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93-738: The Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences is a list of propositions for an academic disputation written in 1517 by Martin Luther , then a professor of moral theology at the University of Wittenberg , Germany. The Theses is retrospectively considered to have launched the Protestant Reformation and the birth of Protestantism , despite various proto-Protestant groups having existed previously. It detailed Luther's opposition to what he saw as

186-541: A pamphlet war with the indulgence preacher Johann Tetzel , which spread Luther's fame even further. Luther's ecclesiastical superiors had him tried for heresy , which culminated in his excommunication in 1521. Though the Theses were the start of the Reformation, Luther did not consider indulgences to be as important as other theological matters which would divide the church, such as justification by faith alone and

279-413: A Catholic and a Lutheran interpretation. Naturally, it was unsatisfactory to both parties. The Holy See condemned it and administered a severe rebuke to Contarini for not protesting against it. No greater success was attained as to the other articles of importance. On 22 May the conference ended, and the emperor was informed as to the articles agreed upon and those on which agreement was impossible. Charles

372-507: A Wittenberg printing of the Ninety-five Theses have survived, but this is not surprising as Luther was not famous and the importance of the document was not recognized. In Wittenberg, the university statutes demand that theses be posted on every church door in the city, but Philip Melanchthon , who first mentioned the posting of the Theses , only mentioned the door of All Saints' Church. Melanchthon also claimed that Luther posted

465-400: A break with established Roman Catholic doctrine. But it was out of the indulgences controversy that the movement which would be called the Reformation began, and the controversy propelled Luther to the leadership position he would hold in that movement. The Theses also made evident that Luther believed the church was not preaching properly and that this put the laity in serious danger. Further,

558-561: A dispute on 28 theological and 12 philosophical theses. He was successful in winning over Johannes Brenz and the Dominican Martin Bucer . Johann Eck became involved in a literary contest with Andreas Karlstadt and challenged his adversary to a public debate. In Leipzig , although the faculty of the university entered a protest, and the Bishops of Merseburg and Brandenburg launched prohibitions and an excommunication,

651-399: A fee. Popes are empowered to grant plenary indulgences, which provide complete satisfaction for any remaining temporal punishment due to sins, and these were purchased on behalf of people believed to be in purgatory. This led to the popular saying, "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs". Theologians at the University of Paris criticized this saying late in

744-595: A form of both theological and philosophical debate and proselytization . Often, the Christian side was represented by a recent convert from Judaism. The only way for the Jewish side to 'win' was to force a draw by drawing the Christian side into a position in which it was necessary to deny the Old Testament to win, committing heresy . According to Michael J. Cook, "Since 'winning' a debate could well jeopardize

837-399: A postscript, Luther wrote that Albert could find some theses on the matter enclosed with his letter, so that he could see the uncertainty surrounding the doctrine of indulgences in contrast to the preachers who spoke so confidently of the benefits of indulgences. It was customary when proposing a disputation to have the theses printed by the university press and publicly posted. No copies of

930-643: A rather negative experience and idea with the indulgences connected to All Saints' Church, Wittenberg . By venerating the large collection of relics at the church, one could receive an indulgence. He had preached as early as 1514 against the abuse of indulgences and the way they cheapened grace rather than requiring true repentance . Luther became especially concerned in 1517 when his parishioners, returning from purchasing Tetzel's indulgences, claimed that they no longer needed to repent and change their lives in order to be forgiven of sin. After hearing what Tetzel had said about indulgences in his sermons, Luther began to study

1023-469: A set of such theses in April 1517, and these were more radical in theological terms than Luther's. He posted them on the door of All Saints' Church, as Luther was alleged to have done with the Ninety-five Theses . Karlstadt posted his theses at a time when the relics of the church were placed on display, and this may have been considered a provocative gesture. Similarly, Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses on

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1116-450: Is an affirmative one, that is, it is of the sort which is always binding but not always operative, for lack of matter or occasion or fitting circumstances. In general it may be said that the determination of its actual obligatory force in a given case depends largely on one's capacity. There are easily recognizable limitations which the precept undergoes in practice so far as the performance of the corporal works of mercy are concerned. Likewise

