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113-683: The term Nuba should not be confused with the Nubians , an unrelated ethnic group speaking the Nubian languages living in northern Sudan and southern Egypt, although the Hill Nubians , who live in the Nuba Mountains, are also considered part of the Nubian people. The Nuba people reside in the foothills of the Nuba Mountains. Villages consist of family compounds. A family compound consists of

226-561: A "red" population and a "black" population. Although Egypt and Nubia have a shared pre-dynastic and pharaonic history, the two histories diverge with the fall of Ancient Egypt and the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. At this point, the area of land between the 1st and the 6th cataract of the Nile became known as Nubia. Egypt was conquered first by the Persians and named

339-516: A change in their west Eurasian ancestry from that found in the ancient samples. Sudan People%27s Liberation Army (SPLM) The South Sudan People's Defence Forces ( SSPDF ), formerly the Sudan People's Liberation Army ( SPLA ), is the military force of the Republic of South Sudan . The SPLA was founded as a guerrilla movement against the government of Sudan in 1983 and was

452-800: A common identity, which has been celebrated in poetry, novels, music, and storytelling. Nubians in modern Sudan include the Danagla around Dongola Reach, the Mahas from the Third Cataract to Wadi Halfa, and the Sikurta around Aswan. These Nubians write using their own script. They also practice scarification : Mahas men and women have three scars on each cheek, while the Danaqla wear these scars on their temples. Younger generations appear to be abandoning this custom. Nubia's ancient cultural development

565-622: A few villages in the northern Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan state. The main Nile Nubian groups from north to south are the Kenzi ( Kenzi/Mattokki-speaking ), Faddicca ( Nobiin-speaking ), Halfawi ( Nobiin-speaking ), Sukkot ( Nobiin-speaking ), Mahas ( Nobiin-speaking ), and Danagla ( Andaandi-speaking ). Throughout history various parts of Nubia were known by different names, including Ancient Egyptian : tꜣ stj "Land of

678-752: A key participant of the Second Sudanese Civil War , led by John Garang . After Garang's death in 2005, Salva Kiir was named the SPLA's new Commander-in-Chief. As of 2010, the SPLA was divided into divisions of 10,000–14,000 soldiers. Following the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2005, the last remaining large and well-equipped militia, the South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF), under General Paulino Matiep , signed an agreement with Kiir known as

791-705: A militia called South Sudan Defense Forces (SSDF) emerged and aligned with the Government of Sudan". The negotiations stalled over disagreement among the parties about power sharing, future security arrangements and whether Riak Machar could return from exile to political life in South Sudan. In early May 2018, a two-day meeting of the Parties to the Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of

904-538: A place of refuge, bringing together people of many different tongues and backgrounds who were fleeing oppressive governments and slave traders. The Nuba Mountains mark the southern border of the sands of the desert and the northern limit of good soils washed down by the Nile River. Many Nuba, however, have migrated to the Sudanese capital of Khartoum to escape persecution and the effects of Sudan's civil war. Most of

1017-522: A point to discuss how the SPLA needed to be reorganized. He stated that the SPLA was top heavy, carrying nearly 550 general officers and providing more than 200 security guards for each minister." The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement stipulated that the SPLA in northern Sudan were to move south of the 1956 North-South boundary during the interim period, excepting those part of the Joint Integrated Units , composed of equal numbers from

1130-398: A rectangular compound enclosing two round mud huts thatched with sorghum stalks facing each other called a shal . The shal is fenced with wooden posts interwoven with straw. Two benches run down the each side of the shal with a fire in the middle where families will tell stories and oral traditions. Around the shal is the much larger yard, the tog placed in front. The fence of the tog

1243-626: A restructure of the army and change of name to the South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF). A cessation of hostilities agreement was reached in December 2017, but never really took effect. In August 2017, Kiir announced that the new name for the army would be the South Sudan People's Defence Forces (SSPDF) "by the need to represent the will of the people". He said that there was a need to reorganise and professionalise

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1356-494: A sarong over their legs and sometimes a cloak tie on the shoulder. Both sexes practice scarification and circumcision for boys and female genital mutilation for girls. Some men shave their heads, older Muslim men wear skull caps and grow beards, women and girls braid their hair in strands and string it with beads. The majority of the Nuba living in the east, west and northern parts of the mountains are Muslims, while those living to

1469-684: A similar inventory to Kush, placing this firmly in an Eastern Sudanic zone. These Irem/Kush-lists are distinctive from the Wawat-, Medjay-, Punt-, and Wetenet-lists, which provide sounds typical to Afroasiatic languages." It is also uncertain to which language family the ancient Meroitic language is related. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the Egyptian language , belongs to the Afroasiatic family. She bases this on its sound inventory and phonotactics , which, she argues, are similar to those of

1582-412: A small genetic distance. These findings in addition to multiple cross cemetery relatives that the analyses have revealed indicate that people of both the R and S cemeteries were part of the same population despite the archaeological and anthropological differences between the two burials showing social stratification. The study found some difference in Y haplogroups profiles between the two cemeteries with

1695-754: A two-day training organised by the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) in Kuajok , Gogrial. UNMISS has been in the country since 2011, aiming to consolidate peace and achieve security to allow economic growth and political stability. They were deploying more than 19,000 personnel in the country as of September 2019. The SPLA was commanded by the Chief of General Staff] (COGS). Deputy Chief of Staff (Logistics) James Hoth Mai replaced Oyay Deng Ajak as Chief of General Staff in May 2009. James Hoth Mai

