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92-885: Nishinari has a historical reputation for being "sketchy and dangerous", but it is currently undergoing gentrification . Two designated yakuza groups , the Sakaume-gumi and the Azuma-gumi , are based in Nishinari. Public elementary and junior high schools are operated by the Osaka City Board of Education. The public high schools are operated by the Osaka Prefectural Board of Education . 34°38′6″N 135°29′40″E  /  34.63500°N 135.49444°E  / 34.63500; 135.49444 Gentrification Gentrification

184-425: A Starbucks , and (c) my neighbors and I can no longer afford to live here ( community displacement )". Palen & London (1984) compiled five explanations for gentrification since the 1970s: Other explanations propose that as people tire of the automobile-dependent urban sprawl style of life, they move to urban areas, in particular to homes near public transit stations. The increase in professional jobs in

276-662: A better understanding of the policy choices facing American decision-makers in the Middle East". The center was launched in May 2002 "with a special address by His Majesty King Abdullah II bin al-Hussein of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to a select audience of policymakers in Washington, D.C." The center was originally named after American- Israeli film and television producer Haim Saban . Saban, according to

368-515: A community and the related infrastructure by real estate development businesses, local government, or community activists and resulting economic development , increased attraction of business, and lower crime rates. Historians say that gentrification took place in ancient Rome and in Roman Britain , where large villas were replacing small shops by the 3rd century, AD. The word gentrification derives from gentry —which comes from

460-662: A district it goes on rapidly, until all or most of the original working-class occupiers are displaced and the whole social character of the district is changed. In the US, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report Health Effects of Gentrification defines the real estate concept of gentrification as "the transformation of neighborhoods from low value to high value." A real estate encyclopedia defines gentrification as "the process by which central urban neighborhoods that have undergone disinvestments and economic decline experience

552-561: A dozen Washington, D.C.-based research groups and think tanks to have received payments from foreign governments while encouraging American government officials to support policies aligned with those foreign governments' agendas. The Times published documents showing that Brookings accepted grants from Norway with specific policy requests and helped it gain access to U.S. government officials, as well as other "deliverables". In June 2014, Norway agreed to make an additional $ 4 million donation to Brookings. Several legal specialists who examined

644-519: A drop in the number of children per household, increased education among residents, the number of non-traditional types of households, and a general upwards shift in income. Just as critical to the gentrification process as creating a favorable environment is the availability of the 'gentry,' or those who will be first-stage gentrifiers. The typical gentrifiers are affluent and have professional-level, service industry jobs, many of which involve self-employment . Therefore, they are willing and able to take

736-522: A higher likelihood of eviction." A 2020 study which followed children from low-income families in New York found no evidence that gentrification was associated with changes in mobility rates. The study also found "that children who start out in a gentrifying area experience larger improvements in some aspects of their residential environment than their counterparts who start out in persistently low-socioeconomic status areas." A 2023 study by economists at

828-415: A neighborhood, changing the essential character and flavour of that neighborhood", so distinguishing it from the different socio-economic process of "neighborhood (or urban) revitalization", although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Gentrification has been described as a natural cycle: the well-to-do prefer to live in the newest housing stock. Each decade of a city's growth, a new ring of housing

920-466: A plan to firebomb the headquarters and steal classified files, but it was canceled because the Nixon administration refused to pay for a fire engine as a getaway vehicle. Yet throughout the 1970s, Brookings was offered more federal research contracts than it could handle. In 1976, after Gordon died, Gilbert Y. Steiner , director of the governmental studies program, was appointed the fourth president of

1012-416: A process "in which members of the 'new middle class' move into and physically and culturally reshape working-class inner city neighbourhoods". Kennedy & Leonard (2001) say in their Brookings Institution report that "the term 'gentrification' is both imprecise and quite politically charged", suggesting its redefinition as "the process by which higher income households displace lower income residents of

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1104-538: A return to the inner city but is more of a positive action to remain there. The stereotypical gentrifiers also have shared consumer preferences and favor a largely consumerist culture. This fuels the rapid expansion of trendy restaurant, shopping, and entertainment spheres that often accompany the gentrification process. Holcomb and Beauregard described these groups as those who are "attracted by low prices and toleration of an unconventional lifestyle". An interesting find from research on those who participate and initiate

