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108-532: The name is a reference to the original Great Game , the term used by historians to describe the 19th-century political and diplomatic competition between the British and Russian empires for territory and influence among Central Asian states. The term "Great Game" itself had entered into more widespread use following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . The "original" Great Game is traditionally seen as ending with

216-546: A Viceroy appointed by the Crown. In 1863 Sultan Ahmad Khan of Herat, who was placed into power by Persia and issued coinage on behalf of the Shah, attacked the disputed town of Farrah . Farrah had been under Dost Mohammad Khan's control since 1856, and he responded by sending his army to defeat Herat and reunited it with Afghanistan. The Crimean War had ended in 1856 with Russia's defeat by an alliance of Britain, France, and

324-570: A "Sacred Union of the East" Jan Morris states that "Roerich brought the bewilderments of the later Great Game to America" through mysticism movements called Roerichism. In 1996, The New York Times published an opinion piece titled "The New Great Game in Asia" in which was written: While few have noticed, Central Asia has again emerged as a murky battleground among big powers engaged in an old and rough geopolitical game. Western experts believe that

432-485: A "backward, uncivilized and undeveloped region." Here we are, just as we were, snarling at each other, hating each other, but neither wishing for war. – Lord Palmerston (1835) American historian David Fromkin argues that by the mid-19th century the British had developed at least nine reasons to expect a major war with Russia unless Russian expansion in Asia could be stopped: In the early 1880s Russia failed to float

540-412: A French military mission to Persia, with the intention of persuading Russia to invade India. In response, Britain sent its own diplomatic missions in 1808, with military advisers, to Persia and Afghanistan under the capable Mountstuart Elphinstone , averting the possible French and Russian threat to India. However, Britain was left with concerns about being able to defend its colony on the subcontinent. At

648-690: A Russian spy, then travelled with a caravan of pilgrims to Meshed , marched with the Afghan army from there to Herat, then traveled to Kandahar, to Quetta, then across the Indian desert to the British frontier in January 1831. He published his travels in 1834. However, after 1830, Britain's commercial and diplomatic interest to the north-west would eventually become formidable. In 1831, Captain Alexander Burnes and Colonel Henry Pottinger 's surveys of

756-564: A Tangled Life (1989) and Herstory (1999). She also wrote many essays on travel and her life, and published a collection of her diary entries as In My Mind's Eye in 2019. Morris wrote many books on travel, particularly about Venice and Trieste . Her Pax Britannica trilogy, on the history of the British Empire , received praise. In an interview with the BBC in 2016, she told Michael Palin that she did not like to be described as

864-400: A confidential agent to Dost Mohammed of Kabul merely to watch the progress of events, or to enter into relations with this Chief, either of a political or merely in the first instance of a commercial character, we confide in your discretion as well as the adoption of any other measures that may appear to you desirable to counteract Russian influence in that quarter, should you be satisfied...that

972-581: A few years later, with Britain mediating the treaty. The Russo-Persian Wars began to coalesce into a point of tension between the British and Russian empires, particularly following the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 , which gave the Russian Empire the theoretical right to intervene in Persia at any time, a humiliation of Persia. Fath-Ali Shah sought to counterbalance Russia by increasing the ties between

1080-680: A group of warring principalities into one state ruled by an ally whose foreign relations would be conducted on his behalf by the Governor-General and the Foreign Office. The Great Game meant closer ties between Britain and the states along her northwest frontier. Britain believed that it was the world's first free society and the most industrially advanced country, and therefore that it had a duty to use its iron, steam power, and cotton goods to take over Central Asia and develop it. British goods were to be followed by British values and

1188-472: A high priority to protect all approaches to India, while Russia continued its military conquest of Central Asia . Aware of the importance of India to the British, Russian efforts in the region often had the aim of extorting concessions from them in Europe, but after 1801, they had no serious intention of directly attacking India. Russian war plans for India that were proposed but never materialised included

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1296-764: A message that the Emperor would no longer have anything to do with the Emir of Bukhara. After its two representatives were executed in Bukhara, Britain actively discouraged officers from traveling in Turkestan. During 1838, there were rumors in London of a coming Russian move towards Khiva. Additionally, Persia intended to annex Herat to make up for territory it had lost in the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828) , however

1404-585: A mutual defence agreement with the British in 1809 against a possible Franco-Russian invasion of India via Afghanistan. In the same year he was deposed and imprisoned by his half-brother, Mahmud Shah Durrani . There were a number of Amirs of Afghanistan until Dost Mohammad Khan gained power in 1826. Shah Shuja was not popular with the Afghans and tensions grew, leading to the killing of the British envoy, Captain Alexander Burnes, in 1841. By January 1842,

1512-667: A nine 9 million loan on the European markets for its strategic geopolitical enterprises, driving severe budget cuts by the Minister of Finance. For the construction of the Russo-Indian railway however, an operation supervised by renowned engineer General Mikhail Annenkov , funding had been freely furnished. The Tsar also entered into agreements about delivery of munition for its fortresses at an estimated value of one million sterling, with German steel magnate Alfred Krupp , being