1808-603: A united and secular Sudan). Kong Coul joined the rebellion. The 'SPLA-Nasir' was joined by the SPLA forces in Ayod , Waat , Adok , Abwong , Ler and Akobo. A period of chaos reigned inside the SPLA, as it was not clear which units sided with Garang and which with the SPLA-Nasir. Garang issued a statement through the SPLA radio communications system, denouncing the coup. Nine out of eleven (excluding himself) SPLA PMHC members sided with Garang. The mainstream SPLA led by Garang

1921-453: Is an example of Nubian Greek language: ⲟⲩⲧⲟⲥ ⲉⲥⲧⲓⲛ ⲁⲇⲁⲩⲉⲗ ⲃⲁⲥⲓⲗⲉⲩ ⲙⲱⲥⲉⲥ ⲅⲉⲱⲣⲅⲓⲟⲩ, ⲃⲁⲥⲓⲗⲉⲩ ⲛⲟⲩⲃⲇⲏⲥ, ⲁⲣⲟⲩⲁ, ⲙⲁⲕⲣⲟ Οὗτός ἐστιν ἀδαύελ Βασιλεύ Μώσες Γεωργίου, Βασιλεύ Νουβδῆς, Ἀρουά, Μακρό This is the great King Moses Georgios, the King of Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria A plethora of frescoes created between 800–1200   AD in Nubian cities such as Faras depicted religious life in the courts of

2034-662: Is categorized according to the following periods: A-Group culture (3700–2800 BC), C-Group culture (2300–1600 BC), Kerma culture (2500–1500 BC), Nubian contemporaries of the New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC), the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (1000–653 BC), Napata (1000–275 BC), Meroë (275 BC–300/350 AD), Makuria (340–1317 AD), Nobatia (350–650 AD), and Alodia (600s–1504 AD). Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as

2147-677: Is interpreted to suggest that the C-Group and Kerma populations, who inhabited the Nile Valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers, spoke Afroasiatic languages. Claude Rilly (2010, 2016) and Julien Cooper (2017) on the other hand, suggest that the Kerma peoples (of Upper Nubia) spoke Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudanic branch, possibly ancestral to the later Meroitic language , which Rilly also suggests

2260-431: Is made of strong tree branches as high as the roof of the huts. Small livestock like goats and chickens and donkeys are kept in the tog. Each compound has tall conical granaries called durs which stand on one side of the tog . At the back of the compound is a small yard where maize and vegetables like pumpkin, beans and peanuts are grown. The Nuba people speak various languages not closely related to each other. Most of

2373-592: Is often decorated with symbols connected with the family inside, or popular motifs such as geometric patterns, palm trees, or the evil eye that wards away bad luck. Nubians invented the Nubian vault , a type of curved surface forming a vaulted structure. Autosomal DNA has been extensively studied in recent years, and some of the findings are as follows: 2008 results of an analysis by Hisham Y. Hassan of modern Sudanese entitled Chromosome Variation Among Sudanese: Restricted Gene Flow, Concordance With Language, Geography, and History included 39 Nubians found to be of

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2486-522: Is the Sudan we dream of. One that respects diversity and enables all Sudanese citizens to practice their faith in a safe and dignified environment." In the Middle Ages , the Nuba Mountains were part of the kingdom of Alodia . The Nuba people reside in one of the most remote and inaccessible places in all of Sudan, the foothills of the Nuba Mountains in central Sudan. At one time the area was considered

2599-547: The 1989 Sudanese coup d'état . In September 1989, the ruling Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation (RCC) invited different sectors to a 'National Dialogue Conference', but the SPLA refused to attend. The SPLA launched a major offensive between 1989 and the fall of the Ethiopian Derg government in 1991. It captured various towns, such as Bor , Waat , Maridi , Mundri , Yambio , Kaya , Kajo Keji , Nimule , Kapoeta , Torit , Akobo and Nasir . By

2712-534: The 5th century ; the Nubian Greek language resembles Egyptian and Byzantine Greek ; it served as a lingua franca throughout the Nubian Kingdoms, and had a creolized form for trade among the different peoples in Nubia. Nubian Greek was unique in that it adopted many words from both Coptic Egyptian and Nubian ; Nubian Greek's syntax also evolved to establish a fixed word order. The following

2825-679: The Beja , Afar , and Saho managed to remain autonomous due to their uncentralized nomadic nature. These tribal peoples would sporadically inflict attacks and raids on Axumite communities. The Beja nomads eventually Hellenized and integrated into the Nubian Greek society that had already been present in Lower Nubia for three centuries. Nubian Greek culture followed the pattern of Egyptian Greek and Byzantine Greek civilization, expressed in Nubian Greek art and Nubian Greek literature. The earliest attestations of Nubian Greek literature come from

2938-639: The Derg government in Ethiopia in May 1991 proved to be a major setback. The Ethiopian government had provided the SPLA with military supplies, training facilities and a safe haven for bases for 18 years. Soon after the change of government in Ethiopia, the SPLA accompanied hundreds of thousands of refugees back into Sudan. A split in the SPLA had simmered since late 1990, as Lam Akol and Riek Machar began to question Garang's leadership. Akol began secretly contacting SPLA officers to join his side, especially among

3051-569: The Eastern Sudanic branch and that the peoples of the C-Group culture to their north spoke Cushitic languages. They were succeeded by the first Nubian language speakers, whose tongues belonged to another branch of Eastern Sudanic languages within the Nilo-Saharan phylum. A 4th-century AD victory stela commemorative of Axumite king Ezana contains inscriptions describing two distinct population groups dwelling in ancient Nubia:

3164-526: The Juba Declaration , which amalgamated the two forces under the SPLA banner. Following South Sudan's independence in 2011, Kiir became President and the SPLA became the new republic's regular army. In May 2017 there was a restructure and the SPLA took on the name of South Sudan Defence Forces ( SSDF ), with another change in September 2018 to South Sudan People's Defence Forces. As of 2018 ,

