: Is a claimant to an abolished throne or a throne already occupied by somebody else. Abdication is the act of formally giving up one's monarchical power and status. Monarchs may mark the ceremonial beginning of their reigns with a coronation or enthronement . Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, is sometimes linked to religious aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by
2832-407: Is a range of sub-national monarchical entities . Most of the modern monarchies are constitutional monarchies, retaining under a constitution unique legal and ceremonial roles for monarchs exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a parliamentary republic . Some countries have preserved the title of (say) "kingdom" while dispensing with an official serving monarch (note
2950-614: Is best known for his vigorous attempt to convert Kongo to a Catholic country, by establishing the Roman Catholic Church in Kongo , providing for its financing from tax revenues, and creating schools. By 1516 there were over 1000 students in the royal school, and other schools were located in the provinces, eventually resulting in the development of a fully literate noble class (schools were not built for ordinary people). Afonso also sought to develop an appropriate theology to merge
3068-436: Is unclear. "Scholars continue to dispute the authenticity of Kongolese Christian faith and the degree to which the adoption of a new faith was motivated by political and economic realities." Although the degree to which Afonso was purely spiritually motivated is uncertain, it is clear that the Kongo's conversion resulted in the far-reaching European engagement with both political and religious leaders who supported and legitimized
3186-462: Is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies. The 4th-century BCE Hindu text Arthasastra laid out the ethics of monarchism. In antiquity, some monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome ( Roman Republic , 509 BCE), and Athens ( Athenian democracy , 500 BCE). By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving parliamentarism e.g. through regional assemblies (such as
3304-693: The Central African Republic declared himself Emperor of the Central African Empire in 1976. Yuan Shikai , the first formal President of the Republic of China , crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived " Empire of China " a few years after the Republic of China was founded. Most monarchies only have a single person acting as monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries,
3422-511: The Egyptian , Chinese , Indian , Mesopotamian , Sudanic , reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion , and others, the monarch held sacral functions directly connected to sacrifice and was sometimes identified with having divine ancestry , possibly establishing a notion of the divine right of kings . Polybius identified monarchy as one of three "benign" basic forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy , and democracy ), opposed to
3540-867: The Icelandic Commonwealth , the Swiss Landsgemeinde and later Tagsatzung , and the High Medieval communal movement linked to the rise of medieval town privileges ) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g. of the temporary overthrow of the English monarchy by the Parliament of England in 1649, the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. One of many opponents of that trend
3658-468: The Indus Valley civilization . In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies. Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were Narmer , Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt c. 3100 BCE , and Enmebaragesi , a Sumerian King of Kish c. 2600 BCE . From earliest records, monarchs could be directly hereditary, while others were elected from among eligible members. With
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3776-486: The gunzes detachment laid out the initial attacks. During campaigns, the Ndongo army could build field fortifications mostly made of wood. According to the research of historian Thornton, in the 1585 campaign against Portugal, the army "constructed four or five forts 'of wood and straw after their fashion' each a day's journey apart to cover their retreat." Ndongo possessed, in addition, a naval force of rivercraft. In 1586,
3894-457: The makotas, or "the gentlemen of the land," who helped manage the capitol and advise the Ngola on important decisions for the kingdom. They included the mwene lumbo , who managed the palace, the mwene kudya , who managed ted food and monetary taxes, the mwene miste , who managed religious affairs, and the mwene ndongo , who was the great priest. The king also took advice from a nganga marinda ,
4012-572: The "royal religion of Melchizedek " is emphasised against the priestly claims of the rival papal ideology. In Saudi Arabia , the king is a head of state who is both the absolute monarch of the country and the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques of Islam (خادم الحرمين الشريفين). The roles of monarchs can overlap with other monarchies through personal union or dynastic union , with maybe becoming institutional real union and possibly