1620-719: A second-class honours BA in 1951 (promoted to the customary Oxford MA in 1961), and editing the Cherwell magazine. Despite being born and largely raised in England, Morris always identified as Welsh. In the closing stages of the Second World War , Morris served in the 9th Queen's Royal Lancers , and in 1945 was posted to the Free Territory of Trieste , during the joint British–American occupation, eventually serving as regimental intelligence officer. After

1728-463: A staging post for a Russian invasion of India, was the British line of thinking. Napoleon had proposed a joint Franco-Russian invasion of India to tsar Paul I of Russia . Expecting a future action by the British against Russia and her allies in Europe, Paul decided in 1801 to make the first move towards where he believed the British Empire was weakest ( Indian March of Paul ). He wrote to

1836-403: A travel writer, for her books were not about movement and journeys; they were about places and people. Morris's 1985 novel Last Letters from Hav , an "imagined travelogue and political thriller" was shortlisted for that year's Booker Prize . In 1995, Morris completed a biography of First Sea Lord John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher , entitled Fisher's Face . She began researching the life of

1944-475: A vermin-infested dungeon because he had not bowed nor brought gifts. In 1841, Captain Arthur Conolly arrived to try to secure Stoddart's release. He was also imprisoned and on 17 June 1842 both men were beheaded. On hearing of the execution of the two British officers, Emperor Nicholas I of Russia would no longer receive Bukhara's gifts or emissaries, and its ambassador was turned back at Orenburg with

2052-614: Is also the title of a 2021 paper written by J.A. Ritoe to refer to the increasing competition between great economic powers like the European Union , the United States and the People's Republic of China to secure access to the critical raw materials required for strategic industries such as the aerospace and defense industry , medical appliances and clean energy technology. Great Game The Great Game

2160-641: Is reported to have said: I have been struck by the magnitude of your resources, your ships, your arsenals, but what I cannot understand is why the rulers of so vast and flourishing an empire should have gone across the Indus to deprive me of my poor and barren country. In 1839, acting Captain James Abbott of the Bengal Artillery undertook a mission to the Khanate of Khiva in an attempt to negotiate

2268-518: Is showing that Central Asia’s actors have gained some real degree of independence. But fundamentally, the China factor introduces a level of predictability " In the 2015 international relations book Globalizing Central Asia , the authors state that Central Asian states have pursued a multivectored approach in balancing out the political and economic interests of larger powers, but it has had mixed success due to strategic reversals of administrations regarding

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2376-525: The Amu Darya river for Russian ships. None of these aims was realised. Russia's borders remained insecure and in addition there was growing British influence in the region. In 1869, when British diplomat Clarendon proposed the Amu Darya river as the basis for a neutral zone between British and Russian spheres of influence, Alexander Gorchakov proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone. Russia feared

2484-629: The Anglo-Russian Convention created an alliance between Britain and Russia, and formally delineated control in Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. The phrase "the Great Game" was used well before the 19th century and was associated with games of risk, such as cards and dice. The French equivalent Le grand jeu dates back to at least 1585 and is associated with meanings of risk, chance and deception. The term Great Game

2592-564: The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, when the British and Russian Empires had formally defined their frontiers and ended their rivalry over Afghanistan , Persia , and Tibet . In 1987, Karl E. Meyer wrote that the Great Game continued after 1907, citing the Russian involvement against the Persian Constitutional Revolution ; Russia was supported by Britain in this endeavour. Some historians view events from

2700-670: The Ataman of the Don Cossacks Troops, Cavalry General Vasily Petrovich Orlov , directing him to march to Orenburg , conquer the Central Asian Khanates, and from there invade India. Paul was assassinated in the same year, and the invasion was terminated. Historian Peter Hopkirk wrote that Tsar Paul had not been able to obtain a detailed map of India until the Cossacks' departure from Orenburg. He quotes

2808-518: The Duhamel and Khrulev plans of the Crimean War (1853–1856). Russia and Britain's 19th-century rivalry in Asia began with the planned Indian March of Paul and Russian invasions of Iran in 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 , shuffling Persia into a competition between colonial powers. According to one major view, the Great Game started on 12 January 1830, when Lord Ellenborough , the president of

2916-503: The Emirate of Afghanistan , with British sea-power protecting trade sea-lanes. Access to Afghanistan was to be through developing trade routes along the Indus and Sutlej rivers using steam-powered boats, and therefore access through the Sind and Punjab regions would be required. Persia would have to give up its claim on Herat in Afghanistan. Afghanistan would need to be transformed from

3024-746: The Glyndŵr Award for Outstanding Contribution to the Arts in Wales in 1996. "Out of polite respect" she accepted her appointment as Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1999 Birthday Honours for services to literature, but Morris was a Welsh nationalist republican at heart. In 2005, she was awarded the Golden PEN Award by English PEN for "a Lifetime's Distinguished Service to Literature". In January 2008, The Times named her

3132-722: The North-West Frontier Province . In 1856, Persia commenced an assault on Herat and the British Home Government declared war on Persia. The Anglo-Persian War was conducted under Major General Sir James Outram until 1857, when Persia and Britain both withdrew and Persia signed a treaty renouncing its claim on Herat. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , the East India Company's remaining powers were transferred to