3277-585: The Nuer and Shilluk peoples . The situation deteriorated after the fall of the Derg. As the Derg regime crumbled, Akol published a document titled Why Garang Must Go Now . The split was made public on August 28, 1991, in what became known as the Nasir Declaration . The dissidents called for democratization of SPLA, a stop to human rights abuses, and an independent southern Sudan (Garang's goal of creating

3390-670: The Satrapy (Province) of Mudriya, and two centuries later by the Greeks and then the Romans. During the latter period, however, the Kushites formed the kingdom of Meroë , which was ruled by a series of legendary Candaces or Queens. Mythically, the Candace of Meroë was able to intimidate Alexander the Great into retreat with a great army of elephants, while historical documents suggest that

3503-468: The United States . In 2005, Garang restructured the top leadership of the SPLA, with a Chief of General Staff, Lt. Gen. Oyay Deng Ajak , and four Deputy Chiefs of General Staff: Maj. Gen. Salva Mathok Gengdit (Administration), Maj. Gen. Bior Ajang Aswad (Operations), Maj. Gen. James Hoth Mai (Logistics) and Maj. Gen. Obuto Mamur Mete (Political and Moral Orientation). The initial organisation of

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3616-672: The 5th Division. In 2007, the SPLM/A established a Ministry of Defence. Gen. Dominic Dim Deng , an SPLA veteran, was chosen as the first Minister for SPLA Affairs and the first political officer of the SPLA. Dim died in a plane crash in 2008 alongside his wife, Josephine Apieu Jenaro Aken , and other SPLA officers. He is buried alongside his wife at the SPLA headquarters in Bilpham, Juba. Deputy Chief of Staff (Logistics) James Hoth Mai replaced Oyay Deng Ajak as Chief of General Staff in May 2009. In 2010 U.S. diplomats reported that Samora "made

3729-479: The Afroasiatic family. Nubia consisted of four regions with varied agriculture and landscapes. The Nile river and its valley were found in the north and central parts of Nubia, allowing farming using irrigation. The western Sudan had a mixture of peasant agriculture and nomadism. Eastern Sudan had primarily nomadism, with a few areas of irrigation and agriculture. Finally, there was the fertile pastoral region of

3842-459: The Afroasiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages. Claude Rilly proposes, based on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary, that Meroitic, like the Nobiin language, belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan family. The Axumite Empire of Ethiopia engaged in a series of invasions that culminated in the capture of the Nubian capital of Meroë in

3955-531: The Baqt required Nubians to maintain a mosque for Muslim visitors and residents. This, and with the following Ottoman occupation of Lower Nubia in the 1560s, led to the kingdom and Christian Nubian society to disappear. The former Makurian territories south of the 3rd cataract, including the former capital Dongola, had been annexed by the Islamic Funj Sultanate by the early 16th century. Over time,

4068-527: The Bow", tꜣ nḥsj , jꜣm " Kerma ", jrṯt , sṯjw , wꜣwꜣt , Meroitic : akin(e) "Lower "Nubia", and Greek Aethiopia . The origin of the names Nubia and Nubian are contested. Based on cultural traits, some scholars believe Nubia is derived from the Ancient Egyptian : nbw "gold", although there is no such usage of the term as an ethnonym or toponym that can be found in known Egyptian texts;

4181-683: The Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS) started in Addis Ababa . The parties were to take stock of the progress so far of the R-ARCSS, the pending tasks, and debate the way forward. The army was officially renamed South Sudan People's Defence Forces in September 2018 by a Republican order read on the state-owned TV channel SSBC known as South Sudan Broadcasting Services ,the national television in South Sudan. The renaming occurred ten days before implementation of new security arrangements, which include

4294-674: The Delta cultures, where the direct Western Asian contact was made, [which] further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument". In 2023, Christopher Ehret reported that the existing archaeological , linguistic , biological anthropological and genetic evidence had determined the founding populations of Ancient Egyptin areas such as Naqada and El-Badari to be the descendants of longtime inhabitants in Northeastern Africa which included Egypt, Nubia and

4407-510: The Egyptian pharaohs were. Nubian pyramids were built at Gebel Barkal, at Nuri (across the Nile from Gebel Barkal), at El Kerru, and at Meroe , south of Gebel Barkal. Modern Nubian architecture in Sudan is distinctive, and typically features a large courtyard surrounded by a high wall. A large, ornately decorated gate, preferably facing the Nile, dominates the property. Brightly colored stucco

4520-530: The Egyptians referred to people from this area as the nḥsj.w . The Roman Empire used the term "Nubia" to describe the area of Upper Egypt and northern Sudan The prehistory of Nubia dates to the Paleolithic around 300,000 years ago. By about 6000 BC, peoples in the region had developed an agricultural economy. In their history, they adopted the Egyptian hieroglyphic system. Ancient history in Nubia

4633-548: The Ethiopian border. It was 450 miles from the capital, but the nearby dam provided most of Khartoum's electricity.' The SPLA boycotted the 1986 Sudanese parliamentary election . In half of the constituencies of southern Sudan elections could not be held due to the SPLA boycott. On November 15, 1988, the SPLA entered into an alliance with the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). The two groups agreed on

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4746-599: The Late Pleistocene era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation. Several scholars have argued that the African origins of the Egyptian civilisation derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of

4859-685: The Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE. Various biological anthropological studies have shown close, biological affinities between the predynastic southern, Egyptian and the early Nubian populations. Frank Yurco (1996) remarked that depictions of pharonic iconography such as the royal crowns, Horus falcons and victory scenes were concentrated in the Upper Egyptian Naqada culture and A-Group Lower Nubia . He further elaborated that "Egyptian writing arose in Naqadan Upper Egypt and A-Group Lower Nubia, and not in