1209-630: Is popular in the Catholic Church as an act of both penance and charity . In addition, the Methodist church teaches that the works of mercy are a means of grace that evidence holiness of heart (entire sanctification). The works of mercy have been traditionally divided into two categories, each with seven elements: Pope John Paul II issued a papal encyclical Dives in misericordia on 30 November 1980, declaring that "Jesus Christ taught that man not only receives and experiences

1302-527: Is preferable to false security. The Theses are written as propositions to be argued in a formal academic disputation , though there is no evidence that such an event ever took place. In the heading of the Theses , Luther invited interested scholars from other cities to participate. Holding such a debate was a privilege Luther held as a doctor, and it was not an unusual form of academic inquiry. Luther prepared twenty sets of theses for disputation at Wittenberg between 1516 and 1521. Andreas Karlstadt had written

1395-466: Is the purpose of purchasing the indulgence. In theses 41–47 Luther criticizes indulgences on the basis that they discourage works of mercy by those who purchase them. Here he begins to use the phrase, "Christians are to be taught..." to state how he thinks people should be instructed on the value of indulgences. They should be taught that giving to the poor is incomparably more important than buying indulgences, that buying an indulgence rather than giving to

1488-545: The Eucharist . Eck and Melanchthon battled four days over the topic of original sin and its consequences, and a formula was drafted to which both parties agreed, the Protestants with a reservation. At this point Granvella suspended the conference, to be resumed at Regensburg , whither the emperor had summoned a diet, which he promised to attend in person. This diet, from which the emperor anticipated brilliant results,

1581-927: The Explanations of the Disputation Concerning the Value of Indulgences . Luther sent the Theses enclosed with a letter to Albert of Brandenburg , Archbishop of Mainz , on 31 October 1517, a date now considered the start of the Reformation and commemorated annually as Reformation Day . Luther may have also posted the Ninety-five Theses on the door of All Saints' Church and other churches in Wittenberg, in accordance with University custom, at some point between 31 October and mid-November. The Theses were quickly reprinted and translated, and distributed throughout Germany and Europe. They initiated

1674-752: The Roman Catholic Church 's abuse and corruption by Catholic clergy, who were selling plenary indulgences , which were certificates supposed to reduce the temporal punishment in purgatory for sins committed by the purchasers or their loved ones. In the Theses , Luther claimed that the repentance required by Christ in order for sins to be forgiven involves inner spiritual repentance rather than merely external sacramental confession . He argued that indulgences led Christians to avoid true repentance and sorrow for sin, believing that they could forgo it by obtaining an indulgence. These indulgences, according to Luther, discouraged Christians from giving to

1767-487: The Roman Catholic Church , which was practically the only Christian church in Western Europe at the time, indulgences were part of the economy of salvation . In this system, when Christians sin and confess , they are forgiven and no longer stand to receive eternal punishment in hell, but may still be liable to temporal punishment. This punishment could be satisfied by the penitent's performing works of mercy . If

1860-488: The Theses as a cover to allow him to attack established beliefs while being able to deny that he intended to attack church teaching. Since writing a set of theses for a disputation does not necessarily commit the author to those views, Luther could deny that he held the most incendiary ideas in the Theses . On 31 October 1517, Luther sent a letter to the Archbishop of Mainz , Albert of Brandenburg, under whose authority

1953-543: The Theses by calling for Luther to be burnt for heresy and having theologian Konrad Wimpina write 106 theses against Luther's work. Tetzel defended these in a disputation before the University of Frankfurt on the Oder in January 1518. 800 copies of the printed disputation were sent to be sold in Wittenberg, but students of the university seized them from the bookseller and burned them. Luther became increasingly fearful that

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2046-428: The Theses contradicted the decree of Pope Clement VI , in 1343, that indulgences are the treasury of the church. This disregard for papal authority presaged later conflicts. 31 October 1517, the day Luther sent the Theses to Albert, was commemorated as the beginning of the Reformation as early as 1527, when Luther and his friends raised a glass of beer to commemorate the "trampling out of indulgences". The posting of

2139-449: The Theses on 31 October, but this conflicts with several of Luther's statements about the course of events, and Luther always claimed that he brought his objections through proper channels rather than inciting a public controversy. It is possible that while Luther later saw the 31 October letter to Albert as the beginning of the Reformation, he did not post the Theses to the church door until mid-November, but he may not have posted them on