1196-683: A reversal, reinvestment, and the in-migration of a well-off middle- and upper-middle-class population." Scholars and pundits have applied a variety of definitions to gentrification since 1964, some oriented around gentrifiers, others oriented around the displaced, and some a combination of both. The first category include the Hackworth (2002) definition "the production of space for progressively more affluent users". The second category include Kasman's definition "the reduction of residential and retail space affordable to low-income residents". The final category includes Rose, who describes gentrification as

1288-533: A single decision of consequence American peace process advisers made, or one we didn’t, that was directly tied to some lobbyist’s call, letter, or pressure tactic.” In a September 17, 2014, article in Tablet , Lee Smith criticized the center for accepting substantial donations from the Qatari government, "a foreign government that, in addition to its well-documented role as a funder of Sunni terror outfits throughout

1380-413: A social rise that brings new standards in consumption, particularly in the form of excess and superfluity, to the area that were not held by the pre-existing residents. These differing norms can lead to conflict, which potentially serves to divide changing communities. Often this comes at a larger social cost to the original residents of the gentrified area whose displacement is met with little concern from

1472-969: A suburban setting. Ley's research cites a quote from a Vancouver printmaker talking about the importance of inner city life to an artist, that it has, "energy, intensity, hard to specify but hard to do without". Brookings Institution The Brookings Institution , often stylized as Brookings , is an American think tank that conducts research and education in the social sciences , primarily in economics (and tax policy ), metropolitan policy, governance , foreign policy , global economy , and economic development . Brookings has five research programs: Economic Studies, Foreign Policy, Governance Studies, Global Economy and Development, and Brookings Metro. It also operated three international centers: in Doha , Qatar (Brookings Doha Center); Beijing , China (Brookings-Tsinghua Center for Public Policy); and New Delhi , India (Brookings India). In 2020 and 2021,

1564-532: A typical 1970s term with more visibility in public discourse than actual migration. A 2017 study found that gentrification leads to job gains overall, with job losses in proximate locations but job gains further away. A 2014 study found that gentrification led to job gains in the gentrifying neighborhood. A 2016 study found that residents who stay in gentrifying neighborhoods go on to obtain higher credit scores whereas residents who leave gentrifying neighborhoods obtain lower credit scores. "School gentrification"

1656-417: Is a combined community effort to win historic district designation for the neighborhood, a phenomenon that is often linked to gentrification activity. Gentry can exert a peer influence on neighbors to take action against crime, which can lead to even more price increases in changing neighborhoods when crime rates drop and optimism for the area's future climbs. Some argue that gentrification is associated with

1748-678: Is aimed at producing research, analysis, and outreach that address three core issues: the future of war, the future of U.S. defense needs and priorities, and the future of the US defense system. The Initiative draws on the knowledge from regional centers, including the Center on the United States and Europe, the Center for Northeast Asian Policy Studies, the Thornton China Center, and the Center for Middle East Policy , allowing

1840-411: Is built. When the housing at the center has reached the end of its useful life and becomes cheap, the well-to-do gentrify the neighborhood. The push outward from the city center continues as the housing in each ring reaches the end of its economic life. They observe that gentrification has three interpretations: (a) "great, the value of my house is going up, (b) coffee is more expensive, now that we have

1932-641: Is characterized by: (i) increased numbers of middle-class families; (ii) material and physical upgrades (e.g. new programs, educational resources, and infrastructural improvements); (iii) forms of exclusion and/or the marginalization of low-income students and families (e.g. in both enrollment and social relations); and (iv) changes in school culture and climate (e.g. traditions, expectations, and social dynamics). A 2024 study found that adding high-density mixed-income developments to low-income neighborhoods in London, United Kingdom, led to improved educational outcomes for

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2024-814: Is commonly referenced as a negative aspect of gentrification by its opponents. A 2022 study found evidence that gentrification leads to greater residential mobility. In the United States, a 2023 study by Princeton University sociologists found that "eviction rates decreased more in gentrifying neighborhoods than in comparable low-income neighborhoods." A 2016 study found "that vulnerable residents, those with low credit scores and without mortgages, are generally no more likely to move from gentrifying neighborhoods compared with their counterparts in nongentrifying neighborhoods." A 2017 study by sociology professor Matthew Desmond , who runs Princeton University's Eviction Lab, "found no evidence that renters residing in gentrifying or in racially- and economically-integrated neighborhoods had