4130-521: The 1518 mission suggests that it still maintained sufficient control to prevent it from being an independent move. The second Portuguese mission arrived at the mouth of the Cuanza River in 1560, headed by Paulo Dias de Novais , grandson of the famous explorer Bartolomeu Dias , and including several Jesuit priests including Francisco de Gouveia . This mission also failed, and Dias de Novais returned to Portugal in 1564, leaving Gouveia behind. By
4248-605: The Crown to create a state identity, which is to be carried and occupied by the monarch, but represents the monarchy even in absence and succession of the monarch. Nevertheless, monarchies can also be bound to territories (e.g., the King of Norway ) and peoples (e.g., the King of the Belgians ). In a hereditary monarchy , the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession , usually within one royal family tracing its origin through
4366-636: The Faithful"), Hünkar-i Khanedan-i Âl-i Osman , "Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman"), Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda ("Majesty"), Jeonha ("Majesty"), Tennō Heika (literally "His Majesty the heavenly sovereign"), Bìxià ("Bottom of the Steps"). Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example, English claims to the French throne ), or titles not recognised ( antipopes ). Also, after
4484-589: The French title marquis , literally "count of the borderland"), and burgrave (German: Burggraf , literally "count of the castle"). Lesser titles include count and princely count . Slavic titles include knyaz and tsar (ц︢рь) or tsaritsa (царица), a word derived from the Roman imperial title Caesar . In the Muslim world , titles of monarchs include caliph (successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and
4602-402: The Imbangala bands who were still ravaging Ndongo to leave. In exchange, Ngola Mbandi would leave the island, reestablish himself at the capital, and become a Portuguese vassal, paying 100 enslaved people per year as tribute. However, João Correia de Sousa became involved in a disastrous war with Kongo and, in the aftermath, was expelled from the colony by angry citizens. His temporary successor,
4720-478: The King! "). Some monarchies are not hereditary. In an elective monarchy , monarchs are elected or appointed by some body (an electoral college ) for life or a defined period. Four elective monarchies exist today: Cambodia , Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates are 20th-century creations, while one (the papacy ) is ancient. A self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims
4838-630: The Kingdom of Ndongo sent ambassadors to Portugal, requesting that Catholic priests visit his kingdom to learn more about the European invaders. A Portuguese mission arrived in Ndongo in 1520, but local disputes and perhaps Kongo pressure forced the missionaries to withdraw. Afonso I of Kongo took the missionaries to Kongo and left his priest in Ndongo. Around 1556, Ndongo sent another mission to Portugal seeking military assistance and offering to be baptized, even though Portuguese officials were unsure of
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4956-405: The Kingdom of Ndongo under a king of the Ngola dynasty, using their artisan, blacksmithing, and agricultural skills to become influential traders in the region. They established massive farming communities, created unity through the veneration of zumbi (ancestors) and ilundu (deities), and organized military strategies to fortify their borders and protect their people. In 1518, Ngola Kiluanji of
5074-411: The Kingdom of Portugal, Afonso became a fervent convert to Catholicism and sought to embrace Portuguese institutions in his lands. Following the death of his father in 1506, Afonso prevailed in brief civil war against his brother, becoming the sixth king of Kongo. As king, Afonso centralized governmental power in his capital city at Mbanza Kongo, curtailed the power of the Kongolese nobility, and expanded
5192-461: The Kongolese capital, while a number of Kongolese notables had been sent abroad to reside in the Portuguese capital of Lisbon . Trade and religious exchange between the two kingdoms grew after Afonso's rise to the Kongolese throne, as the Portuguese supported his pro-catholic policies. Trade between Portugal and Kongo at the start of Afonso's reign mainly consisted of ivory, copper, and palm cloth, but also and increasing trickle of slaves. Afonso and
5310-453: The Kongolese noble class. Afonso also strengthened ties with provincial kingdoms (most notably Sonyo and Mbata) ruled by his kin, helping to secure Kongo's position as the leading power in the region. As Afonso's reign continued, Kongo's relationship with Portugal continued to evolve. During the final years of his predecessor's reign as king, Portuguese missionaries had begun to play an increasingly important role as educators and diplomats in
5428-596: The Kwanza, the Portuguese came into contact with the Imbangala , a rootless group of nomadic raiders ravaging the country. In 1615, the temporary Angolan governor Bento Banha Cardoso encouraged some Imbangala to cross the river and enter Portuguese service, and with their help, he expanded the colony along the Lukala River, north of Ndongo. In 1617, the new governor Luis Mendes de Vasconcelos , after first rejecting