4972-513: The Nile, flooding ancestral lands. Most Nubians nowadays work in Egyptian and Sudanese cities. Whereas Arabic was once only learned by Nubian men who travelled for work, it is increasingly being learned by Nubian women who have access to school, radio and television. Nubian women are working outside the home in increasing numbers. During the Yom Kippur War of 1973, Egypt employed Nubian people as Code talkers . Nubians have developed

5085-422: The Nuba Mountains (South Kordofan) and Raja (Western Bahr el Ghazal). Probably more important than the reorganisation was the Juba Declaration , signed by Salva Kiir and General Paulino Matiep on 8 January 2006. Matiep commanded the South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF), the largest and best-equipped militia (about 50,000 men) that remained beyond the SPLA's control. Paulino was appointed Deputy Commander-in-chief,

5198-404: The Nuba people is their passion for athletic competition, particularly traditional wrestling . The strongest young men of a community compete with athletes from other villages for the chance to promote their personal and their village's pride and strength. In some villages, older men participate in club- or spear-fighting contests. The Nubas’ passion for physical excellence is also displayed through

5311-529: The Nuba people speak one of the many languages in the geographic Kordofanian languages group of the Nuba Mountains . This language group is primarily in the major Niger–Congo language family . Several Nuba languages are in the Nilo-Saharan language family . Over one hundred languages are spoken in the area and are considered Nuba languages, although many of the Nuba also speak Sudanese Arabic ,

5424-433: The Nuba peoples was renewed again in the region in 2011 in South Kordofan and Blue Nile . Nubians Nubians ( / ˈ n uː b i ən z , ˈ n j uː -/ ) ( Nobiin : Nobī, Arabic : النوبيون ) are a Nilo-Saharan speaking ethnic group indigenous to the region which is now northern Sudan and southern Egypt . They originate from the early inhabitants of the central Nile valley, believed to be one of

5537-404: The Nubian Kingdoms; they were made in Byzantine art style. Nubian Greek titles and government styles in Nubian Kingdoms were based on Byzantine models; even with Islamic encroachments and influence into Nubian territory, the Nubian Greeks saw Constantinople as their spiritual home. Nubian Greek culture disappeared after the Muslim conquest of Nubia around 1450   AD. The descendants of

5650-474: The Nubians defeated the Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar , resulting in a favorable peace treaty for Meroë. The kingdom of Meroë also defeated the Persians, and later Christian Nubia defeated the invading Arab armies on three different occasions resulting in the 600 year peace treaty of Baqt , the longest lasting treaty in history. The fall of the kingdom of Christian Nubia occurred in the early 1500s resulting in full Islamization and reunification with Egypt under

5763-401: The Nubians gradually converted to Islam, beginning with the Nubian elite. Islam was mainly spread via Sufi preachers that settled in Nubia in the late 14th century onwards. By the sixteenth century, most of the Nubians were Muslim. Ancient Nepata was an important religious centre in Nubia. It was the location of Gebel Barkal , a massive sandstone hill resembling a rearing cobra in the eyes of

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5876-443: The Ottoman Empire, the Muhammad Ali dynasty, and British colonial rule. After the 1956 independence of Sudan from Egypt, Nubia and the Nubian people became divided between Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan. Modern Nubians speak Nubian languages , Eastern Sudanic languages that is part of the Nilo-Saharan family . The Old Nubian language is attested from the 8th century AD, and is the oldest recorded language of Africa outside of

5989-406: The Popular Defense Force (PDF), on several Nuba villages were meant to be in retaliation for this drop in support, which was seen as signaling increased support of the SPLA . The PDF attacks were particularly violent, and have been cited as examples of crimes against humanity that took place during the Second Sudanese Civil War During the military dictatorship of Omar al-Bashir , Nuba people in

6102-643: The R cemetery individuals were of a higher social class than the cemetery S individuals. The study analyzed the data they obtained along with other published ancient and modern samples from Africa and West Eurasia. The genetic profile of the sampled Christian-era Nubians was found to be a mixture between West Eurasian and Sub Saharan Dinka -related ancestries. The samples were estimated to have approximately 60% West Eurasian related ancestry that likely came from ancient Egyptians but ultimately resembles that found in Bronze or Iron Age Levantines. They also carried approximately 40% Dinka-related ancestry. The study commented that

6215-510: The S cemetery having more west Asian clades. the difference was found to be insignificant, and the study viewed it as likely to be a statistical fluctuation and not evidence of heterogeneity among males from the two cemeteries. Regarding modern Nubians, despite their superficial resemblance to the Kulubnarti Nubians on the PCA, they were not found to be descended from Kulubnarti Nubians without additional later admixtures. modern Nubians were found to have an increase in Sub-Saharan ancestry along with

6328-422: The SAF attempted to forcefully disarm Nuba SPLA soldiers, and fighting began in Southern Kordofan. After the fighting began, former SPLA 9th and 10th Division fighters proclaimed themselves the Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North (SPLA-N), under Malik Agar as Chairman and Commander-in-Chief. The Government of Southern Sudan named the SPLA General Headquarters outside Juba 'Bilpam'. The headquarters staff

6441-454: The SPLA and the Sudanese Armed Forces . Officially, this move did take place, in 2008, with the 10th Division relocating its headquarters to Guffa, five kilometers south of the Blue Nile-Upper Nile border, and most of its troops to al-Fuj, Yafta and Marinja on the southern side. But more than 1,600 fighters remained north of the line. In early June 2011, following the lack of progress on popular consultations in Southern Kordofan & Blue Nile,