2116-589: Is composed of 53 trustees and more than three dozen honorary trustees, including Kenneth Duberstein , a former chief of staff to Ronald Reagan. Aside from political figures, the board of trustees includes leaders in business and industry, including Haim Saban , Robert Bass , Hanzade Doğan Boyner , Paul L. Cejas , W. Edmund Clark , Abby Joseph Cohen , Betsy Cohen , Susan Crown , Arthur B. Culvahouse Jr. , Jason Cummins , Paul Desmarais Jr. , Kenneth M. Duberstein , Glenn Hutchins , and Philip H. Knight (chairman emeritus of Nike, Inc ). Since its incorporation as

2208-419: Is if its underlying thesis is correct: that a domestic political lobby drives U.S. policy in the Middle East. If that were true, then the ruckus raised by The Israeli Lobby would establish the book as a classic. But it isn’t true. Domestic politics and lobbying do matter when it comes to matters of tone and timing, but as Aaron David Miller , a veteran American peace-process diplomat, puts it...: “I can’t remember

2300-421: Is indeed a cabal.... And this cabal includes anyone that has anything positive to say about Israel… And what does this cabal do? It ‘distorts’ American foreign policy, it ‘bends’ it, all these words are used to suggest that this cabal is doing something anti-American.” Another fellow wrote that the authors' book "will pale in comparison [to other academic works] because the only way it can become an esteemed classic

2392-410: Is little evidence for more long-term impacts and that gentrification in some cases widens crime-related disparities. Displacement is often seen as a key effect of gentrification, although evidence is mixed as to whether gentrification leads to displacement (or even reduces displacement) and under which circumstances. In 2005, USA Today claimed that gentrification is a "boost for everyone" based on

2484-440: Is the process whereby the character of a neighborhood changes through the influx of more affluent residents (the " gentry ") and investment. There is no agreed-upon definition of gentrification. In public discourse, it has been used to describe a wide array of phenomena, sometimes in a pejorative connotation. Gentrification is a common and controversial topic in urban politics and planning . Gentrification often increases

2576-419: Is thought to be a method to promote health equity. Whether gentrification has occurred in a census tract in an urban area in the United States during a particular 10-year period between censuses can be determined by a method used in a study by Governing : If the census tract in a central city had 500 or more residents and at the time of the baseline census had median household income and median home value in

2668-676: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation , the Hutchins Family Foundation, JPMorgan Chase , the LEGO Foundation, David Rubenstein , State of Qatar , and John L. Thornton . Funding details as of 2017: Revenue and support as of 2017: $ 117,336,000 Expenses as of 2017: $ 97,986,000 A 2014 investigation by The New York Times found Brookings to be among more than

2760-570: The Center for International Policy 's Foreign Influence Transparency Initiative of the top 50 think tanks on the University of Pennsylvania 's Global Go-To Think Tanks rating index found that between 2014 and 2018, Brookings received the third-highest amount of funding from outside the United States compared to other think tanks, with a total of more than $ 27 million. In 2022, Brookings president John R. Allen resigned amid an FBI probe into lobbying on behalf of Qatar. The main building of

2852-668: The Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford Foundation and reorganized Brookings around the Economic Studies, Government Studies, and Foreign Policy Programs. In 1957, Brookings moved from Jackson Avenue to a new research center near Dupont Circle in Washington, D.C. In 1967, Kermit Gordon assumed Brookings' presidency. He began a series of studies of program choices for the federal budget in 1969 titled "Setting National Priorities". He also expanded

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2944-695: The United Nations , the Marshall Plan , and the Congressional Budget Office , as well as to the development of influential policies for deregulation , broad-based tax reform , welfare reform , and foreign aid . The annual think tank index published by Foreign Policy ranks it the number one think tank in the U.S. and the Global Go To Think Tank Index believes it is the number one such tank in

3036-505: The economic value of a neighborhood, but can be controversial due to changing demographic composition and potential displacement of incumbent residents. Gentrification is more likely when there is an undersupply of housing and rising home values in a metropolitan area. The gentrification process is typically the result of increasing attraction to an area by people with higher incomes spilling over from neighboring cities, towns, or neighborhoods. Further steps are increased investments in