3240-640: The Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean . As Russian and British spheres of influence expanded and competed, Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone. Traditionally, the Great Game came to a close between 1895 and 1907. In September 1895, London and Saint Petersburg signed the Pamir Boundary Commission protocols, when the border between Afghanistan and the Russian Empire was defined using diplomatic methods. In August 1907,

3348-692: The Russian Civil War and Soviet wars in Asia in the Interwar period, and categorize them as a continuation of the original Great Game, or as a second Great Game up to the mid-20th century. According to Morris, in a review of a history book by Meyer and Brysac, the Raj more or less bows out, the Tsar is removed and the Great Game is diffused into a miasmic free-for-all among the states. Now Americans, Germans, Chinese and Soviet Russians throw themselves into

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3456-489: The Second World War . At the start of the 19th century, the Indian subcontinent was ruled in part by independent princely states and in part by the company rule of the British East India Company . During the 19th century, a political and diplomatic confrontation developed between Britain and Russia over Afghanistan which would become known as The Great Game. Russia's foreign policy was driven by

3564-578: The Sikh empire , and the Amirs of Sindh . However, these attempts were unsuccessful. In 1835, Lord Auckland was appointed Governor-General, and replaced Bentinck who had pursued a non-intervention policy. The India Board instructed Auckland: to watch more closely than has hitherto been attempted the progress of events in Afghanistan, and to counteract the progress of Russian influence...The mode of dealing with this very important question, whether by dispatching

3672-694: The Soviet Union and Japanese Manchuria . To Britain, the Germans appeared to be a secret Soviet ally. In 1933–1934 it "ended with Mongolia, Soviet Central Asia , Tannu-Tuva and Xinjiang isolated from non-Soviet influence." According to scholars Andrei Znamenski and Alexandre Andreev  [ ru ] the Soviet Union continued elements of the Great Game into the 1930s, focused on secret diplomacy and espionage in Tibet and Mongolia . Agents in

3780-801: The Suez Crisis for the Manchester Guardian in 1956, Morris produced the first "irrefutable proof" of collusion between France and Israel in the invasion of Egyptian territory, interviewing French Air Force pilots who confirmed that they had been in action in support of Israeli forces. She also reported on the 1961 trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem . Later, Morris opposed the Falklands War . In 1949, Morris married Elizabeth, daughter of Ceylon tea planter Austen Cecil Tuckniss; they had five children together, including

3888-526: The Sykes–Picot negotiations dividing the Middle East between Britain and France with the diplomatic support of Russia. Andreyev highlights that one of the original issues of the Great Game, a projected Russian invasion of India, was also revived by Trotsky with the planned Kalmyk Project . Znamenski wrote that Soviet Communists of the 1920s aimed to extend their influence over Mongolia and Tibet, using

3996-473: The Syr Darya . Russian merchants must be allowed to trade on the same terms as native merchants in Bukhara and Khiva. The khanates must guarantee the safety of the persons and property of Russian merchants, levy no excessive duties, permit unhampered transit of goods and caravans across Central Asia into neighboring states and allow Russian commercial agents to reside in Bukhara and Khiva, and free navigation on

4104-730: The first withdrawal of U.S. troops in Afghanistan, that, "There may be a new Great Game in Central Asia, but it is going to have a lot less importance to the United States than the new Great Game in the Western Pacific and East Asian waters." In August 2021, Reuters reported that following the Taliban takeover, the "new Great Game has Pakistan in control" of Afghanistan and also involves India and China. In Nikkei , writer and retired Admiral James Stavridis stated that

4212-586: The president of the Board of Control for India tasked Lord William Bentinck , the Governor-General of India , to establish a new trade route to Bukhara. Following the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) and the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) , Britain expected that Persia and the Ottoman Empire ( Turkey ) would be forced to become protectorates of Russia. This would change Britain's perception of

4320-480: The "Tournament of Shadows" was reportedly used by Russian diplomat Karl Nesselrode . In July 1840, in correspondence to Major Henry Rawlinson who had been recently appointed as the new political agent in Kandahar , Conolly wrote, "You've a great game, a noble game, before you." Conolly believed that Rawlinson's new post gave him the opportunity to advance humanitarianism in Afghanistan, and summed up his hopes: If

4428-523: The "new Great Game" involves Russia's interest in the regulation of opium production, China's interest in rare earth minerals, a growing role for India, while the West will be reluctant to enter. Following the 2021 U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan , RFE/RL reported that "Russia, China, Pakistan, and Iran could come together in the next chapter of the Great Game," or "Moscow, Beijing, Islamabad, and Tehran are each merely looking to advance their own interests in

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4536-517: The 15th-greatest British writer since the War. She has featured in the Pinc List of leading Welsh LGBT figures. She won the 2018 Edward Stanford Outstanding Contribution to Travel Writing Award . Morris's 1974 best-selling memoir Conundrum documented her transition and was compared to that of transgender pioneer Christine Jorgensen ( A Personal Autobiography ). Later memoirs included Pleasures of