2232-417: The Theses to Archbishop Albert of Brandenburg . The first thesis states, "When our Lord and Master Jesus Christ said, 'Repent,' he willed the entire life of believers to be one of repentance." In the first few theses Luther develops the idea of repentance as the Christian's inner struggle with sin rather than the external system of sacramental confession. Theses 5–7 then state that the pope who Luther called

2325-480: The Theses was established in the historiography of the Reformation as the beginning of the movement by Philip Melanchthon in his 1548 Historia de vita et actis Lutheri . During the 1617 Reformation Jubilee, the centenary of 31 October was celebrated by a procession to the Wittenberg Church where Luther was believed to have posted the Theses . An engraving was made showing Luther writing the Theses on

2418-456: The University of Erfurt declined to intervene and returned the documents; the University of Paris sat in judgment upon Luther's writings, attaching to each of his opinions theological censure . Luther gained the support of Melanchthon . The Leipzig Disputation was the last occasion on which the ancient custom of swearing to advance no tenet contrary to Catholic doctrine was observed. In all subsequent debates between Catholics and Protestants,

2511-605: The University of Mainz and conferred with his advisers. His advisers recommended he have Luther prohibited from preaching against indulgences in accordance with the indulgence bull. Albert requested such action from the Roman Curia . In Rome, Luther was immediately perceived as a threat. In February 1518, Pope Leo asked the head of the Augustinian Hermits , Luther's religious order , to convince him to stop spreading his ideas about indulgences. Sylvester Mazzolini

2604-423: The ancient Near East , disputation was a popular genre of literature that went back at least to the mid-3rd millennium BC with the onset of Sumerian disputations, followed by the first Akkadian-language disputations which began in the 18th century BC. Sumerian and Akkadian language disputations had some discontinuity, insofar as different topics were discussed, different literary conventions were used, and none of

2697-425: The bondage of the will . His breakthrough on these issues would come later, and he did not see the writing of the Theses as the point at which his beliefs diverged from those of the Roman Catholic Church . Martin Luther , professor of moral theology at the University of Wittenberg and town preacher, wrote the Ninety-five Theses against the contemporary practice of the church with respect to indulgences . In

2790-511: The scholastic system of education of the Middle Ages , disputations (in Latin : disputationes , singular: disputatio ) offered a formalized method of debate designed to uncover and establish truths in theology and in sciences . Fixed rules governed the process: they demanded dependence on traditional written authorities and the thorough understanding of each argument on each side. In

2883-413: The "Book" was presented to the collocutors by Granvella for consideration. The first four articles, treating of man before the fall, free will, the origin of sin, and original sin, were accepted. The battle began in earnest when the fifth article, on justification, was reached. After long and vehement debates, a formula was presented by Bucer and accepted by the majority, so worded as to be capable of bearing

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2976-507: The 1519 Leipzig Debate . Luther was summoned by authority of the pope to defend himself against charges of heresy before Thomas Cajetan at Augsburg in October 1518. Cajetan did not allow Luther to argue with him over his alleged heresies, but he did identify two points of controversy. The first was against the 58th thesis, which stated that the pope could not use the treasury of merit to forgive temporal punishment of sin. This contradicted

3069-425: The 15th century. Earlier critics of indulgences included John Wycliffe , who denied that the pope had jurisdiction over Purgatory. Jan Hus and his followers had advocated a more severe system of penance, in which indulgences were not available. Johannes von Wesel had also attacked indulgences late in the 15th century. Political rulers had an interest in controlling indulgences because local economies suffered when

3162-571: The Bible and important theologians. His pamphlet was not nearly as popular as Luther's. Luther's reply to Tetzel's pamphlet, on the other hand, was another publishing success for Luther. Another prominent opponent of the Theses was Johann Eck , Luther's friend and a theologian at the University of Ingolstadt . Eck wrote a refutation, intended for the Bishop of Eichstätt , entitled the Obelisks . This

3255-491: The Islamic world, including one between a pen and a sword, attributed to Ahmad Ibn Burd al-Asghar in the 11th century. Martin Luther opened the Protestant Reformation by demanding a disputation upon his 95 theses , 31 October 1517. Although presented as a call to an ordinary scholastic dispute, there is no evidence that such an event ever took place. During a convention held at Heidelberg in April 1518, Luther directed