3128-894: The "nation's pre-eminent liberal think tank". Newsweek has called it centrist and Politico has used the term "center-left". The media watchdog group Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting , which describes itself as 'a progressive group', has called Brookings "centrist", "conservative", and "center-right". Matthew Yglesias , a former writer and editor at The Atlantic , and Glenn Greenwald at Salon have argued that Brookings foreign policy scholars were overly supportive of Bush administration policies abroad . Brookings scholars have served in Republican and Democratic administrations, including Mark McClellan , Ron Haskins and Martin Indyk . Brookings's board of trustees

3220-419: The 1980s, Brookings faced an increasingly competitive and ideologically charged intellectual environment. The need to reduce the federal budget deficit became a major research theme, as did problems with national security and government inefficiency. Bruce MacLaury, Brookings's fifth president, also established the Center for Public Policy Education to develop workshop conferences and public forums to broaden

3312-527: The Brookings India Office. In October 2017, former general John R. Allen became the eighth president of Brookings. Allen resigned on June 12, 2022, amid an FBI foreign lobbying investigation. As of June 30, 2019, Brookings had an endowment of $ 377.2 million. Brookings as an institution produces an Annual Report. The Brookings Institution Press publishes books and journals from the institution's own research as well as authors outside

3404-473: The Brookings Institution by the board of trustees. As director of the governmental studies program, Steiner brought in numerous scholars whose research ranges from administrative reform to urban policy, not only enhancing the program's visibility and influence in Washington and nationally, but also producing works that have arguably survived as classics in the field of political science. By

3496-563: The Brookings Institution in 1927, it has been led by accomplished academics and public servants. Brookings has had eleven presidents, including three in acting capacity. The current president is Cecilia Rouse , who replaced acting President Amy Liu, who began serving in January, 2024. In 2002, the Brookings Institution established the Center for Middle East Policy ("CMEP", formerly the Saban Center for Middle East Policy ) "to promote

3588-561: The Brookings-Tsinghua Center (BTC) for Public Policy as a partnership between the Brookings Institution in Washington, DC and Tsinghua University 's School of Public Policy and Management in Beijing , China . The Center seeks to produce research in areas of fundamental importance for China's development and for US-China relations. The BTC was directed by Qi Ye until 2019. The 21st Century Defense Initiative (21CDI)

3680-624: The Foreign Policy Studies Program to include research about national security and defense. After Richard Nixon was elected president in the 1968 United States presidential election , the relationship between Brookings and the White House deteriorated. At one point, Nixon aide Charles Colson proposed a firebombing of the institution. G. Gordon Liddy and the White House Plumbers actually made

3772-1001: The Institute for Government Research, the Institute of Economics with funds from the Carnegie Corporation , and the Robert Brookings Graduate School affiliated with Washington University in St. Louis . The three were merged into the Brookings Institution on December 8, 1927. During the Great Depression , economists at Brookings embarked on a large-scale study commissioned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to understand its underlying causes. Brookings's first president, Harold G. Moulton , and other Brookings scholars later led an effort to oppose Roosevelt's National Recovery Administration because they thought it impeded economic recovery. With

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3864-785: The Institution announced it was separating entirely from its centers in Doha and New Delhi, and transitioning its center in Beijing to an informal partnership with Tsinghua University, known as Brookings-Tsinghua China. The University of Pennsylvania 's Global Go To Think Tank Index Report has named Brookings "Think Tank of the Year" and "Top Think Tank in the World" every year since 2008. In September 2017, The Economist described Brookings as "perhaps America's most prestigious think-tank." Though

3956-549: The Middle East" that led him to fund the center. Some critics have charged that various sources of funding for the center have influenced its outlook, but the center has dismissed such allegations, saying that in all cases the donors respected the center's independence. John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt , in their 2006 article wrote: "To be sure, the Saban Centre occasionally hosts Arab scholars and exhibits some diversity of opinion. Saban Center fellows ... often endorse

4048-574: The Middle East, is the main patron of Hamas—which happens to be the mortal enemy of both the State of Israel and Mahmoud Abbas’ Fatah party." He suggested that the donations influenced the center's research analysis and Martin Indyk's statements as a State Department official and peace mediator. Brookings responded: "A review of publications and media appearances by our scholars in Doha and in Washington—all of which are available at Brookings.edu—demonstrate