4644-442: The Afghans were in full revolt. With a weakening of military discipline, the British decided to withdraw from Kabul . The Kabul garrison of 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers left Kabul for Jalalabad that was 80 miles and 5 days march away. They were attacked by 30,000 Afghans. Six British officers escaped on horseback but only one, the wounded Dr William Brydon riding on a wounded horse, made it to Jalalabad. Over one hundred of

4752-541: The Bengal Artillery, who had earlier entered Herat in disguise, stiffened the defences and despite the presence of Russian advisers the siege lasted eight months. Britain threatened to take military action and Persia withdrew in September. In October 1838, Auckland issued the Simla Manifesto , a piece of propaganda designed to blacken the reputation of Dost Mohammad Khan (Emir of Afghanistan) and which claimed that Dost Mohammad: openly threatened...to call in every foreign aid that he could command...we could never hope that

4860-407: The Board of Control for India, tasked Lord Bentinck , the governor-general , with establishing a trade route to the Emirate of Bukhara . Britain aimed to create a protectorate in Afghanistan , and support the Ottoman Empire , Persia, Khiva , and Bukhara as buffer states against Russian expansion. This would protect India and key British sea trade routes by blocking Russia from gaining a port on

4968-407: The British Crown in the person of Queen Victoria (who in 1876 was proclaimed Empress of India ). As a state, the British Raj functioned as the guardian of a system of connected markets maintained by military power, business legislation and monetary management. The Government of India Act 1858 saw the India Office of the British government assume the administration of British India through

5076-437: The British Government would only play the grand game – help Russia cordially to all that she has a right to expect – shake hands with Persia – get her all possible amends from Oosbegs – force the Bukhara Amir to be just to us, the Afghans, and other Oosbeg states, and his own kingdom – but why go on; you know my, at any rate in one sense, enlarged views. The expediency, nay the necessity of them will be seen, and we shall play

5184-418: The British and 2,000 sepoys and camp followers were taken hostage and the rest killed. So perished the "Army of the Indus". In April, a punitive expedition was dispatched and recaptured Kabul and freed the captives in September. The new Governor-General, Lord Ellenborough , decided to withdraw all British garrisons from Afghanistan and Dost Mohammad Khan was freed in India to return to the throne. Dost Mohammad

5292-415: The British but to bring civilised behavior and protect the traditional trade routes through the region. The first campaign started from Orenburg and proceeded in the direction of Kabul in Afghanistan. Russia occupied Chimkent in 1864, Tashkent in 1865, Khokhand and Bukhara in 1866, and Samarkand in 1868. Russia's influence now extended to outlying regions of Afghan Turkestan. The second campaign started from

5400-636: The Caspian Sea and was in the direction of Herat, near the Persian frontier. Khiva was occupied in 1873. Russian forces also seized Krasnovodsk (now in Turkmenistan) in 1869. Notable Russian generals included Konstantin Kaufman , Mikhail Skobelev , and Mikhail Chernyayev . From 1869 to 1872, Mir Mahmud Shar was able to gain control of the Khanate of Badakhshan with the help of Afghanistan's new ruler, Amir Sher Ali Khan , and by 1873 Afghanistan governed Badakhshan. Jan Morris Catharine Jan Morris CBE FRSL (born James Humphry Morris ; 2 October 1926 – 20 November 2020)

5508-422: The Central Asia, and this would include Bokhara and Khiva. Between 1824 and 1854, Russia occupied the entire Kazakh Khanate (modern-day Kazakhstan). This raised Russo-Khivan tensions in addition to Khiva's legal discrimination of Russian merchants who were just beginning to penetrate Central Asia, and the ongoing issue of Russian slaves. Russia launched an attack in 1839–1840 but it failed to reach Khiva because of

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5616-496: The East India Company and was to map and research the regions of "Beloochistan" (Balochistan) and Persia because of concerns about India being invaded by French forces from that direction. After the disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812 and the collapse of the French army, the threat of a French invasion through Persia was removed. The shah of Iran, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar would become part of diplomatic intrigues about India. He first received limited British support in 1801 that

5724-529: The Far East, where it reached the Pacific port that would become known as Vladivostok by 1859. This eastward expansion was of no concern to the British Foreign Office because this area did not lie across any British trade routes or destinations, and therefore was of no interest to Britain. Beginning in the 1820s, Russian troops would begin to advance southward from Siberia in search of secure boundaries and reliable neighbors. This advance would not cease until Russia's frontiers and her sphere of influence were firm in

5832-400: The Great Game represented a great power competition that did not initiate only with Russia's defeat in the Crimean War in 1856, but was already well underway and was only intensified thereafter. Expansion into Central Asia was closely connected with ambitions in India. Historian Alexandre Andreyev argued that the rapid advance of the Russian Empire in Central Asia, while mainly serving to extend

5940-430: The Great Game. Hugh Seton-Watson observed that "the grotesque plan had no military significance, but at least showed its author's state of mind". Hopkirk remarked that "no serious thought or study has been given to this wild adventure". Napoleon tried to persuade Paul's son, Tsar Alexander I of Russia , to invade India; however Alexander resisted. In 1807, Napoleon dispatched General Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane on