3348-580: The Latin Theses were printed in Germany in 1517. Kaspar Nützel  [ de ] in Nuremberg translated them into German later that year, and copies of this translation were sent to several interested parties across Germany, but it was not necessarily printed. Albert seems to have received Luther's letter with the Theses around the end of November. He requested the opinion of theologians at

3441-536: The Protestants. A document of mysterious origin, the Regensburg Book , was presented by Joachim of Brandenburg as the basis of agreement. This compilation, it developed later, was the result of secret conferences, held during the meeting at Worms, between the Protestants, Bucer and Wolfgang Capito , on one side, and the Lutheranizing Gropper and a secretary of the emperor named Veltwick on

3534-472: The Value of Indulgences , in which he attempted to clear himself of the charge that he was attacking the pope. As he set down his views more extensively, Luther seems to have recognized that the implications of his beliefs set him further from official teaching than he initially knew. He later said he might not have begun the controversy had he known where it would lead. The Explanations have been called Luther's first Reformation work. Johann Tetzel responded to

3627-558: The Vicar of Christ on earth can only release people from the punishments he has administered himself or through the church's system of penance, not the guilt of sin. The pope can only announce God's forgiveness of the guilt of sin in his name. In theses 14–29, Luther challenged common beliefs about purgatory. Theses 14–16 discuss the idea that the punishment of purgatory can be likened to the fear and despair felt by dying people. In theses 17–24 he asserts that nothing can be definitively said about

3720-589: The aim of the spiritual works of mercy is to relieve spiritual suffering. They were codified in or before the Catechism of the Council of Trent of 1566. The works include: The corporal works of mercy are an important subject of Christian iconography. In some representations of the Middle Ages , the seven works were allegorically juxtaposed with the seven deadly sins (avarice, anger, envy, laziness, unchastity, intemperance, pride). The pictorial representation of

3813-465: The authority of the Roman pontiff and "would admit no other judge of the controversy than Jesus Christ"; both Pope Paul III and Luther predicted failure. However, since the emperor and his brother, King Ferdinand , persisted in making a trial, the pope authorized his nuncio, Giovanni Morone , to proceed to Speyer , whither the meeting had been summoned for June 1540. As the plague was raging in that city

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3906-526: The bare text of Holy Writ was taken as the authority. This placed the Catholics in a disadvantageous position. This was particularly the case in Switzerland, where Zwingli and his lieutenants organized a number of one-sided debates under the presidency of town councils already won over to Protestantism. Such were the disputations of Zurich, 1523, of Swiss Baden, 1526, and of Berne, 1528. In all of these

3999-755: The bodily needs of other creatures. The standard list is given by Jesus in Chapter 25 of the Gospel of Matthew, in the famous sermon on the Last Judgment. They are also mentioned in the Book of Isaiah . The seventh work of mercy comes from the Book of Tobit and from the mitzvah of burial, although it was not added to the list until the Middle Ages. The works include: Just as the corporal works of mercy are directed towards relieving corporeal suffering,

4092-616: The case be reviewed by university theologians. This request was denied, so Luther appealed to the pope before leaving Augsburg. Luther was finally excommunicated in 1521 after he burned the papal bull threatening him to recant or face excommunication. The indulgence controversy set off by the Theses was the beginning of the Reformation , a schism in the Roman Catholic Church which initiated profound and lasting social and political change in Europe. Luther later stated that

4185-620: The conference took place in Hagenau . Neither the Elector of Saxony nor the Landgrave of Hesse could be induced to attend. Melanchthon was absent through illness. The leading Protestant theologians at the conference were Bucer, Brenz, Oswald Myconius , Ambrosius Blarer , and Urbanus Rhegius . The most prominent on the Catholic side were Johann Faber , Bishop of Vienna , and Eck. Present

4278-409: The cross of Christ. Luther lists several criticisms advanced by laypeople against indulgences in theses 81–91. He presents these as difficult objections his congregants are bringing rather than his own criticisms. How should he answer those who ask why the pope does not simply empty purgatory if it is in his power? What should he say to those who ask why anniversary masses for the dead , which were for