4140-545: The Old French word genterise , "of gentle birth" (14th century) and "people of gentle birth" (16th century). In England, landed gentry denoted the social class, consisting of gentlemen (and gentlewomen, as they were at that time known). British sociologist Ruth Glass was first to use "gentrification" in its current sense. She used it in 1964 to describe the influx of middle-class people displacing lower-class worker residents in urban neighborhoods; her example

4232-600: The Qatar government in papers". Brookings officials denied any connection between the views of their funders and their scholars' work, citing reports that questioned the Qatari government's education reform efforts and criticized its support of militants in Syria. But Brookings officials reportedly acknowledged that they meet with Qatari government officials regularly. In 2018, The Washington Post reported that Brookings accepted funding from Huawei from 2012 to 2018. A report by

4324-540: The U.S. entry into World War II in 1941, Brookings researchers turned their attention to aiding the administration with a series of studies on mobilization. In 1948, Brookings was asked to submit a plan for administering the European Recovery Program. The resulting organization scheme assured that the Marshall Plan was run carefully and on a businesslike basis. In 1952, Robert Calkins succeeded Moulton as Brookings' president. He secured grants from

4416-409: The United States and Stalemate . In addition, books, papers, articles, reports, policy briefs and opinion pieces are produced by Brookings research programs, centers, projects and, for the most part, by experts. Brookings also cooperates with The Lawfare Institute in publishing the online multimedia publication Lawfare . Brookings traces its history to 1916 and has contributed to the creation of

4508-580: The W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research and Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia found that the construction of new large apartment buildings in low-income neighborhoods lead to an influx of high-income households but also decrease rents in nearby units by increasing housing supply. Many of the social effects of gentrification have been based on extensive theories about how socioeconomic status of an individual's neighborhood will shape one's behavior and future. These studies have prompted "social mix policies" to be widely adopted by governments to promote

4600-447: The artists' case. Their cultural emancipation from the bourgeois makes the central city an appealing alternative that distances them from the conformity and mundaneness attributed to suburban life. They are quintessential city people, and the city is often a functional choice as well, for city life has advantages that include connections to customers and a closer proximity to a downtown art scene, all of which are more likely to be limited in

4692-500: The audience for research programs. In 1995, Michael Armacost became the sixth president of the Brookings Institution and led an effort to refocus its mission heading into the 21st century. Under his direction, Brookings created several interdisciplinary research centers, such as the Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, now the Metropolitan Policy Program led by Bruce J. Katz , which brought attention to

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4784-592: The audience for research programs. In 2005, the center was renamed the Brookings Center for Executive Education (BCEE), which was shortened to Brookings Executive Education (BEE) with the launch of a partnership with the Olin Business School at Washington University in St. Louis . The academic partnership is now known as " WashU at Brookings". As of 2017 the Brookings Institution had assets of $ 524.2 million. Its largest contributors include

4876-407: The bottom 40th percentile and at the time of the next 10-year census the tract's educational attainment (percentage of residents over age 25 with a bachelor's degree) was in the top 33rd percentile; the median home value, adjusted for inflation, had increased; and the percentage of increase in home values in the tract was in the top 33rd percentile when compared to the increase in other census tracts in

4968-527: The center and its parent organization, "made a generous initial grant and pledged additional funds to endow the Center." According to a press release from Saban's charitable foundation, Saban "donated $ 13 million for the establishment of the Saban Center for Middle East Policy at the Brookings Institution." Saban, according to the center, ascribed his involvement to his "abiding interest in promoting Arab-Israeli peace and preserving American interests in

5060-436: The central business district has increased demand for living in urban areas according to Ley (1980) . Critical geographers have argued that capital flows and developers have been instrumental in causing gentrification. The de-industrialization of cities in developed nations may have caused displacement by reducing the number of blue-collar jobs available to the urban working class and middle-class. Some have argued that

5152-417: The changed perception of the central city that is encouraged by gentrification can be healthy for resource-deprived communities who have previously been largely ignored. Gentrifiers provide the political effectiveness needed to draw more government funding towards physical and social area improvements, while improving the overall quality of life by providing a larger tax base. Communities have strong ties to

5244-419: The changing norms that accompany gentrification translate to a changing social hierarchy. The process of gentrification mixes people of different socioeconomic strata, thereby congregating a variety of expectations and social norms. The change gentrification brings in class distinction also has been shown to contribute to residential polarization by income, education, household composition, and race. It conveys