5546-486: The Portuguese by royal representatives. By the 1510s, Afonso entered an arrangement in which the Portuguese provided him with military assistance in exchange for a share of slaves taken captive during Kongo's wars of expansion. In 1512, Afonso led a military campaign against the Kingdom of Ndongo to the south; in correspondence with King Manuel of Portugal , Afonso mentioned that he had sent him 410 slaves captured during
5664-430: The Portuguese colony on São Tomé, where the Kongolese monarchy had appointed representatives. Christian festivals were observed, churches were erected, and craftsmen made Christian artifacts that were found by missionaries in the 19th century. Significantly, religious brotherhoods (organizations) were founded in imitation of Portuguese practices. The ranks of brotherhoods would be called by different European titles, with
5782-483: The Portuguese forces into an ambush and massacred them at his capital. The following war witnessed a Kongo invasion, which was narrowly defeated in 1580, and a Portuguese offensive up the Kwanza River, resulting in the founding of their fort at Massangano in 1582. Several sobas switched their allegiance to Portugal, and many of the coastal provinces soon joined the colony. By 1590, the Portuguese decided to attack
5900-481: The Portuguese loyally in the following decades, even when the Portuguese made a separate peace with Nzinga in 1639. His troops were the most significant component of the army the Portuguese used to make conquests and consolidate their rule in the Dembos area to the north. When the Dutch invaded Brazil , Filipe served against them, forming the bulk of the forces that defended the rump colony at Masangano , though he suffered
6018-494: The Portuguese. In 1512, Afonso received an official embassy from Portugal and send Kongolese ambassadors to Lisbon. Increased trade led to a flourishing economy centered around the highly-productive royal capital at Mbanza Kongo, which also benefited Afonso's government. Kongo's history of military expansion made it an efficient exporter; the tribute of raw materials sent to Mbanza Kongo by its tributaries could be processed into exportable goods, while captured peoples could be sold to
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#17327656499486136-426: The administration of the country. Many letters complain about the behavior of several Portuguese officials, and these letters have given rise to an interpretation of Afonso's reign as one in which Portuguese interests submerged Afonso's ambitions. In Adam Hochschild 's 1998 book King Leopold's Ghost , Hochschild characterizes Afonso as a "selective modernizer" because he welcomed Europe a scientific innovation and
6254-534: The advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism . As such republics have become the opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy, despite some having seen infringements through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state, such as in North Korea . With the rise of republicanism, a diverse division between republicanism developed in the 19th-century politics (such as anti-monarchist radicalism ) and conservative or even reactionary monarchism . In
6372-457: The apparition of Saint James the Great and five heavenly armored horsemen in the sky. The story, first recounted in a letter that was not survived by Afonso himself, is open to many interpretations, and may have been an allegory used to represent a coup launched by Afonso to expel anti-Catholic elements within the royal house. Mpanzu a Kitima was killed during the battle, either by falling into
6490-436: The army deployed 40 musketeers against Portugal. Queen Nzinga fielded 3 Dutch artillery pieces around 1648 in a failed siege of a Portuguese stronghold at Muxima . Ndongo's army was organized into mass units called mozengos or embalos , divided into sub formations of a center and two wings. The military force could be redivided once more into units called lucanzos that were tasked with special operations. In battle,
6608-409: The army was trained in fencing . This Central African martial arts was referred to as Sanguar . It was described by a Jesuit witness in the 1570s as; all their defense consists of sanguar which is to leap from one side to another with a thousand twists and such agility that they can dodge arrows and spears.... Professional forces trained for war in the army were referred to as quimbares . Before
6726-527: The bishop, was unable to execute the treaty, and it was then left to the new governor, Fernão de Sousa, to settle matters when he came in 1624. Portugal's failure to honor its treaty took a toll on Ngola Mbandi. In desperation, he committed suicide, leaving the country in the hands of his sister Nzinga , who was to serve as regent for his minor son, then in the protective custody of the Imbangala leader Kaza, who had left Portuguese service and joined with Ndongo. Nzinga, however, only briefly served as regent and had
6844-546: The church but refused to adopt Portugal's legal code and sell land to prospectors. In fact, Afonso ridiculed the Ordenações Manuelinas (new Portuguese law code) when he read it in 1516, asking the Portuguese emissary de Castro, "What is the punishment, Castro, for putting one's feet on the ground?" No contemporary record mentions anything about land sales, indeed land in Kongo was never sold to anyone. The precise motivation behind Afonso's campaign of conversion
