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93-451: SS Frontenac Victory was one of many new 10,500-ton vessels to be known as Victory ships, designed to replace the earlier Liberty ships . Liberty ships were designed to be used solely for World War II, whereas Victory ships were designed to last longer and to serve the US Navy after the war. Victory ships differed from Liberty ships in that they were faster, longer, wider, taller, had

186-523: A convoy returning to New York City . The convoy was about 150 nautical miles (280 km; 170 mi) away and its task group commander, Captain Poole, sent two of the convoy's destroyer escorts : USS  Hammann and USS  Robert E. Peary . Frontenac Victory had a 30-foot (9.1 m) hole in her bow , but did not sink. Lone Jack had a 30-foot-square (9.1 m) hole in her side, causing her steam engine room to flood. Due to rough seas,

279-569: A coral reef , damaging the two forward cargo holds. On December 22, Frontenac Victory rescued its crew of 36. Quartette had been bound for Pusan with 11,250 tons of milo yellow grain. In 1966 Frontenac Victory was reactivated for the Vietnam War and was operated by the Weyerhaeuser Steamship Company . In 1973, after the war, she was laid up at Suisun Bay 's National Defense Reserve Fleet . In 1985 she

372-493: A "new" liberty ship was constructed by Industriale Maritime SpA, Genoa , Italy by using the bow section of Bert Williams and the stern section of Nathaniel Bacon , both of which had been wrecked. The new ship was named SS  Boccadasse , and served until scrapped in 1962. Several designs of mass-produced petroleum tanker were also produced, the most numerous being the T2 tanker series, with about 490 built between 1942 and

465-547: A 3K SNP Infinium from Illumina, Inc. Agrobacterium transformation can be used on sorghum, as shown in a 2018 report of such a transformation system. A 2013 study developed and validated an SNP array for molecular breeding . In 2021, world production of sorghum was 61 million tonnes , led by the United States with 19% of the total (table). India, Ethiopia , and Mexico were the largest secondary producers. In 2013, China began purchasing American sorghum as

558-473: A General Electric gas turbine of 6,600 shp, connected to a reversible pitch propeller via reduction gearing. John Sergeant was considered overall to be a success, but problems with the reversible pitch propeller ended its trial after three years. GTS William Patterson had its bow extended and its steam engine replaced with 6 General Electric GE-14 free-piston gas generators, connected to two reversible turbines and capable of 6,000 shp total. William Patterson

651-437: A Liberty from 350 to 500. The increase in production of more suitable vessels did allow for returning the hastily converted Liberty ships to cargo-only operations by May 1944. Despite complaints, reservations, Navy requesting its personnel not travel aboard Liberty troopers and even Senate comment, the military necessities required use of the ships. The number of troops was increased to 550 on 200 Liberty ships for redeployment to

744-461: A cane juicer to extract the sweet molasses -like juice. The juice is sold as syrup, and used as a feedstock to make biofuel. In India, the panicle stalks are used as bristles for brooms . In Australia, sorghum is personified as a spirit among the Dagoman people of Northern Territory , as well as being used for food; the local species are S. intrans and S. plumosum . In Korea,

837-534: A cargo of 2,300 tons of ammonium nitrate fertilizer. A fire broke out on board which eventually caused the entire ammonium nitrate cargo to explode. The massive explosion levelled Texas City and caused fires which detonated more ammonium nitrate in a nearby ship and warehouse. It was one of the largest non-nuclear explosions in US history. This incident is known as the Texas City disaster today. On December 21, 1952,

930-452: A complementary livestock feed to its domestically grown maize. It imported around $ 1 billion worth per year until April 2018, when it imposed retaliatory tariffs as part of a trade war . By 2020, the tariffs had been waived, and trade volumes increased before declining again as China began buying sorghum from other countries. As of 2020, China is the world's largest sorghum importer, importing more than all other countries combined. Mexico

1023-520: A continuous sheet of steel, allowed small cracks to propagate unimpeded, unlike in a hull made of separate plates riveted together. One common type of crack nucleated at the square corner of a hatch which coincided with a welded seam, both the corner and the weld acting as stress concentrators . Furthermore, the ships were frequently grossly overloaded, greatly increasing stress, and some of the structural problems occurred during or after severe storms that would have further increased stress. Minor revisions to

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1116-749: A habitat for many fish species. In 1953, the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC), began storing surplus grain in Liberty ships located in the Hudson River , James River , Olympia, and Astoria National Defense Reserve Fleet 's. In 1955, 22 ships in the Suisun Bay Reserve Fleet were withdrawn to be loaded with grain and were then transferred to the Olympia Fleet. In 1956, four ships were withdrawn from