4371-421: The current doctrine regarding them, nor even the sermons which had been preached themselves, as he had not seen them firsthand. Instead he states his concern regarding the misunderstandings of the people about indulgences which have been fostered by the preaching, such as the belief that any sin could be forgiven by indulgences or that the guilt as well as the punishment for sin could be forgiven by an indulgence. In

4464-480: The dead, do not require some special array of gifts or talent for their observance. In his message for the 2016 World Day of Prayer for the Care of Creation, Pope Francis suggested "care for creation" as a new work of mercy, describing it as a "complement" to the existing works. Francis characterized this new work as having both corporal and spiritual components. Corporally, it involves "daily gestures which break with

4557-460: The disputation took place under the ægis of Duke George of Saxony . Eck came to Leipzig with one attendant; Luther and Karlstadt entered the city accompanied by an army of adherents, mostly students. From 27 June to 4 July (1519) Eck and Karlstadt debated the subject of free will and our ability to cooperate with grace. Eck forced his antagonist to make admissions which stultified the new Lutheran doctrine, whereupon Luther himself came forward to assail

4650-429: The dogma of Roman supremacy by divine right . The debate on papal primacy was succeeded by discussions of purgatory , indulgences , penance , etc. On 14 and 15 July, Karlstadt resumed the debate on free will and good works . Finally, Duke George declared the disputation closed, and each of the contendents departed, as usual, claiming victory. Of the two universities to which the final decision had been reserved,

4743-514: The door at all. Regardless, the Theses were well known among the Wittenberg intellectual elite soon after Luther sent them to Albert. The Theses were copied and distributed to interested parties soon after Luther sent the letter to Archbishop Albert. The Latin Theses were printed in a four-page pamphlet in Basel , and as placards in Leipzig and Nuremberg . In all, several hundred copies of

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4836-468: The door of the church with a gigantic quill. The quill penetrates the head of a lion symbolizing Pope Leo X. In 1668, 31 October was made Reformation Day , an annual holiday in Electoral Saxony, which spread to other Lutheran lands. 31 October 2017, the 500th Anniversary of Reformation Day, was celebrated with a national public holiday throughout Germany. or critical Disputation In

4929-447: The eve of All Saints' Day , the most important day of the year for the display of relics at All Saints' Church. Luther's theses were intended to begin a debate among academics, not a popular revolution, but there are indications that he saw his action as prophetic and significant. Around this time, he began using the name "Luther" and sometimes "Eleutherius", Greek for "free", rather than "Luder". This seems to refer to his being free from

5022-412: The false certainty Luther believed the indulgence preachers offered Christians. Since no one knows whether a person is truly repentant, a letter assuring a person of his forgiveness is dangerous. In theses 35 and 36, he attacks the idea that an indulgence makes repentance unnecessary. This leads to the conclusion that the truly repentant person, who alone may benefit from the indulgence, has already received

5115-433: The first of all nations in fidelity, religion, piety, and divine worship", and warned his hearers that "all the evils that shall come upon you and your people, if, by clinging stubbornly to preconceived notions, you prevent a renewal of concord, will be ascribed to you as the authors of them." On behalf of the Protestants, Melanchthon returned "an intrepid answer"; he threw all the blame upon the Catholics, who refused to accept

5208-399: The greatest of the graces available from the church, but they actually only promote greed. He points out that bishops have been commanded to offer reverence to indulgence preachers who enter their jurisdiction, but bishops are also charged with protecting their people from preachers who preach contrary to the pope's intention. He then attacks the belief allegedly propagated by the preachers that

5301-462: The indulgence could forgive one who had violated the Virgin Mary . Luther states that indulgences cannot take away the guilt of even the lightest of venial sins . He labels several other alleged statements of the indulgence preachers as blasphemy: that Saint Peter could not have granted a greater indulgence than the current one, and that the indulgence cross with the papal arms is as worthy as

5394-399: The indulgence was being offered. In theses 56–66, Martin Luther criticizes the doctrine of the treasury of merit on which the doctrine of indulgences is based. He states that everyday Christians do not understand the doctrine and are being misled. For Luther, the true treasure of the church is the gospel of Jesus Christ. This treasure tends to be hated because it makes "the first last", in

5487-440: The indulgences were being sold. In the letter, Luther addresses the archbishop out of a loyal desire to alert him to the pastoral problems created by the indulgence sermons. He assumes that Albert is unaware of what is being preached under his authority, and speaks out of concern that the people are being led away from the gospel, and that the indulgence preaching may bring shame to Albert's name. Luther does not condemn indulgences or