6048-553: The Indus River and surveyed the river as he went. In 1838, he led an expedition that found one of the River Oxus' sources in central Asia. He published his travels in 1872. In 1837, the Russian envoy Captain Jan Vitkevitch visited Kabul, and the British believed that it was to facilitate some form of diplomatic or military presence in Afghanistan. While in Kabul, he dined with the British envoy, Captain Alexander Burnes, who reported negatively on Russia's intentions. Russia feared British inroads on their commerce in Central Asia, as well as

6156-585: The Indus river would prepare the way for a future assault on the Sind to clear a path towards Central Asia. Burnes embarked on a dangerous 12-month journey beginning in 1831 into Afghanistan and through the Hindu Kush to Bukhara, returning in 1832. Burnes, a Christian travelling through a Muslim country was one of the first to study Afghanistan for British Intelligence and upon his return, he published his book, Travels To Bukhara , which became an overnight success in 1834. Between 1832 and 1834, Britain attempted to negotiate trade agreements with Ranjit Singh , ruler of

6264-402: The New Great Game is a shift to geoeconomic compared to geopolitical competition. Xiangming Chen believes that China's role is more like Britain's than Russia's in the New Great Game, where Russia plays the role that the Russian Empire originally did. "China and Russia are the two dominant power players vs. the weaker independent Central Asian states". Other authors have criticized the reuse of

6372-492: The Ottoman Empire. The new and wary Alexander II of Russia waited some years so as not to antagonize the British, then Russia expanded into Central Asia in two campaigns. In 1864, a circular was sent to the consular officers abroad by Gorchakov, the Russian Chancellor, patiently explaining the reasons for expansion centering on the doctrines of necessity, power and spread of civilisation. Gorchakov went to great lengths to explain that Russia's intentions were meant not to antagonize

6480-454: The Qajars and Britain; the British offered military and financial assistance to the shah, supporting Iran as a buffer between Russia and India. The Russian invasion of Iran in 1826-1828 led to a Russian victory, weakening Qajar Iran which retained only minimal influence and power. This fully placed Persia into another colonial contest between Russia and Britain. The Great Game is said to have begun on 12 January 1830 when Lord Ellenborough ,

6588-436: The Tsar as instructing Orlov: "My maps only go as far as Khiva and the River Oxus . Beyond these points it is your affair to gain information about the possessions of the English, and the condition of the native population subject to their rule". The British public learned about the incident years later, but it firmly imprinted on the popular consciousness, contributing to feelings of mutual suspicion and distrust associated with

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6696-482: The West could have mutual interests in regional stability in Central Asia. According to Paul Stronski and Nicole Ng, China uses its policy in Central Asia to "manage" Russia's concerns, satisfying Russia by showing China's economic aims do not threaten Russian political-military interests in the Russian Far East and elsewhere besides Central Asia, and assuaging Russia's demographic fears about Chinese immigration. The historian James Reardon-Anderson stated in 2014, during

6804-519: The West, China, and Russia. They suppose that China could counterbalance Russia. However, Russia and China have a strategic partnership since 2001 . According to Ajay Patnaik, "China has advanced carefully in the region, using the SCO as the main regional mechanism, but never challenging Russian interests in Central Asia." In the Carnegie Endowment , Paul Stronski and Nicole Ng wrote in 2018 that China has not fundamentally challenged any Russian interests in Central Asia. They suggested that China, Russia, and

6912-434: The age of 94, survived by Elizabeth and their four children. Her death was announced by her son Twm. Her wife Elizabeth died at age 99 on 17 June 2024. Morris received honorary doctorates from the University of Wales and the University of Glamorgan , was an honorary fellow of Christ Church, Oxford , and was a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature . She was elected to the Gorsedd Cymru in 1992, and received

7020-424: The allegiance of Herat to Afghanistan was crucial to the British strategy. The Siege of Herat began in November 1837, when the new Shah of Persia, Mohammed Mirza, arrived before Herat. His intention was to take Herat then move on to Kandahar. With him was the Russian Envoy Count Simonich, seconded Russian officers and a regiment of Russian deserters under the Polish general Berowski. Eldred Pottinger , an officer of

7128-438: The arms manufacturer for the German Empire . In 1557, Bokhara and Khiva sent ambassadors to Ivan IV seeking permission to trade in Russia. Russia had an interest in establishing a trade route from Moscow to India. From then until the mid-19th century, Russian ambassadors to the region spent much of their time trying to free Russians who had been taken as slaves by the khanates. Russia would later expand across Siberia to

7236-399: The early 20th century, a line of independent states, tribes, and monarchies from the shore of the Caspian Sea to the Eastern Himalayas were made into protectorates and territories of the two empires. Though the Great Game was marked by distrust, diplomatic intrigue, and regional wars, it never erupted into a full-scale war directly between Russian and British colonial forces. However,

7344-494: The expression to the exploration of mineral wealth in the region. While the direct American military involvement in the area was part of fighting the " War on Terror " rather than an indirect Western governmental interest in the mineral wealth, another journalist Eric Walberg suggests in his book that access to the region's minerals and oil pipeline routes is still an important factor. The interest in oil and gas includes pipelines that transmit energy to China's east coast. One view of