6554-443: The SPLA in late October 2015. A Shilluk militia, it aimed to reverse the division of South Sudan into 28 (later 32) states in order to restore the territory of the Shilluk Kingdom to its 1956 borders. Led by Yoanis Okiech, the TFNF started an insurgency against the SPLM government. In 2016, however, it also came into conflict with the SPLM-IO rebels, leading to Okiech's death and the group's destruction in January 2017. Over

6667-541: The SPLA, based on divisions, was assembled in mid-2005 but not actually put into practice in the field until 2006. It was based on six divisions (in Upper Nile State; 2nd Division : Equatorias; 3rd Division : Northern Bahr el Ghazal and Warrap states; 4th Division Unity State ; the 5th Division in Lakes State , the 6th Division, SPLA personnel in the Joint Integrated Units ) and four independent brigades. The four independent brigades grouped SPLA forces in Bor (Khoriom, 104, and 105 Battalions mainly), Southern Blue Nile,

6780-469: The South Sudanese government described as a coup d'état . President Kiir announced that the attempt had been put down the next day, but fighting resumed 16 December. Military spokesman Colonel Philip Aguer said that some military installations had been attacked by armed soldiers but that "the army is in full control of Juba." He added that an investigation was under way. Eventually the Sudan People's Liberation Movement split into two main factions, divided on

6893-412: The Sudanese government for its support of Eritrean rebels . The SPLA struggled for a united and secular Sudanese state. Garang said the struggle of the South Sudanese was the same as that of marginalised groups in the north, such as the Nuba and Fur peoples . Until 1985, the SPLA directed its public denouncements of the Sudanese government specifically at Sudanese President, Gaafar Nimeiry . During

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7006-402: The ancient Nubians still inhabit the general area of what was ancient Nubia . They currently live in what is called Old Nubia, mainly located in modern Egypt and Sudan. Nubians have been resettled in large numbers (an estimated 50,000 people) away from Wadi Halfa North Sudan in to Khashm el Girba – Sudan and some moved to Southern Egypt since the 1960s, when the Aswan High Dam was built on

7119-583: The ancient Nubians were famous for their skill and precision with the bow and arrow . In the Middle Ages , the Nubians converted to Christianity and established three kingdoms: Nobatia in the north, Makuria in the center, and Alodia in the south. They then converted to Islam during the Islamization of the Sudan region . Today, Nubians in Egypt primarily live in southern Egypt , especially in Kom Ombo and Nasr al-Nuba ( Arabic : نصر النوبة ) north of Aswan , and large cities such as Cairo , while Sudanese Nubians live in northern Sudan, particularly in

7232-417: The ancient inhabitants. Egyptian priests declared it to be the home of the ancient deity Amun , further enhancing Nepata as an ancient religious site. This was the case for both Egyptians and Nubians. Egyptian and Nubian deities alike were worshipped in Nubia for 2,500 years, even while Nubia was under the control of the New Kingdom of Egypt. Nubian kings and queens were buried near Gebel Barkal, in pyramids as

7345-426: The ancient peoples of the C-Group and Kerma civilizations spoke Afroasiatic languages of the Berber and Cushitic branches, respectively. They propose that the Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key pastoralism related loanwords that are of Berber or proto-Highland East Cushitic origin, including the terms for sheep/goatskin, hen/cock, livestock enclosure, butter and milk. This in turn,

7458-478: The army was estimated to have 185,000 soldiers as well as an unknown number of personnel in the small South Sudan Air Force . As of 2019 , the SSPDF comprised the Ground Force, Air Force, Air Defence Forces and Presidential Guard. On 16 May 1983 105 Battalion launched a mutiny in Malual-Chaat barrack, Bor against the Sudanese army which later inspired a number of mutinies in the southern region including those at Ayod , Pochalla , and Pibor . These mutinies led to

7571-409: The army. According to Professor Joel Isabirye, the change of name would shift the discourse from the era of liberation, which had now concluded, to one of national defence, which is ongoing – with the focus on defending the country against external aggression. The insertion of "People’s" into the name "could be to avoid being dragged back into history when during the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005)

7684-412: The base camp located in Kauda . At that time, al-Hillu was the governor of the Nuba Mountains. During the course of the following months, relief supplies from the UN were airdropped to stem the starvation of many in the mountains. The ceasefire in Nuba Mountains was the foundation for the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) signed in January 2005. This fragile peace remains in force, but infighting in

7797-514: The capital Khartoum were repeatedly attacked and some even killed by pro-government students and agents of the National Intelligence and Security Service. As a result of discrimination by governments and parts of the Sudanese society, Nuba people have been largely excluded from the official national Sudanese identity, and hardly ever been represented in the government. Following the Nuba Cultural Heritage Festival in 2011 in Omdurman, Nuba residents of Greater Khartoum have been celebrating Nuba culture in

7910-486: The capital. Part of these celebrations has been the selection of educated, young Nuba women as Beauty Queens of the Nuba Mountains. In 2014, Natalina Yacoub , at the time a student at Ahfad University for Women , was chosen as Nuba Beauty Queen and subsequently gave the first TEDx talk of a Nuba person. Being a member of the Christian minority in Sudan , she presented a Christmas gift on 24 December 2019 to then-Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok , who subsequently tweeted: "This

8023-426: The centre of power for Nubia and cultural links with other parts of Africa gained greater influence. Today, Nubians practice Islam . To a certain degree, Nubian religious practices involve a syncretism of Islam and traditional folk beliefs. In ancient times, Nubians practiced a mixture of traditional religion and Egyptian religion. Prior to the spread of Islam, many Nubians practiced Christianity. Beginning in