5580-484: The inward punishment of their sin. These sermons seem to have ceased from April to October 1517, presumably while Luther was writing the Ninety-five Theses . He composed a Treatise on Indulgences , apparently in early autumn 1517. It is a cautious and searching examination of the subject. He contacted church leaders on the subject by letter, including his superior Hieronymus Schulz  [ de ] , Bishop of Brandenburg , sometime on or before 31 October, when he sent

5673-426: The issue more carefully, and contacted experts on the subject. He preached about indulgences several times in 1517, explaining that true repentance was better than purchasing an indulgence. He taught that receiving an indulgence presupposed that the penitent had confessed and repented, otherwise it was worthless. A truly repentant sinner would also not seek an indulgence, because they loved God's righteousness and desired

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5766-412: The issue of indulgences was insignificant relative to controversies which he would enter into later, such as his debate with Erasmus over the bondage of the will , nor did he see the controversy as important to his intellectual breakthrough regarding the gospel . Luther later wrote that at the time that he wrote the Theses , he remained a " papist ", and he did not seem to think the Theses represented

5859-849: The later Akkadian disputations appear to be translations of earlier Sumerian disputations. The two most well-attested Sumerian disputations are the Debate between the hoe and the plough and the Debate between sheep and grain . Many disputations were composed in the Syriac language , including the Dispute Between the Cherub and the Thief and the Dispute Between Heaven and Earth . A significant category of disputations took place between Christian and Jewish theologians as

5952-404: The law imposing spiritual works of mercy is subject in individual instances to important reservations. For example, some may require particular tact, prudence, or knowledge. Similarly to instruct the ignorant, counsel the doubtful, and console the sorrowing is not always within the competency of everyone. However, to bear wrongs patiently, to forgive offences willingly, and to pray for the living and

6045-461: The logic of violence, exploitation and selfishness". Spiritually, it involves contemplating each part of creation to find what God is teaching mankind through them. This pronouncement extensively quoted the encyclical Laudato si' , and Cardinal Peter Turkson , who helped write the encyclical, clarified that the addition of this work of mercy was part of Francis' intention for Laudato si' . Corporal works of mercy are those that tend to

6138-507: The mercy of God, but that he is also called upon 'to practice mercy' towards others." Another notable devotion associated with the works of mercy is the Divine Mercy , which derives from apparitions of Jesus Christ to Saint Faustina Kowalska . Based on Jesus' doctrine of the sheep and the goats , the corporal and spiritual works of mercy are a means of grace as good deeds; it is also a work of justice pleasing to God. The precept

6231-468: The money for indulgences left a given territory. Rulers often sought to receive a portion of the proceeds or prohibited indulgences altogether, as Duke George did in Luther's Electoral Saxony . In 1515, Pope Leo X granted a plenary indulgence intended to finance the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Roma. It would apply to almost any sin, including adultery and theft. All other indulgence preaching

6324-566: The new Gospel. A great deal of time was spent in wrangling over points of order; finally it was decided that Eck should be spokesman for the Catholics and Melanchthon for the Protestants. The debate began 14 January 1541. The Augsburg Confession as the basis of the conference; the Augsburg Confession of 1540 was a different document from the Confession of 1530, having been changed by Melanchthon to suit his sacramentarian view of

6417-467: The only benefit the indulgence provides. Truly repentant Christians have already, according to Luther, been forgiven of the penalty as well as the guilt of sin. In thesis 37, he states that indulgences are not necessary for Christians to receive all the benefits provided by Christ. Theses 39 and 40 argue that indulgences make true repentance more difficult. True repentance desires God's punishment of sin, but indulgences teach one to avoid punishment, since that

6510-531: The other. It consisted of twenty-three chapters, in which the attempt was made so to formulate the controverted doctrines that each party might find its own views therein expressed. How much Charles and Granvella had to do in the transaction, is unknown; they certainly knew and approved of it. The "Book" had been submitted by the Elector of Brandenburg to the judgment of Luther and Melanchthon; and their contemptuous treatment of it augured ill for its success. When it