6962-413: The close pretexts of kijiko and mubika enslavement, Ndongo had stringent rules on slavery or the export of enslaved people. To ensure that no ana murinda or kijiko was unjustly taken and sold, the kingdom even went so far as to interview every enslaved person who was marked for export. The legitimacy of their enslavement had to be proven before they were sold outside of the Ndongo. The Mbundu people founded
7080-433: The coast] secretly or at night. ... As soon as the captives are in the hands of white men they are branded with a red-hot iron. To counter the trade in illegally-exported Kongolese slaves, Afonso threatened to end the slave trade if Portugal did not intervene and better regulate its merchants. To reform the trade, Afonso reiterated the need to follow Kongolese law and not enslave Kongolese freemen, while also establishing
7198-441: The core of Ndongo and sent an army against Kabasa itself. Ndongo, however, had recently sealed an alliance with nearby Matamba , and the Portuguese force was crushed. Following this defeat, Ndongo made a counteroffensive, and many of the formerly pro-Portuguese sobas returned to Ndongo. But Portugal managed to retain much of the land they had gained in the earlier wars, and in 1599, Portugal and Ndongo formalized their border. During
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#17327656499487316-897: The country in the mid-seventeenth century when it split into Nzingha's half and Hari a Kiluanji's half. However, the Capuchin's work included detailed recountings of oral tradition. Monarchy Philosophers Works A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch , reigns as head of state for life or until abdication . The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic ( constitutional monarchy ), to fully autocratic ( absolute monarchy ), and may have representational , executive , legislative , and judicial functions. The succession of monarchs has mostly been hereditary , often building dynasties . However, monarchies can also be elective and self-proclaimed . Aristocrats , though not inherent to monarchies, often function as
7434-596: The current constitution, they are nevertheless legally recognised aspects of the structure of governance that operates in the nation. For example, the Yoruba city-state of Akure in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy: its reigning Oba Deji has to be chosen by an electoral college of nobles from amongst a finite collection of royal princes of the realm upon the death or removal of an incumbent. In addition to these five countries, non-sovereign monarchies of varied sizes and complexities exist all over
7552-400: The early seventeenth century, an uneasy peace was held between Portugal and Ndongo. The Portuguese continued their expansion along the Kwanza, founding the presidio of Cambambe in 1602 and attempted, whenever possible, to meddle in Ndongo's politics, especially as it concerned Ndongo's tenuous hold on Kisama and other lands south of the Kwanza River. During their activities in the region south of
7670-499: The elected leader of each brotherhood having the title "king." To celebrate Pentecost , these brotherhoods organized processions that had the multiple motives of celebrating Saints, the brotherhoods themselves, and allowed the brotherhoods an opportunity to collect money. These celebrations lived on in slave communities in Albany, NY as Pinkster . Toward the end of his life, Afonso's children and grandchildren began maneuvering for
7788-549: The example of Francoist Spain from 1947 to 1975) or while relying on a long-term regency (as in the case of Hungary in the Horthy era from 1920 to 1944). The word "monarch" (Late Latin: monarchia ) comes from the Ancient Greek word μονάρχης ( monárkhēs ), derived from μόνος ( mónos , "one, single") and ἄρχω ( árkhō , "to rule"): compare ἄρχων ( árkhōn , "ruler, chief"). It referred to
7906-448: The following 20th century many countries abolished the monarchy and became republics, especially in the wake of World War I and World War II . Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch , including fifteen Commonwealth realms that have Charles III as the head of state. Most modern monarchs are constitutional monarchs , who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under
8024-475: The ideal monarchical system would also have at lower levels of government both an aristocracy and elements of democracy in order to create a balance of power. The monarch would also be subject to both natural and divine law, and to the Church in matters of religion. In Dante Alighieri 's De Monarchia , a spiritualised, imperial Catholic monarchy is strongly promoted according to a Ghibelline world-view in which
8142-530: The island colony to the Kongo. Afonso had to navigate the changing priories of his kingdom, the Portuguese crown in Europe, and the increasingly influential Portuguese community in Africa, which often had different motivations. In the later years of his rule, Afonso and the Kongo increasingly maneuvered to ensure the kingdom's monopoly on the slave trade. This faced competition from the Portuguese, who established
8260-437: The king of Angola, renewed the connection with Portugal in 1578. Unable to conquer any territory on his own, Dias de Novais made alliances with both Kongo and Ndongo, serving as a mercenary army. In 1579, Portuguese merchants who had settled in Kongo, led by Francisco Barbuda , advised Njinga Ndambi Kilombo kia Kasenda that Portugal intended to take over his country. Acting on this intelligence and advice, Njinga Ndambi tricked