8136-534: The classification of the languages spoken in Nubia in antiquity. There is some evidence that Cushitic languages were spoken in parts of Lower (northern) Nubia , an ancient region which straddles present-day Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan , and that Eastern Sudanic languages were spoken in Upper and Central Nubia, before the spread of Eastern Sudanic languages even further north into Lower Nubia. Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst (2000) suggest that

8249-521: The common language of Sudan. The Nuba people are primarily farmers, as well as herders who keep cattle, chickens, and other domestic animals. They often maintain three different farms: a garden near their homes where vegetables needing constant attention, such as onions, peppers and beans, are grown; fields further up the hills where quick growing crops such as red millet can be cultivated without irrigation; and farms farther away, where white millet and other crops are planted. A distinctive characteristic of

8362-446: The course of the war, the SPLA has become dominated by Dinka, in particular Dinka from greater Bahr el-Ghazal. The Panel of Experts wrote in 2016, "While other tribes are represented in SPLA, they are increasingly marginalized, rendering the multi-tribal structure of the army largely a façade that obscures the central role that Dinka now play in virtually all major theatres of the conflict". (S/2016/963, 8) On May 16, 2017, Kiir announced

8475-453: The creation of the SPLA later that year. At its inception John Garang was the SPLA's Commander-in-Chief. Kerubino Kuanyin Bol was appointed second ranking Commander, and William Nyuon Bany third. By June 1983, the majority of mutineers had moved to Ethiopia or were on their way there. The Ethiopian government's decision to support the emerging SPLA was a means of exacting revenge upon

8588-557: The earliest cradles of civilization . In the southern valley of Egypt, Nubians differ culturally and ethnically from Egyptians , although they intermarried with members of other ethnic groups, especially Arabs . They speak Nubian languages as a mother tongue, part of the Northern Eastern Sudanic languages , and Arabic as a second language. Neolithic settlements have been found in the central Nubian region dating back to 7000 BC, with Wadi Halfa believed to be

8701-574: The early 1980s) back into Uganda. The SPLA had a complicated relationship with the Anyanya II , a fellow southern Sudanese rebel group. The Anyanya II forces blocked the expansion of the SPLA between 1984 and 1987, as Anyanya II attacked SPLA recruits heading for Ethiopia. The Anyanya II also attacked civilians believed to be SPLA supporters. The conflict between Anyanya II and SPLA had a political dimension, as Anyanya II sought to build an independent southern Sudanese state. The SPLA tried to win over

8814-468: The eighth century, Islam arrived in Nubia. Though Christians and Muslims (primarily Arab merchants at this period) may have lived peacefully together, Arab armies often invaded Christian Nubian kingdoms. An example of this being Makuria, where in 651 an Arab army invaded, but was repulsed, and a treaty known as the Baqt was signed, preventing further Arab invasions in exchange for 360 slaves each year. Notably,

8927-617: The equivalent of $ 75 a month (the rate under Khartoum's control) to $ 150. The unification of the two largest armed groups in the region seriously weakened Khartoum’s control of southern Sudan. In 2007 and 2008 the independent brigades in Blue Nile, Bor, and the Nuba Mountains became the 10th, 8th , and 9th divisions, respectively. The 9th and 10th Divisions thus fell north of the 1-1-56 Independence dividing line between North and South Sudan. The last independent brigade, in Raja , became part of

9040-518: The following Y Chromosome Haplogroups: Sirak et al. 2021 obtained and analyzed the whole genomes of 66 individuals from the site of Kulubnarti situated between the 2nd and 3rd cataract and dated to the Christian period between 650 and 1000 CE. The samples were obtained from two cemeteries, R and S. Grave materials between the two cemeteries did not differ, but physical analyses of the remains found differences in morbidity and mortality indicating that

9153-635: The hills. Often the villages do not have chiefs, but are instead organized into clans or extended family groups with village authority left in the hands of clan elders. After some earlier incursions by the SPLA, the Second Sudanese Civil War started full scale in the Nuba Mountains when the Volcano Battalion of the SPLA under the command of the Nuba Yousif Kuwa Mekki and Abdel Aziz Adam al-Hillu entered

9266-669: The important trade routes within its territories. Nubia's trade links with Egypt led to Egypt's domination over Nubia during the New Kingdom period. The emergence of the Kingdom of Meroe in the 8th century BC led to Egypt being under the control of Nubian rulers for a century, although they preserved many Egyptian cultural traditions. Nubian kings were considered pious scholars and patrons of the arts, copying ancient Egyptian texts and even restoring some Egyptian cultural practices. After this, Egypt's influence declined greatly. Meroe became

9379-761: The issue over leadership of the ruling party: The coordination of the April–July 2015 attack by the SPLA-IG in Unity State—involving multiple divisions across multiple sectors—indicates a high level of operational planning from Juba. The ferocity with which people were chased into the swamps to be killed was aimed at annihilating the SPLM/A-in-Opposition's support, and led to systematic destruction of villages and towns. The Tiger Faction New Forces (also called Tiger Faction or 'The Tigers') split from

9492-578: The leaders of Anyanya II. The Anyanya II commander Gordon Kong Chuol aligned with The SPLA in late 1987. Other sectors of the Anyanya II followed his example over the ensuing years, marginalizing the remainder of the Anyanya II who were allied with the Sudanese government. Another force that confronted SPLA were the Murahaleen militias in northern Bahr el-Ghazal . Warfare between SPLA and Murahaleen began in 1987. By 1988 SPLA controlled most of