7452-414: The five major mountainous systems of Tien Shan , Pamirs , Karakoram , Hindu Kush and Western Himalayas and the three main river systems of Amu Darya , Syr Darya and Indus . The "Great Game" as a term has been described as a cliché-metaphor, and there are authors who have now written on the topics of "The Great Game" in Antarctica, the world's far north, and in outer space. " The New Great Game "

7560-409: The ideology of the time. In 1782, George Forster , a civil servant of the East India Company, undertook a journey that began in Calcutta , Bengal and passed through Kashmir , Afghanistan , Herat , Khorassan , Mazanderan , crossed the Caspian Sea by ship, and then travelled to Baku , Astrakhan , Moscow, St Petersburg and then by ship to London. Forster's detailed description of the journey

7668-442: The influence that a Muslim power with British support might have on the other khanates in the region. The Russian Empire sought to expand its access to strategic coastlines such as the Black Sea, Persian Gulf, and the Pacific. Russian war plans against British India were developed during the Crimean War , presented to the Tsar in 1854 and 1855. These were the Duhamel plan and Khrulev plan . According to historian Evgeny Sergeev,

7776-522: The influence that a Muslim power with British support might have on the other khanates. In 1837, Russian troops occupied the island of Ashuradeh in the Gorgan Bay of the southern Caspian Sea. However, from 1837 to 1857 the Russian Empire lent their support to the Shah. In 1838, Colonel Charles Stoddart of the East India Company arrived in the Emirate of Bukhara to arrange an alliance with Nasrullah Khan . Nasrullah Khan had Stoddart imprisoned in

7884-474: The largely untapped oil and natural gas riches of the Caspian Sea countries could make that region the Persian Gulf of the next century. The object of the revived game is to befriend leaders of the former Soviet republics controlling the oil, while neutralizing Russian suspicions and devising secure alternative pipeline routes to world markets. In 2004, journalist Lutz Kleveman wrote a book that linked

7992-497: The mythical Buddhist kingdom of Shambhala as a form of propaganda to further this mission, in a sort of "great Bolshevik game". The expedition of Russian symbolist Nicholas Roerich has been put in context of the Great Game due to his interest in Tibet, Although Roerich did not like the Communists, he agreed to help Soviet intelligence and influence operations due to a shared paranoia towards Britain, as well as his goal to form

8100-494: The new Soviet version included figures such as Agvan Dorzhiev , who had supported the Russian Empire previously. Historian Heather Campbell describes the continuation of elements of the Great Game by the British as well; Lord Curzon , a former viceroy of India who was concerned heavily with Russia strategy, would heavily influence policy in supporting the Tsarist Whites against the Soviet Union, as well as participating in

8208-702: The new geopolitical order." In a 2020 study, the New Great Game was described as a form of "Civilizational Colonialism" in border regions and areas of territorial disputes, united by their location in High Asia or "The Roof of the World". Kashmir , Hazara , Nuristan , Laghman , Azad Kashmir , Jammu , Himachal Pradesh , Ladakh , Gilgit Baltistan , Chitral , Western Tibet , Western Xinjiang , Badakhshan , Gorno Badakhshan , Fergana , Osh and Turkistan Region . These rich resource areas are surrounded by

8316-439: The noble part that the first Christian nation of the world ought to fill. It was introduced into the mainstream by the British novelist Rudyard Kipling in his novel Kim (1901). It was first used academically by Professor H.W.C. Davis in a presentation titled The Great Game in Asia (1800–1844) on 10 November 1926. The use of the term "The Great Game" to describe Anglo-Russian rivalry in Central Asia became common only after

8424-452: The perspective that Britain would develop and control commercial and military inroads into Central Asia, and Britain's foreign policy was based on expectations of Russia adding the "jewel in the crown", India, to the vast empire that Russia was building in Asia. This resulted in an atmosphere of distrust and the constant threat of war between the two empires. If Russia were to gain control of the Emirate of Afghanistan , it might then be used as

8532-763: The poet and musician Twm Morys . One of their children died in infancy. They lived together in the village of Llanystumdwy , in North Wales , for over 50 years until Morris's death in November 2020, first in a large Georgian house, Plas Trefan, and latterly in a converted stable block, Trefan Morys, in the grounds. Morris began transitioning to life as a woman in 1964, one of the first high-profile people to do so. In 1972, Morris travelled to Morocco to undergo sex reassignment surgery , performed by surgeon Georges Burou , because doctors in Britain refused to allow

8640-478: The power vacuum of Central Asia, to many theorists the heartland of the world, and riddled with symbolism. Historian David Noack writes that the Great Game resumed from 1919 to 1933 as a conflict between Britain and the Soviet Union, with the Weimar Republic and Japan as additional players. Noack calls it a "Second Tournament of Shadows" over the territory composing the border of British India , China ,