8378-548: The king of Portugal established a shared monopoly on trade in the "Five Rivers of Guinea" – modern day Benin and the Niger Delta . Trade between Portugal and Kongo continued as Portugal continuously expanded into the area; most notably, the establishment of a Portuguese colony on the island of São Tomé led to an increased Portuguese demand for slaves. Afonso saw benefits from the strengthening ties with Portugal, as his efforts to convert Kongo to Catholicism were aided by
8496-716: The kingdom's borders through war. Unlike previous Kongolese kings, he remained a Catholic throughout his life, and worked aggressively to convert his kingdom to Christianity. His reign saw increasing cultural, economic, and religious exchanges between Kongo and Portugal, including an expansion of the Atlantic slave trade . Afonso grew more cautious of Portuguese influence in his later reign, but relations between Kongo and Portugal remained close, with both kingdoms collaborating in war and trade. Keenly interested in diplomacy, Afonso sent Kongolese embassies to Lisbon, Rome, and wrote correspondence with political and religious leaders in Europe. He
8614-490: The late sixteenth century, particularly by the Jesuit Baltasar Barreira , described the founder of the kingdom, Ngola Kiluanje , also known as Ngola Inene, as a migrant from Kongo, chief of a Kimbundu-speaking ethnic group. The Kimbundu -speaking region was known as the land of Mbundu people. It was ruled by a Ngola , or king, who lived with his extended family in the capitol, or kabasa . The kingdom
8732-518: The leadership through transitioning to a democratic constitutional monarchy . The prospect of retaining the ruler appeals to opposition groups who value both democracy and stability, but it also has implications for their ability to organize and sustain mass protest." Monarchies are associated with hereditary reign , in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in
8850-580: The modern-day, have been born and brought up within a royal family , the centre of the royal household and court . Growing up in a royal family (called a dynasty when it continues for several generations ), future monarchs are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch. Different systems of hereditary succession have been used, such as proximity of blood , primogeniture , and agnatic seniority ( Salic law ). While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned. The term " queen regnant " refers to
8968-425: The monarch, which is a common reason for monarchs carrying several titles. Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, when republics replaced many monarchies , notably at the end of World War I . As of 2024 , forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that share King Charles III as their head of state. Other than that, there
9086-552: The monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. There are examples of republican leaders who have proclaimed themselves monarchs: Napoleon I of France declared himself Emperor of the French and ruled the First French Empire after having held the title of First Consul of the French Republic for five years from his seizing power in the coup of 18 Brumaire . President Jean-Bédel Bokassa of
9204-405: The murinda". In addition to the commoners, there were two enslaved groups. The ijiko or kijikos (sing., kijiko ) were enslaved commoners who were originally captured during a war, permanently attached to specific territories as serfs , and could not be sold. The abika or mubikas (sing., mubika ) were war captives who were judicially enslaved and could be bought, sold, or inherited. Due to
9322-549: The navy employed 8 "great canoes" across the Lucala River , each possessing some personnel of 80–90 people. Ndongo's history is primarily known through the writings of Portuguese missionaries, administrators, and travelers. Much of this work was gathered in the monumental collection of sources, in the original languages by António Brásio. In addition, several Italian Capuchin missionaries, especially Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi and António da Gaeta, wrote book-length descriptions of
9440-447: The new name Afonso, and he was baptized after his father decided to convert to Christianity . He studied with Portuguese priests and advisers for ten years in the kingdom's capital. Letters written by priests to the king of Portugal paint Afonso as an enthusiastic and scholarly convert to Christianity. Around 1495, his father denounced Christianity and pushed priests out of the royal capital, but Afonso disagreed with his father and welcomed
9558-615: The pool of persons from which the monarch is chosen, and to fill the constituting institutions (e.g. diet and court ), giving many monarchies oligarchic elements. The political legitimacy of the inherited, elected or proclaimed monarchy has most often been based on claims of representation of people and land through some form of relation (e.g. kinship ) and divine right or other achieved status . Monarchs can carry various titles such as emperor , empress , king , and queen . Monarchies can form federations , personal unions and realms with vassals through personal association with