5336-571: The children who were already living in the neighborhood. The plausible mechanism for this effect is that incumbent students were exposed to more high-ability students. In Chicago, among neighborhood public schools located in areas that did undergo gentrification, one study found that schools experience no aggregate academic benefit from the socioeconomic changes occurring around them, despite improvements in other public services such street repair, sanitation, policing, and firefighting. The lack of gentrification-related benefits to schools may be related to

5428-435: The counterculture movement in the 1960s created disdain for the "standardization of look-alike suburbs", prompting people to live in urban areas. Others argue that a desire to live near cultural attractions prompts gentrification. According to a 2020 systematic review of existing research, gentrification in the United States has led to a short-term reduction in crime in gentrifying neighborhoods. However, it noted that there

5520-501: The decline of distinctive local businesses and the rise of chains and franchises. Rehabilitation movements have been largely successful at restoring the plentiful supply of old and deteriorated housing that is readily available in inner cities. This rehabilitation can be seen as a superior alternative to expansion, for the location of the central city offers an intact infrastructure that should be taken advantage of: streets, public transportation, and other urban facilities. Furthermore,

5612-417: The demand has grown. Additionally, Darren P. Smith finds through his research that college-educated workers moving into the urban areas causes them to settle there and raise children, which eventually contributes to the cost of education in regards to the migration between urban and suburban places. Women increasingly obtaining higher education as well as higher paying jobs has increased their participation in

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5704-655: The documents told the paper that the language of the transactions "appeared to necessitate Brookings filing as a foreign agent" under the Foreign Agent Registration Act . The government of Qatar was named by The New York Times as "the single biggest foreign donor to Brookings", reportedly contributing $ 14.8 million over a four-year period. A former visiting fellow at a Brookings affiliate in Qatar reportedly said that "he had been told during his job interview that he could not take positions critical of

5796-490: The efficiency of commodities parents need by minimizing time constraints among multiple jobs, childcare, and markets. Phillip Clay's two-stage model of gentrification places artists as prototypical stage one or "marginal" gentrifiers. The National Endowment for the Arts did a study that linked the proportion of employed artists to the rate of inner city gentrification across a number of U.S. cities. Artists will typically accept

5888-686: The establishment of the Brookings-Tsinghua Center in Beijing. In July 2007, Brookings announced the creation of the Engelberg Center for Health Care Reform to be directed by senior fellow Mark McClellan , and in October 2007 the creation of the Brookings Doha Center directed by fellow Hady Amr in Qatar . During this period the funding of Brookings by foreign governments and corporations came under public scrutiny (see Funding controversies below). In 2011, Talbott inaugurated

5980-506: The finding that white gentrifiers often do not enroll their children in local neighborhood public schools. Programs and policies designed to attract gentrifying families to historically disinvested schools may have unintended negative consequences, including an unbalanced landscape of influence wherein the voices and priorities of more affluent parents are privileged over those of lower-income families. In addition, rising enrollment of higher-income families in neighborhood schools can result in

6072-464: The gentrification process, the "marginal gentrifiers" as referred to by Tim Butler, is that they become marginalized by the expansion of the process. Research shows how one reason wealthy, upper-class individuals and families hold some responsibility in the causation of gentrification is due to their social mobility. Wealthier families were more likely to have more financial freedom to move into urban areas, oftentimes choosing to do so for their work. At

6164-488: The gentry or the government. Clashes that result in increased police surveillance, for example, would more adversely affect young minorities who are also more likely to be the original residents of the area. There is also evidence to support that gentrification can strengthen and stabilize when there is a consensus about a community's objectives. Gentrifiers with an organized presence in deteriorated neighborhoods can demand and receive better resources. A characteristic example

6256-467: The history and culture of their neighborhood, and causing its dispersal can have detrimental costs. The economic changes that occur as a community goes through gentrification are often favorable for local governments. Affluent gentrifiers expand the local tax base as well as support local shops and businesses, a large part of why the process is frequently alluded to in urban policies. The decrease in vacancy rates and increase in property value that accompany