8748-693: The procedure unless Morris and Tuckniss divorced, something Morris was not prepared to do. They did divorce later, but remained together, and on 14 May 2008 were legally reunited when they formally entered into a civil partnership . She detailed her transition in Conundrum (1974), her first book under her new name, and one of the first autobiographies to discuss a personal gender reassignment. Morris died on 20 November 2020 at Ysbyty Bryn Beryl (Bryn Beryl Hospital) in Pwllheli in North Wales, at

8856-485: The release of Russian slaves that would deny the Russians a pretext for invading Khiva. If war had already broken out, Abbot was instructed to attempt to negotiate a settlement. The attempted Russian assault on Khiva may have been in response to Britain's "forward policy" on Afghanistan, however it failed to reach Khiva due to the severe winter conditions. Of the 5,000 men who had left Orenburg, only 4,000 returned. Abbott

8964-422: The respect for private property. With pay for work and security in place, nomads would settle and become tribal herdsman surrounding oasis cities. These were to develop into modern states with agreed borders, as in the European model. Therefore, lines needed to be agreed and drawn on maps. Morgan says that two proud and expanding empires approached each other, without any agreed frontier, from opposite directions over

9072-640: The return journey. His travels were published in 1841. Charles Masson , formerly of the East India Company, resided in Baluchistan , Afghanistan and the Punjab between 1826 and 1838 and published his travels. In September 1829, Lieutenant Arthur Conolly of the East India Company travelled from St. Petersburg, Russia to the Caspian desert, to Kir (northern Iran), was detained in Astrabad (northern Iran) as

9180-584: The scoop was published in The Times on the morning of the coronation of Elizabeth II . The message was initially interpreted to mean that Tom Bourdillon and Tenzing had reached the summit, but the first name was corrected before the story was broken. Claims that the news was held back ignore the communication problems of the time; it was quite an achievement to get the news of the 29 May ascent to London by Coronation Day on 2 June, as it had to be sent to Namche Bazaar by runner. Reporting from Cyprus on

9288-513: The southern frontier, was aimed to keep British eyes off of the January uprising in Poland. Andreyev states that, as late as 1909, strategists of the Russian Empire sought to use Afghanistan to "threaten India... to exert influence on Britain", quoting Andrei Snesarev . According to diplomatic historian Barbara Jelavich , it was logistically not possible for the Russian Empire to invade India and

9396-575: The term "Great Game". According to strategic analyst Ajay Patnaik, the "New Great Game" is a misnomer, because rather than two empires focused on the region as in the past, there are now many global and regional powers active with the rise of China and India as major economic powers. Central Asian states have diversified their political, economic, and security relationships. David Gosset of CEIBS Shanghai states "the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) established in 2001

9504-478: The time has arrived at which it would be right for you to interfere decidedly in the affairs of Afghanistan. Such an interference would doubtless be requisite, either to prevent the extension of Persian dominion in that quarter or to raise a timely barrier against the impending encroachments of Russian influence. In that year, Lieutenant John Wood of the Indian Navy commanded the first steamboat to paddle up

9612-600: The time, Russia also went to war with Qajar Iran and invaded the Persian Caucasus from 1804-1813 , adding to Britain's fears, while Russia was distracted mainly by the Napoleonic Wars. In 1810, British Lieutenant Henry Pottinger and Captain Charles Christie undertook an expedition from Nushki ( Balochistan ) to Isfahan (Central Persia) disguised as Muslims. The expedition was funded by

9720-417: The tough terrain and weather. However, the khan of Khiva feared a further Russian assault and released a number of Russian slaves. During the 1840s and 1850s, Russia's aims in Central Asia were for Bukhara and Khiva to refrain from hostile actions against Russia, cease possession of Russian slaves and the granting of asylum to Kazakhs fleeing from Russian justice. Khiva must cease her attacks on caravans along

9828-480: The tranquility of our neighborhood could be secured...the Governor-General confidently hopes that the Shah will speedily be replaced on his throne...the independence and integrity of Afghanistan restored, the British army will be withdrawn. British influence was to be extended into Afghanistan and it was to become a buffer state. The intention to invade was clear, and when a copy of the Manifesto reached London there

9936-553: The two nations battled in the Crimean War from 1853 to 1856, which affected the Great Game. The Russian and British Empires also cooperated numerous times during the Great Game, including many treaties and the Afghan Boundary Commission . Britain feared Russia's southward expansion would threaten India, while Russia feared the expansion of British interests into Central Asia. As a result, Britain made it

10044-431: The war, Morris wrote for The Times and in 1953 was the only journalist accompanying the 1953 British Mount Everest expedition , which included Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay , who were the first to scale Mount Everest . Morris reported the success of Hillary and Tenzing in a coded message to the newspaper, "Snow conditions bad stop advanced base abandoned yesterday stop awaiting improvement", and by coincidence

10152-538: The west of England". Her elder brothers Gareth (1920–2007) and Christopher (1922–2014) achieved distinction, as a flautist and as an organist and music publisher for the Oxford University Press respectively. Morris was a chorister in the choir of Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford , while boarding at Christ Church Cathedral School . She went on to be educated at Lancing College , returning to Christ Church, Oxford , as an undergraduate, taking