9676-622: The power of the Kongolese kingdom. Afonso continued to expand Kongo's borders into the 1540s, conquering lands on the Zaire river, launched raids into northern Angola, while also forcing the rival kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba to become Kongolese tributaries. Seeking to better tie Kongo into the growing Portuguese empire in Africa, he continued to encourage trade with Portugal; by the 1540s, he had royal representatives present in Sao Tome, and had also (unsuccessfully) petitioned Portugal to cede
9794-434: The priests into the capital of his Nsundi province. To the displeasure of many in the realm, he ordered the destruction of traditional art objects that might offend Portuguese sensibilities. In 1506 King João I of Kongo (the name Nzinga a Nakuru took upon his conversion) died, and potential claimants (including Afonso) rose up to take over the kingdom. Kongo was an elective rather than a hereditary monarchy , and so Afonso
9912-426: The religious sincerity at the time. In 1901, historian E.G. Ravenstein claimed that this mission was the result of a war between Kongo and Ndongo, in which Ndongo won and declared its independence, which was also claimed by historian Jan Vansina in 1966 and then others, but this appears to have been a misreading of the sources. Ndongo may have seen the mission as a declaration of independence since Kongo's response to
10030-401: The religious traditions of his own country with that of Christianity. He studied theological textbooks, falling asleep over them, according to Rui de Aguiar (the Portuguese royal chaplain who was sent to assist him). To aid in this task, Afonso sent many of his children and nobles to Europe to study, including his son Henrique Kinu a Mvemba , who was elevated to the status of bishop in 1518. He
10148-404: The rest of the continent of Africa . Monarchies pre-date polities like nation states and even territorial states . A nation or constitution is not necessary in a monarchy since a person, the monarch, binds the separate territories and political legitimacy (e.g. in personal union) together. Monarchies, though, have applied state symbols like insignia or abstracts like the concept of
10266-452: The road to Luanda, ensuring his kingdom was able to tax the slave trade. He also took efforts to ensure roads into the Kongolese interior remained open so that the slave trade could continue. Afonso and his successors faced a continuing problem in that slaves had become the unit of currency for use in overseas purchases, and so the Kongolese monarchy was reliant on the sale of slaves to maintain its diplomatic and economic power abroad. Afonso
10384-430: The rocky fortress of Mpungo a Ndongo (or Pungo Andongo ) in 1626. Still, he died in the smallpox epidemic that broke out as a result of the war and was replaced by Filipe Hari a Ngola . Nzinga refused to recognize Hari a Ngola, claiming that he was of slave origin and not eligible to reign. She reoccupied Kindonga and began mobilizing the support of all the sobas opposed to Hari an Angola and Portuguese rule, leading to
10502-411: The royal monopoly on trade held by Afonso and the Kongolese monarchy. To pay for these imports, some Kongolese nobles illegally exported slaves to the Portuguese, with some going so far as to kidnap and enslave freeborn Kongolese. These developments worried and angered Afonso, who issued a letter protesting the circumvention of Kongolese law in 1526. Writing in a letter to the king of Portugal, Each day
10620-399: The ruler of Kongo during a transformative and disruptive period of Kongolese history, Afonso's reign has been the area of historical study. Virtually all that is known about Kongo in the time of Afonso's reign is known from his long series of letters, written in Portuguese, primarily to the kings Manuel I and João III of Portugal . The letters are often very long and give many details about
10738-403: The sixteenth century, most of these regions had been united by the rulers of Ndongo. Ndongo's capital city was called Kabasa ( Caculo Cabaça ), located on the highlands near modern-day N'dalatando . This was a large town, holding as many as 50,000 people in its densely populated district. The Kingdom of Ndongo was composed mostly of free commoners, who were called ana murinda, or "children of
10856-422: The slave trade—the sale or enslavement of Kongolese freemen was prohibited, as was the export of female slaves. Kongolese criminals could be condemned to slavery, but could not be exported. However, as the Portuguese demand for slaves grew, these laws were increasingly subverted. By the mid-1520s, members of the Kongolese nobility had begun to illegally import goods directly from Portuguese merchants, thus bypassing
10974-471: The south and east of the Kongo. These campaigns brought new peoples under Kongolese control. Captives taken in the wars were enslaved and forcibly relocated to Mbanza Kongo, while conquered lands paid tribute to Kongo in the form of valuable trade goods (such as iron, palm cloth, and ivory). The resulting surplus of food and labor allowed Afonso to fuel his plans to centralize governmental power in his capital and secure his throne against any potential rivals from