6603-429: The papal bull Unigenitus promulgated by Clement VI in 1343. The second point was whether one could be assured that one had been forgiven when one's sin had been absolved by a priest. Luther's Explanations on thesis seven asserted that one could based on God's promise, but Cajetan argued that the humble Christian should never presume to be certain of their standing before God. Luther refused to recant and requested that

6696-504: The papal court. The latter brought with him the Jesuit Peter Faber . The pope sent the Bishop of Feltre , Tommaso Campeggio , brother of the cardinal, and ordered Morone to attend. They were not to take part in the debates, but were to watch events closely and report to Rome. Granvella opened the proceedings at Worms, 25 November, with an eloquent and conciliatory address. He pictured the evils which had befallen Germany, "once

6789-571: The poor and performing other acts of mercy, which he attributed to a belief that indulgence certificates were more spiritually valuable. Though Luther claimed that his positions on indulgences accorded with those of Pope Leo X , the Theses challenge a 14th-century papal bull stating that the pope could use the treasury of merit and the good deeds of past saints to forgive temporal punishment for sins. The Theses are framed as propositions to be argued in debate rather than necessarily representing Luther's opinions, but Luther later clarified his views in

6882-406: The poor invites God's wrath, and that doing good works makes a person better while buying indulgences does not. In theses 48–52 Luther takes the side of the pope, saying that if the pope knew what was being preached in his name he would rather St. Peter's Basilica be burned down than "built up with the skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep". Theses 53–55 complain about the restrictions on preaching while

6975-399: The pope. He appeals to the pope's financial interest, saying that if the preachers limited their preaching in accordance with Luther's positions on indulgences (which he claimed was also the pope's position), the objections would cease to be relevant. Luther closes the Theses by exhorting Christians to imitate Christ even if it brings pain and suffering. Enduring punishment and entering heaven

7068-570: The result was the abolition of Catholic worship and in their opinion the desecration of churches and religious institutions. Emperor Charles V attempted to bring the religious troubles of Germany to a "speedy and peaceful termination" by conferences between the Catholic and the Protestant divines. The Protestants proclaimed their determination to adhere to the terms of the Augsburg Confession , and, in addition, formally repudiated

7161-425: The sake of those in purgatory, continued for those who had been redeemed by an indulgence? Luther claimed that it seemed strange to some that pious people in purgatory could be redeemed by living impious people. Luther also mentions the question of why the pope, who is very rich, requires money from poor believers to build St. Peter's Basilica. Luther claims that ignoring these questions risks allowing people to ridicule

7254-416: The scholastic theology which he had argued against earlier that year. Luther later claimed not to have desired the Theses to be widely distributed. Elizabeth Eisenstein has argued that his claimed surprise at their success may have involved self-deception and Hans Hillerbrand has claimed that Luther was certainly intending to instigate a large controversy. At times, Luther seems to use the academic nature of

7347-424: The security of the Jewish community at large, political considerations certainly entered into what Jewish disputants publicly said or refrained from saying. ... Official transcripts of these proceedings, moreover, may not duplicate what actually transpired; in some places what they record was not the live action, as it were, but Christian polemical revision composed after the fact." Some disputations also appeared in

7440-466: The situation was out of hand and that he would be in danger. To placate his opponents, he published a Sermon on Indulgences and Grace , which did not challenge the pope's authority. This pamphlet, written in German, was very short and easy for laypeople to understand. Luther's first widely successful work, it was reprinted twenty times. Tetzel responded with a point-by-point refutation, citing heavily from

7533-427: The spiritual state of people in purgatory. He denies that the pope has any power over people in purgatory in theses 25 and 26. In theses 27–29, he attacks the idea that as soon as payment is made, the payer's loved one is released from purgatory. He sees it as encouraging sinful greed, and says it is impossible to be certain because only God has ultimate power in forgiving punishments in purgatory. Theses 30–34 deal with

7626-467: The temporal punishment is not satisfied during life, it needs to be satisfied in Purgatory , a place believed by Catholics to exist between Heaven and Hell . By indulgence (which may be understood in the sense of "kindness"), this temporal punishment could be lessened. Under abuses of the system of indulgences, clergy benefited by selling indulgences and the pope gave official sanction in exchange for