10260-548: The world, and its response was The Great Game. Britain had no intention of getting involved in the Middle East, but it did envision a series of buffer states between the British and Russian Empires that included Turkey, Persia, plus the Khanate of Khiva and the Khanate of Bukhara that would grow from future trade. Behind these buffer states would be their protected states stretching from the Persian Gulf to India and up into

10368-475: Was a Welsh historian, author and travel writer . She was known particularly for the Pax Britannica trilogy (1968–1978), a history of the British Empire , and for portraits of cities, including Oxford , Venice , Trieste , Hong Kong and New York City . She published under her birth name, James, until 1972, when she had gender reassignment surgery after transitioning from male to female. Morris

10476-461: Was a member of the 1953 British Mount Everest expedition , which made the first ever confirmed ascent of the mountain. She was the only journalist to accompany the expedition, climbing with the team to a camp at 22,000 feet, and using a prearranged code to send news of the successful ascent, which was announced in The Times on the day of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation (2 June 1953). Morris

10584-572: Was a rivalry between the 19th-century British and Russian empires over influence in Central Asia , primarily in Afghanistan , Persia , and Tibet . The two colonial empires used military interventions and diplomatic negotiations to acquire and redefine territories in Central and South Asia . Russia conquered Turkestan , and Britain expanded and set the borders of British India . By

10692-665: Was also able to use a rivalry between the East India Company and the British Foreign Office , to garner more British aid. In the 1809 preliminary Treaty of Tehran, Persia agreed to stop any European or foreign army passing to India, while the British agreed to send a mission to train sixteen thousand Persian soldiers and, if Qajar Persia was invaded by a European state, pay a £100,000 subsidy to Persia, while attempting to mediate if at peace with Persia's enemy. Nevertheless, Russia would end up defeating Iran

10800-450: Was attacked by Khazakhs and he was wounded in the hand and taken hostage, however he and his party were released because they feared retribution. He reached Saint Petersburg but the attempt at mediation failed. His bravery was recognized through promotion to full Captain. In the same year, Lieutenant Richmond Shakespear of the Bengal Artillery was successful in negotiating the release of 416 Russian captives, whom he escorted into Russia. He

10908-638: Was born in Clevedon , Somerset , England, the youngest of three children of Walter Henry Morris (died 1938), an engineer from Monmouth , on the borders of Wales, who never fully recovered after being gassed in the First World War , and Enid (née Payne; died 1981), an English church organist who trained as a concert pianist at the Leipzig Conservatory and was a "well-known recitalist in the early days of broadcasting in south Wales and

11016-427: Was canceled after Russia's invasion of Persia in 1804. Fath-Ali then lent a promise to Napoleon in 1807 to theoretically invade British India in exchange for French military assistance (Gardane's mission) which fell through despite the Treaty of Finckenstein . When France allied with Russia at Tilsit in 1807, as Russia was still invading Iran, Fath-Ali Shah turned toward British diplomacy and alliance in 1809. The shah

11124-546: Was coined in 1840 by a British intelligence officer Captain Arthur Conolly (1807–1842). Rudyard Kipling 's 1901 novel Kim popularized the term, increasing its association with great power rivalry. It became even more popular after the 1979 advent of the Soviet–Afghan War . In the historical sense, the term dates from the mid-19th century. Captain Conolly had been appointed as a political officer. A similar term,

11232-487: Was hampered by a lack of understanding of Khivan language and culture, and the attempt to release Russian slaves was unsuccessful. He did agree with the Khivan ruler, Allah Quli Khan , to establishing a British agent to Khiva and to mediate between Khiva and Russia. Abbott set off from Khiva in 1840 towards Russia to commence negotiations, which he did on his own initiative and it was not authorised by his superiors. His caravan

11340-659: Was knighted for this undertaking. In 1843, Britain annexed the Sind . The First Anglo-Sikh War was fought between the Sikh Empire and the East India Company in 1845–1846, resulting in the partial subjugation of the Sikh kingdom. The Second Anglo-Sikh War was fought in 1848–1849, resulting in subjugation of the remainder of the Sikh Empire, and the annexation of the Punjab Province and what subsequently became

11448-468: Was no objection. In 1838, the British marched into Afghanistan and deposed Dost Mohammad Khan . After a period of resistance , Dost Mohammad surrendered despite his victories. The British sent him into exile in India and replaced him with the previous ruler, Shah Shuja , who shared their more progressive vision for the people of the region. Shah Shuja ul-Mulk had ascended the throne in 1803 and had signed

11556-511: Was not seriously considered, however the Tsars understood that making invasion plans threatening the "jewel" of Britain's empire was a way to extract more favorable outcomes in Europe. Similarly to the British Empire, the Russian Empire saw themselves as a "civilizing power" expanding a purely humanitarian mission among the Turcomans into what they perceived a "semi-barbarous" region, reflecting

11664-486: Was published in 1798. William Moorcroft was an explorer, doctor, veterinary surgeon, and Superintendent of the East India Company's horse stud. He had an interest in expanding trade in Central Asia, where he thought the Russian traders were already active. In 1820, Moorcroft, George Trebeck and George Guthrie left India for Bukhara to buy Turkoman horses and reached Bukhara in 1825. However, all three died of fever on

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