11092-446: The succession, and in 1540 plotters that included Portuguese residents in the country made an unsuccessful attempt on his life. He died toward the end of 1542 or perhaps at the very beginning of 1543, leaving his son Pedro to succeed him. Although his son was soon overthrown by his grandson Diogo (in 1545) and had to take refuge in a church, the grandchildren and later descendants of three of his daughters provided many later kings. As
11210-479: The three "malignant" basic forms of government ( tyranny , oligarchy , and ochlocracy ). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as " king " or "ruler" (translating archon , basileus , rex , tyrannos , etc.) or as " queen " ( basilinna , basilissa , basileia or basilis ; regina ). Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component of republics, but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power
11328-449: The time of the third mission in 1571, the King of Portugal Sebastian I had decided to charge Dias de Novais with the conquest and subjugation of the "Kingdom of Angola", authorizing him to govern the region, bring in settlers, and build forts. Dias de Novais arrived in Luanda by arrangement with Kongo's king Álvaro I in compensation for Portugal's assistance against the Jaga . Quilongo,
11446-495: The title khan and khagan (emperor) or khatun and khanum ; Ancient Egyptian monarchs have used the title pharaoh for men and women. In Ethiopian Empire , monarchs used title nəgusä nägäst (king of kings) or nəgəstä nägäst (queen of kings). Many monarchs are addressed with particular styles or manners of address, like " Majesty ", " Royal Highness ", " By the Grace of God ", Amīr al-Mu'minīn ("Leader of
11564-674: The traders are kidnapping our people – children of this country, sons of our nobles and vassals, even people of our own family. This corruption and depravity are so widespread that our land is entirely depopulated. We need in this kingdom only priests and schoolteachers, and no merchandise, unless it is wine and flour for Mass. It is our wish that this Kingdom not be a place for the trade or transport of slaves. Many of our subjects eagerly lust after Portuguese merchandise that your subjects have brought into our domains. To satisfy this inordinate appetite, they seize many of our black free subjects. ... They sell them. After having taken these prisoners [to
11682-425: The use of Imbangala troops, committed himself to the alliance and began aggressive campaigns against Ndongo. Thanks to the help of Imbangala bands commanded by Kasanje, Kasa, and others, he invaded Ndongo, sacked the capital, and forced King Ngola Mbandi to take refuge on the island of Kindonga in the Kwanza River. Thousands of Ndongo subjects were taken prisoner, and Mendes de Vasconcelos sought unsuccessfully to create
11800-424: The war against Portugal in the late 16th century, Ndongo could hire Portuguese mercenaries such as the forces of Paulo Dias de Novais in 1575. There also existed special forces referred to as the "Flower of Angola" from 1585 who fell solely under the auspices of the King. Prominent weapons in service of the army included swords and battle axes . Ndongo developed its musketeers starting from the 16th century. In 1585,
11918-458: The war. Slaves not sold to the Portuguese were retained as royal property or sold into the domestic slave market of Kongo. As the slave trade grew, Afonso and Kongo's relationship with Portugal grew increasingly complex. Slaves became increasingly used as currency in the Kongo, with Afonso sending slaves to Portugal to pay for the education of Kongolese notables and to buy trade goods, such as firearms. Kongo had traditions in place that regulated
12036-535: The will of a deity ( Divine Right of Kings , Mandate of Heaven ), or a special connection to a deity ( sacred king ), or even purported to be divine kings, or incarnations of deities themselves ( imperial cult ). Many European monarchs have been styled Fidei defensor (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the state religion or established church. In the Western political tradition,
12154-468: The young son murdered and succeeded to the throne as ruling queen. Some European sources call her Anna Xinga. Father Giovanni took this opportunity to reopen negotiations with Nzinga, whose legitimacy he questioned. He refused to return the Ijiko and insisted that Njinga first acknowledge Portuguese sovereignty. Although Nzinga was prepared to do this, she would not leave the island until her complete control
12272-453: Was Elizabeth Dawbarn , whose anonymous Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty (1794) features "silly Louisa, who admires liberty, Tom Paine and the US, [who is] lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy" and on the influence women can exert on men. Since then advocacy of the abolition of a monarchy or respectively of republics has been called republicanism , while
12390-544: Was able to win one of his supporters, subsequently known as Nzinga Mona (or Nzinga's son), away and rebuild her army. Using this support, Nzinga moved northward and captured the Kingdom of Matamba , which became her base, even as she sent a detachment to reoccupy the Kindonga Islands, now sacred because her brother's remains were buried there. At this point, the history of Nzinga becomes that of Matamba, and her career can be followed in that country. Filipe I served