7719-599: The traveler, comfort the sick, and ransom the captive. The painting of the Seven Works of Mercy by Frans II Francken (1605) represents the acts not as a picture cycle, but in one single composition. A major work of the iconography of mercy is the altarpiece of Caravaggio (1606/07) in Naples , which was commissioned by the Confraternità del Pio Monte della Misericordia for their church. This charity brotherhood

7812-426: The words of Matthew 19:30 and 20:16. Luther uses metaphor and wordplay to describe the treasures of the gospel as nets to catch wealthy people, whereas the treasures of indulgences are nets to catch the wealth of men. In theses 67–80, Luther discusses further the problems with the way indulgences are being preached, as he had done in the letter to Archbishop Albert. The preachers have been promoting indulgences as

7905-569: The works of mercy began in the 12th century. The Master of Alkmaar painted the polyptych of the Seven works of mercy ( c.  1504 ) for the Church of Saint Lawrence in Alkmaar, Netherlands . His series of wooden panel paintings show the works of mercy, with Jesus in the background viewing each, in this order: feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty, clothe the naked, bury the dead, shelter

7998-511: Was John Calvin , then exiled from Geneva ; he appeared as confidential agent of the King of France. After a month, King Ferdinand prorogued the conference to reassemble at Worms on 28 October. Undismayed by the failure of the Hagenau conference, the emperor made more strenuous efforts for the success of the coming colloquy at Worms. He dispatched his minister Granvelle and Ortiz, his envoy, to

8091-526: Was also appointed to write an opinion which would be used in the trial against him. Mazzolini wrote A Dialogue against Martin Luther's Presumptuous Theses concerning the Power of the Pope , which focused on Luther's questioning of the pope's authority rather than his complaints about indulgence preaching. Luther received a summons to Rome in August 1518. He responded with Explanations of the Disputation Concerning

8184-411: Was called to order 5 April 1541. As legate of the pope appeared Cardinal Contarini , assisted by the nuncio Morone. Calvin was present, ostensibly to represent Lüneburg , in reality to foster discord in the interest of France. As collocutors at the religious conference which met simultaneously, Charles appointed Eck, Pflug , and Gropper for the Catholic side, and Melanchthon, Bucer, and Pistorius for

8277-606: Was founded in 1601 in Naples. The artist painted the Seven Works of Mercy in one single composition. Regarding the sharp contrasts of the painting's chiaroscuro , the art historian Ralf van Bühren explains the bright light as a metaphor for mercy , which "helps the audience to explore mercy in their own lives". In Methodist teaching, doing merciful acts is a prudential means of grace. Along with works of piety , works of mercy evidence growth in grace and are characteristic of those who have Christian perfection . In this sense,

8370-537: Was in reference to the obelisks used to mark heretical passages in texts in the Middle Ages. It was a harsh and unexpected personal attack, charging Luther with heresy and stupidity. Luther responded privately with the Asterisks , titled after the asterisk marks then used to highlight important texts. Luther's response was angry and he expressed the opinion that Eck did not understand the matter on which he wrote. The dispute between Luther and Eck would become public in

8463-475: Was shown to the legate and Morone, the latter was for rejecting it summarily; Contarini, after making a score of emendations, notably emphasizing in Article 14 the dogma of Transubstantiation , declared that now "as a private person" he could accept it; but as legate he must consult with the Catholic theologians. Eck secured the substitution of a conciser exposition of the doctrine of justification . Thus emended,

8556-760: Was sorely disappointed, but he was powerless to effect anything further. The decree known as the Regensburg Interim , published 28 July 1541, enjoining upon both sides the observance of the articles agreed upon by the theologians, was by both sides disregarded. Equally without result was the last of the conferences summoned by Charles at Regensburg, 1546, just prior to the outbreak of the Smalkaldic War . Works of mercy Works of mercy (sometimes known as acts of mercy ) are practices considered meritorious in Christian ethics. The practice

8649-517: Was to cease for the eight years in which it was offered. Indulgence preachers were given strict instructions on how the indulgence was to be preached, and they were much more laudatory of the indulgence than those of earlier indulgences. Johann Tetzel was commissioned to preach and offer the indulgence in 1517, and his campaign in cities near Wittenberg drew many Wittenbergers to travel to these cities and purchase them, since sales had been prohibited in Wittenberg and other Saxon cities. Luther also had

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