9605-467: The lifting of the state of emergency and abolition of Sharia law. The press release was made public through an announcement on Radio SPLA. After the DUP rejoined the government, a ceasefire with the SPLA was achieved. After the elections, negotiations between the SPLA and Sadiq al-Mahdi started, but were aborted after the SPLA shot down a civilian airplane, killing 60 people. All peace talks ended following

9718-594: The mid-1980s the SPLA armed struggle blocked development projects of the Sudanese government, such as the Bentiu Oil Fields. The SPLA launched its first advance into Equatoria in 1985 and 1986. During this campaign, the SPLA were confronted by a number of pro-government militias. The conduct of SPLA forces was chaotic, with many atrocities against the civilian population. The SPLA drove out around 35,000 Ugandan refugees (who had settled in Equatoria since

9831-485: The middle of 1991, the SPLA controlled most parts of southern Sudan with the exception of the major garrison towns ( Juba , Yei , Malakal and Wau ) Between January 21 and 29, 1990, SPLA shelled Juba. SPLA forces also moved into the Nuba Mountains and the southern parts of the Blue Nile State . In comparison with its 1985–1986 offensive in Equatoria, the conduct of SPLA was now more orderly. The downfall of

9944-563: The middle of the 4th century AD, signaling the end of independent Nubian Pagan kingdoms. The Axumites then sent missionaries to the Nubia to establish similar Syrian-based Christianity like in Ethiopia, but were competing with Egyptian-based Christianity, who eventually established the authority of the Coptic Church in the area, and founded new Nubian Christian kingdoms, such as Nobatia , Alodia , and Makuria . Tribal nomads like

10057-463: The mountains and began to recruit Nuba volunteers and send them to SPLA training facilities in Ethiopia. The volunteers walked to Ethiopia and back and many of them perished on the way. During the war, the SPLA generally held the mountains, while the Sudanese Army held the towns and fertile lands at the feet of the mountains, but was generally unable to dislodge the SPLA, even though the latter

10170-506: The northern Bahr el-Ghazal. Unlike the Anyanya II, the Murahaleen had no political ambitions. In March 1986, the SPLA kidnapped a Norwegian aid worker of the Christian NGO Kirkens Nødhjelp ( Norwegian Church Aid ). Moorcroft writes that by this time, 'training, weapons, and discipline improved as the guerillas won more and more victories. In November 1987 the guerillas captured the small town of Kurmak near

10283-494: The northern Horn of Africa. The linguistic affinities of early Nubian cultures are uncertain. Some research has suggested that the early inhabitants of the Nubia region, during the C-Group and Kerma cultures, were speakers of languages belonging to the Berber and Cushitic branches, respectively, of the Afroasiatic family . More recent research instead suggests that the people of the Kerma culture spoke Nilo-Saharan languages of

10396-504: The oldest settlement in the central Nile valley. Parts of Nubia, particularly Lower Nubia , were at times a part of ancient Pharaonic Egypt and at other times a rival state representing parts of Meroë or the Kingdom of Kush . By the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (744 BC–656 BC), all of Egypt was united with Nubia, extending down to what is now Khartoum . However, in 656 BC the native Twenty-sixth Dynasty regained control of Egypt. As warriors,

10509-634: The people of Kerma, those further south along the Nile, to the west, and those of Saï (an island to the north of Kerma), but that Afro-Asiatic (most likely Cushitic) languages were spoken by other peoples in Lower Nubia (such as the Medjay and the C-Group culture) living in Nubian regions north of Saï toward Egypt and those southeast of the Nile in Punt in the Eastern dessert. Based partly on an analysis of

10622-546: The phonology of place names and personal names from the relevant regions preserved in ancient texts, he argues that the terms from "Kush" and "Irem" (ancient names for Kerma and the region south of it respectively) in Egyptian texts display traits typical of Eastern Sudanic languages, while those from further north (in Lower Nubia) and east are more typical of the Afro-Asiatic family, noting: "The Irem-list also provides

10735-535: The population of southern Sudan lived in areas under the control of either the mainstream SPLA or the SPLA-Nasir. In 2004, a year before the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), the Coalition to Stop Child Soldiers , estimated that there were between 2,500 and 5,000 children serving in the SPLA. Following the signing of the CPA, an SPLA reorganisation process began. This process was actively supported by funding from

10848-840: The region between the city of Wadi Halfa on the Egypt–Sudan border and al Dabbah . Some Nubians were forcibly moved to Khashm el Girba and New Halfa upon the construction of the High Dam in Egypt which flooded their ancestral lands. Additionally, a group known as the Midob live in northern Darfur , a group named Birgid in Central Darfur and several groups known as the Hill Nubians who live in Northern Kordofan in Haraza and

10961-403: The rest of the 1,000,000 Nuba people live in villages and towns of between 1,000 and 50,000 inhabitants in areas in and surrounding the Nuba mountains. Nuba villages are often built where valleys run from the hills out on to the surrounding plains, because water is easier to find at such points and wells can be used all year long. There is no political unity among the various Nuba groups who live on

11074-411: The results reflect deep biological connections among the populations of the Nile Valley and further confirm the presence of West Eurasian ancestry in the Nile valley prior to Arab migrations. The two cemeteries showed minimal differences in their West Eurasian/Dinka ancestry proportions, formed a genetic clade with each other in relation to other populations, and had a small FST value of 0.0013 reflecting

11187-592: The reunification of the national army. President Kiir was also Commander-in-Chief of the army. As of 2018, the army was estimated to have 185,000 soldiers as well as an unknown number of personnel in the small South Sudan Air Force . According to the CIA World Factbook as of June 2020 , "under the September 2018 peace agreement, all armed groups in South Sudan were to assemble at designated sites where fighters could be either disarmed and demobilized, or integrated into unified military and police forces;