6348-531: The idea of a two-state settlement between Israel and the Palestinians. But Saban Center publications never question US support for Israel and rarely, if ever, offer significant criticism of key Israeli policies." Some Saban Center fellows have responded by criticizing the authors' scholarship and expansive definition of "Israel lobby." Martin Indyk stated that their "notion of a loosely aligned group of people that all happen to be working assiduously for Israel

6440-498: The ideological direction of the nation" and rather tend "to be staffed by researchers with strong academic credentials". Along with the Council on Foreign Relations and Carnegie Endowment for International Peace , Brookings is generally considered one of the most influential policy institutes in the U.S. As a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, Brookings describes itself as independent and nonpartisan. A 2005 UCLA study concluded it

6532-550: The impact of some recent studies and that displacement that arises is minimal, or caused by other factors. Some scholars have disputed these assertions, arguing that such studies distort facts and used limited datasets. In 2002, economist Jacob Vigdor wrote, "Overall, existing literature has failed to convincingly demonstrate that rates of involuntary displacement are higher in gentrifying neighborhoods." A 2018 study found evidence that gentrification displaces renters, but not homeowners. The displacement of low-income rental residents

6624-492: The inner-city lifestyle is important for women with children where the father does not care equally for the child, because of the proximity to professional childcare. This attracts single parents, specifically single mothers, to the inner-city as opposed to suburban areas where resources are more geographically spread out. This is often deemed as "marginal gentrification", for the city can offer an easier solution to combining paid and unpaid labor. Inner city concentration increases

6716-455: The integration of regional knowledge. P. W. Singer , author of Wired for War , serves as Director of the 21st Century Defense Initiative, and Michael O'Hanlon serves as Director of Research. Senior Fellow Stephen P. Cohen and Vanda Felbab-Brown are also affiliated with 21CDI. Under MacLaury's leadership in the 1980s, the Center for Public Policy Education (CPPE) was formed to develop workshop conferences and public forums to broaden

6808-411: The investment risk in the housing market. Often they are single people or young couples without children who lack demand for good schools. Gentrifiers are likely searching for inexpensive housing close to the workplace and often already reside in the inner city, sometimes for educational reasons, and do not want to make the move to suburbia. For this demographic, gentrification is not so much the result of

6900-432: The labor force, translating to an expansion of women who have greater opportunities to invest. Smith suggests this group "represents a reservoir of potential gentrifiers." The increasing number of highly educated women play into this theory, given that residence in the inner city can give women access to the well-paying jobs and networking, something that is becoming increasingly common. There are also theories that suggest

6992-533: The national level." The organization was founded on 13 March 1916 and began operations on 1 October 1916. Its stated mission is to "provide innovative and practical recommendations that advance three broad goals: strengthen American democracy; foster the economic and social welfare, security, and opportunity of all Americans; and secure a more open, safe, prosperous, and cooperative international system." The Institution's founder, philanthropist Robert S. Brookings (1850–1932), originally created three organizations:

7084-604: The organization. The books and journals it publishes include Brookings Papers on Economic Activity , Brookings Review (1982–2003, ISSN   0745-1253 ), America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy , Globalphobia: Confronting Fears about Open Trade , India: Emerging Power , Through Their Eyes , Taking the High Road , Masses in Flight , US Public Policy Regarding Sovereign Wealth Fund Investment in

7176-814: The political and cultural displacement of long-term residents in school decision-making processes and the loss of Title I funding. Notably, the expansion of school choice (e.g., charter schools, magnet schools, open enrollment policies) have been found to significantly increase the likelihood that college-educated white households gentrify low-income communities of color. A culmination of recent research suggests that gentrification has both detrimental and beneficial effects on health. A 2020 review found that studies tended to show adverse health impacts for Black residents and elderly residents in areas undergoing gentrification. A 2019 study in New York, found that gentrification has no impact on rates of asthma or obesity among low-income children. Growing up in gentrifying neighborhoods

7268-421: The process and its positive effects, such as lessening the strain on public resources that are associated with de-concentrating poverty. However, more specific research has shown that gentrification does not necessarily correlate with "social mixing", and that the effects of the new composition of a gentrified neighborhood can both weaken as well as strengthen community cohesion. Housing confers social status, and

7360-619: The process can work to stabilize a previously struggling community, restoring interest in inner-city life as a residential option alongside the suburbs. These changes can create positive feedback as well, encouraging other forms of development of the area that promote general economic growth. Home ownership is a significant variable when it comes to economic impacts of gentrification. People who own their homes are much more able to gain financial benefits of gentrification than those who rent their houses and can be displaced without much compensation. Economic pressure and market price changes relate to