12508-441: Was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined. According to a 2023 study, monarchy has persisted as a regime type because it can accommodate demands for democratization better than other forms of autocratic rule: "Monarchies can democratize without destabilizing
12626-483: Was divided into political territories that were independently ruled by sobas , or nobles. These sobas governed territories (called murinda ) and paid tribute to the Ngola, as well as fighting for the kingdom during a war. Ndongo's internal wars sometimes resulted in alliances forming between sobas, which combined murindas and created large provinces, or kandas . The Ngola of Ndongo and his sobas relied on other officials to carry out his orders. The most important position
12744-552: Was equally disappointed, especially following the Portuguese treaty with Ndongo, which recognized Nzinga as queen of Ndongo and Matamba in 1657, leaving him feeling dishonored as the only ruler of Pungo a Ndongo. Therefore, in 1670, he revolted, and after a long siege, his fortress fell to the Portuguese army in 1671, thus effectively ending Ndongo as an independent kingdom. The Ndongo army did not rely on arms such as shields for defense. Instead, its personnel were trained to be agile to dodge arrows, javelins, and lance thrusts. On offense,
12862-412: Was established and the Ijiko returned. When the Portuguese refused, Nzinga encouraged them to run away and enter her service. The dispute over the Ijiko led to war in 1626. Sousa's army was able to oust Nzinga from Kidonga but not to capture her. Sousa felt confident enough at this point to declare Nzinga deposed and convened some sobas who had supported her to re-elect as new king Hari a Kiluanji, lord of
12980-491: Was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family , with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession. This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law . Another variation on agnatic primogeniture
13098-565: Was given the bishopric of Utica (in North Africa ) by the Vatican , but actually served in Kongo from his return there in the early 1520s until his death in 1531. Afonso's efforts to introduce Portuguese culture to the Kongo was reflected in several ways. The Kongolese aristocracy adopted Portuguese names, titles, coats of arms, and styles of dress. Youths were sent from elite families to Europe for education. Kongolese noblemen invested in
13216-476: Was immortalized in the kingdom's coat of arms. The coat of arms was in use in Kongo until at least 1860. Having consolidated his power as king, Afonso began a campaign of border expansion and government centralization. Similar to his father's rule, Afonso developed the royal capital at Mbanza Kongo, increasing the influence of the monarchy while also curtailing the power of the rural noble class. Throughout his reign, Afonso launched military campaigns of expansion to
13334-425: Was not guaranteed the throne. Afonso was assisted in his attempt to become king by his mother, who kept news of João's death a secret and arranged for Afonso to return to the capital city of Mbanza Kongo to gather his followers. When the death of the king was finally announced, Afonso was already in the capital city and ready to take power. The strongest opposition to Afonso's claim came from his half brother Mpanzu
13452-469: Was succeeded by his son, Pedro I , in either 1542 or 1543. Afonso is remembered for increasing the power of the Kongolese monarchy, his efforts to convert Kongo to Christianity, and his economic and military expansion of the kingdom. Born Mvemba a Nzinga, he was the son of Manikongo (Mwene Kongo) (king) Nzinga a Nkuwu , the fifth king of the Kongo dynasty . In 1491, Mvemba a Nzinga was in his thirties and
13570-410: Was that of tendala , a chief advisor with the authority to rule in the Ngola's absence. He also managed much of his day-to-day duties. A tendala was usually a former captive chosen from the class of enslaved serfs called kijikos . Below the tendala was the military commander, called ngolambole , who was also a former member of the kijikos class. The Ngola also had a large group of bureaucrats, called
13688-591: Was the sixth ruler of the Kingdom of Kongo from the Lukeni kanda dynasty and ruled in the first half of the 16th century. He reigned over the Kongo Empire from 1509 to late 1542 or 1543. Born into the ruling house of House of Kilukeni , Afonso was the son of Nzinga a Nkuwu (Christianized as João I ), king of the Kongo. Given political power from a young age, Afonso ruled the province of Nsundi during his father's reign. In an era of increasing relations with
13806-425: Was the ruler of Nsundi province in the northeast portion of the kingdom. Mvember a Nzinga competed for political power and trade revenue with fellow nobles, including members of his extended family, with many seeing him as a prime candidate to become the next king. 1491 saw the arrival of the first Portuguese to the Kingdom of the Kongo's capital at M'banza-Kongo . Mvemba took a fast interest to Christianity, taking
13924-404: Was the so-called semi-Salic law, or "agnatic-cognatic primogeniture", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator. Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for
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