11300-629: The rituals (such as rain stones for the rain magic), and some also undergo what they recognize as spiritual possession. In the 1986 elections, the National Umma Party lost several seats to the Nuba Mountains General Union and to the Sudan National Party, due to the reduced level of support from the Nuba Mountains region. There is reason to believe that attacks by the government-supported militia,

11413-438: The second highest position, his subordinate generals became part of the SPLA without any reduction in rank, and about 50,000 SSDF were added to the SPLA payroll. The number of generals in the SPLA also rose as Kiir promoted hundreds of existing SPLA officers to match the arriving ex-SSDF generals. By 2011 and independence, the SPLA had 745 generals. At about the same time, the legislature voted to double infantrymen's base pay from

11526-422: The south are either Christians or practice traditional animistic religions. In those areas of the Nuba mountains where Islam has not deeply penetrated, ritual specialists and priests hold as much control as the clan elders, for it is they who are responsible for rain control, keeping the peace, and rituals to ensure successful crops. Many are guardians of the shrines where items are kept to insure positive outcomes of

11639-483: The south, plus the Government of Sudan involvement in Darfur have resulted in issues which may break the peace agreement. Southern Sudan voted to secede from Sudan in the 2011 South Sudanese independence referendum . This provision was agreed to in the CPA. This resaulted in the formation of a new country, South Sudan , from the southern portion of Sudan. However, conflict between northern and southern forces, and against

11752-404: The south, where Nubia's larger agricultural communities were located. Nubia was dominated by kings from clans that controlled the gold mines. Trade in exotic goods from other parts of Africa (ivory, animal skins) passed to Egypt through Nubia. Modern Nubians speak Nubian languages . They belong to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan phylum . But there is some uncertainty regarding

11865-407: The town. After the attacks, the Sudanese government forces committed harsh reprisals against the civilian population. Summary executions of suspected SPLA collaborators were carried out. On 27 September, 1992 the deputy commander-in-chief of the SPLA, William Nyuon, defected and took a section of fighters with him. The SPLA recaptured Bor on 29 November, 1991. As of the mid-1990s, the majority of

11978-760: The unified forces were then to be retrained and deployed prior to the formation of a national unity government; all fighters were ordered to these sites in July 2019, but as of April 2020 this process had not been completed". As of 2019, the SSPDF comprised the Ground Forces, Air Force, Air Defense Forces, and Presidential Guard with Special attachment of Captain Buoi Rual Makuei, batch 51 Sudan military College Graduate. In October 2019, more than 40 members of South Sudan People’s Defense Forces (SSPDF) undertook

12091-555: The years that followed, SPLA propaganda denounced the Khartoum government as a family affair that played on sectarian tensions. The SPLA denounced the introduction of Sharia law in September 1983. The first fully-fledged SPLA battalion graduated in 1984 in the village of Bilpam. The name 'Bilpam' carried great symbolic importance for SPLA for years to come, as the epicentre of the uprising. After Bilpam, other SPLA training camps were established at Dimma , Bonga and Panyido . In

12204-438: The young men's vanity—they often spend hours painting their bodies with complex patterns and decorations. This vanity reflects the basic Nuba belief in the power and importance of strength and beauty. The primary religion of many Nuba people is Islam , with some Christians , and traditional shamanistic beliefs also prevailing. Muslim Men wear a sarong and occasionally a skull cap. Older women and young women wear beads and wrap

12317-500: Was Nilo-Saharan. Rilly also considers evidence of significant early Afro-Asiatic influence, especially Berber, on Nobiin to be weak (and where present, more likely due to borrowed loanwords than substrata), and considers evidence of substratal influence on Nobiin from an earlier now extinct Eastern Sudanic language to be stronger. Julien Cooper (2017) suggests that Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudan branch were spoken by

12430-631: Was based in Torit . The two SPLA factions fought each other, including attacks on civilians in their opponents' territory. As of 1992 the Sudanese government launched a major offensive against the SPLA, which was weakened by the split with the SPLA-Nasir . The SPLA lost control of Torit (where the SPLA was headquartered), Bor , Yirol , Pibor , Pochalla and Kapoeta. The SPLA made two attacks on Juba in June–July 1992, during which they nearly captured

12543-536: Was expanded after 2008 to match the ten-division structure. This expansion coincided with the completion of the General Headquarters at Bilpam, built by DynCorp with funds from the U.S. State Department ’s Africa Peacekeeping Program (AFRICAP). Work on a national security strategy began in late 2012. On 15 December, 2013, fighting broke out in Juba between different factions of the armed forces in what

12656-814: Was influenced by its geography. It is sometimes divided into Upper Nubia and Lower Nubia. Upper Nubia was where the ancient Kingdom of Napata (the Kush) was located. Lower Nubia has been called "the corridor to Africa" , where there was contact and cultural exchange between Nubians, Egyptians, Greeks, Assyrians, Romans, and Arabs. Lower Nubia was also where the Kingdom of Meroe flourished. The languages spoken by modern Nubians are based on ancient Sudanic dialects. From north to south, they are: Kenuz, Fadicha (Matoki), Sukkot, Mahas, Danagla. Kerma, Nepata, and Meroe were Nubia's largest population centres. The rich agricultural lands of Nubia supported these cities. Ancient Egyptian rulers sought control of Nubia's wealth, including gold, and

12769-452: Was usually undersupplied. The Governments of Sudan under Sadiq al-Mahdi and Omar al-Bashir also armed militias of Baggara Arabs to fight the Nuba and transferred many Nuba forcibly to camps. In early 2002, the Government and the SPLA agreed on an internationally supervised ceasefire. International observers and advisors were quickly dispatched to Kadugli and several deployed into the mountains to co-located with SPLA command elements, with

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