7452-413: The risks of rehabilitating deteriorated property, as well as having the time, skill, and ability to carry out these extensive renovations. David Ley states that the artist's critique of everyday life and search for meaning and renewal are what make them early recruits for gentrification. The identity that residence in the inner city provides is important for the gentrifier, and this is particularly so in

7544-427: The same article discussed threats to its institutional credibility via troubling donor relationships. Brookings states that its staff "represent diverse points of view" and describes itself as nonpartisan. Media outlets have variously described Brookings as centrist , conservative , liberal , center-right , and center-left . An academic analysis of congressional records from 1993 to 2002 found that Brookings

7636-401: The same independence of thinking and objective, fact-based analysis about Qatar as on every other topic of our research. Our agreements with Qatar specifically protect the independence of our scholarship in all respects." Smith thanked the think tank for its response, but said it did "not satisfactorily address the key issues [his] article raises." In 2006, the Brookings Institution established

7728-515: The same time, in these urban areas the lower-income population is decreasing due to an increase in the elderly population as well as demographic change. Jackelyn Hwang and Jeffrey Lin have supported in their research that another reason for the influx of upper-class individuals to urban areas is due to the "increase in demand for college-educated workers". It is because of this demand that wealthier individuals with college degrees needed to move into urban cities for work, increasing prices in housing as

7820-403: The speed of gentrification. English-speaking countries have a higher number of property owners and a higher mobility. German speaking countries provide a higher share of rented property and have a much stronger role of municipalities, cooperatives, guilds and unions offering low-price-housing. The effect is a lower speed of gentrification and a broader social mix. Gerhard Hard sees gentrification as

7912-454: The strengths of cities and metropolitan areas; and the Center for Northeast Asian Policy Studies, which brings together specialists from different Asian countries to examine regional problems. In 2002, Strobe Talbott became president of Brookings. Shortly thereafter, Brookings launched the Saban Center for Middle East Policy and the John L. Thornton China Center. In 2006, Brookings announced

8004-413: The urban area then it was considered to have been gentrified. The method measures the rate of gentrification, not the degree of gentrification; thus, San Francisco , which has a history of gentrification dating to the 1970s, show a decreasing rate between 1990 and 2010. Scholars have also identified census indicators that can be used to reveal that gentrification is taking place in a given area, including

8096-518: The world. Moreover, in spite of an overall decline in the number of times information or opinions developed by think tanks are cited by U.S. media, of the 200 most prominent think tanks in the U.S., the Brookings Institution's research remains the most frequently cited. In a 1997 survey of congressional staff and journalists, Brookings ranked as the most influential and first in credibility among 27 think tanks considered. Yet "Brookings and its researchers are not so concerned, in their work, in affecting

8188-409: Was London , and its working-class districts such as Islington : One by one, many of the working class neighbourhoods of London have been invaded by the middle-classes—upper and lower. Shabby, modest mews and cottages—two rooms up and two down—have been taken over, when their leases have expired, and have become elegant, expensive residences ... Once this process of 'gentrification' starts in

8280-521: Was "centrist" because it was referenced as an authority almost equally by both conservative and liberal politicians in congressional records from 1993 to 2002. The New York Times has called Brookings liberal, liberal-centrist, and centrist. The Washington Post has called Brookings centrist, liberal, and center-left. The Los Angeles Times called Brookings liberal-leaning and centrist before opining that it did not believe such labels mattered. In 1977, Time magazine called Brookings

8372-432: Was associated with moderate increases in being diagnosed with anxiety or depression between ages 9–11 relative to similar children raised in non-gentrifying areas. The effects of gentrification on mental health were most prominent for children living in market-rate (rather than subsidized) housing, which lead the authors of the study to suggest financial stress as a possible mechanism. Preventing or mitigating gentrification

8464-459: Was cited by conservative politicians almost as often as by liberal politicians, earning a score of 53 on a 1–100 scale, with 100 representing the most liberal score. The same study found Brookings to be the most frequently cited think tank by U.S. media and politicians. Brookings was founded in 1916 as the Institute for Government Research (IGR), with the mission of becoming "the first private organization devoted to analyzing public policy issues at

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