1209-585: A lack of medical facilities. After the Allied victory in North Africa, about 250 Liberty ships were engaged in transporting prisoners of war to the United States. By November 1943 the Army's Chief of Transportation, Maj. Gen. Charles P. Gross , and WSA, whose agents operated the ships, reached agreement on improvements, but operational requirements forced an increase of the maximum number of troops transported in

1302-448: A long career as a school ship and many internal modifications, while Jeremiah O'Brien remains largely in her original condition. Both are museum ships that still put out to sea regularly. In 1994, Jeremiah O'Brien steamed from San Francisco to England and France for the 50th anniversary of D-Day , the only large ship from the original Operation Overlord fleet to participate in the anniversary. In 2008, SS  Arthur M. Huddell ,

1395-468: A mine a few miles from destination. All crew members, and six horses were saved. Nathaniel Bacon ran into a minefield off Civitavecchia , Italy in December 1945, caught fire, was beached, and broke in two; the larger section was welded onto another Liberty half hull to make a new ship 30 feet longer, named Boccadasse . As late as December 1947, Robert Dale Owen , renamed Kalliopi and sailing under

1488-487: A much larger scale) the manufacture of " Hog Islander " and similar standardized ship types during World War I. The immensity of the effort, the number of ships built, the role of female workers in their construction, and the survival of some far longer than their original five-year design life combine to make them the subject of much continued interest. In 1936, the American Merchant Marine Act

1581-506: A name. Most bore the names of deceased people. The only living namesake was Francis J. O'Gara, the purser of SS  Jean Nicolet , who was thought to have been killed in a submarine attack , but in fact survived the war in a Japanese prisoner of war camp. Not named after people were: SS  Stage Door Canteen , named after the USO club in New York; and SS  U.S.O. , named after

1674-403: A poor public image owing to their appearance. In a speech announcing the emergency shipbuilding program President Franklin D. Roosevelt had referred to the ship as "a dreadful looking object", and Time called it an "Ugly Duckling". 27 September 1941 was dubbed Liberty Fleet Day to try to assuage public opinion, since the first 14 "Emergency" vessels were launched that day. The first of these

1767-442: A ship between 400 and 450 feet (120 and 140 m) long (Load Waterline Length), 'S' for steam engines, and 'C1' for design C1. The new design replaced much riveting , which accounted for one-third of the labor costs, with welding , and had oil-fired boilers. It was adopted as a Merchant Marine Act design, and production awarded to a conglomerate of West Coast engineering and construction companies headed by Henry J. Kaiser known as

1860-457: A ship converted in 1944 into a pipe transport to support Operation Pluto , was transferred to Greece and converted to a floating museum dedicated to the history of the Greek merchant marine; although missing major components were restored this ship is no longer operational. Liberty ships continue to serve in a "less than whole" function many decades after their launching. In Portland , Oregon ,

1953-658: A small additional cost. The bridges of most of these were also enclosed in the mid-1960s in accordance with a design by naval architect Ion Livas. In the 1950s, the Maritime Administration instituted the Liberty Ship Conversion and Engine Improvement Program, which had a goal to increase the speed of Liberty ships to 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph), making them competitive with more modern designs, as well as gaining experience with alternate propulsion systems. Four ships were converted in

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2046-610: A some chicks, rabbits, and goats. Her trips were to Greece , Poland and Yugoslavia . After the war, in 1947, Frontenac Victory was laid up at James River as part of the National Defense Reserve Fleet . SS Frontenac Victory served as a merchant marine ship supplying goods for the Korean War . About 75 percent of the personnel serving in the Korean War and 90 percent of cargo to the war zone

2139-474: A sugar-rich syrup and as forage. Sweet sorghum was important to the sugar trade in the 19th century. The price of sugar was rising because of decreased production in the British West Indies and more demand for confectionery and fruit preserves , and the United States was actively searching for a sugar plant that could be produced in northern states. The "Chinese sugar-cane", sweet sorghum,

2232-517: A thinner stack set farther toward the superstructure and had a long raised forecastle . On March 1, 1945, Frontenac Victory collided with the gasoline tanker SS Lone Jack in the Atlantic. The two ships had departed from the US with supplies for the war in Europe, when they collided at 37.42N 57.53W, about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) east of Virginia . Their distress calls were heard by

2325-535: A tunnel connecting the main engine shaft to the propeller via a long aft extension. The first Ocean-class ship, SS Ocean Vanguard , was launched on 16 August 1941. The design was modified by the United States Maritime Commission , in part to increase conformity to American construction practices, but more importantly to make it even quicker and cheaper to build. The US version was designated 'EC2-S-C1': 'EC' for Emergency Cargo, '2' for

2418-683: A very small yield nuclear weapon should they ever go off. SS  E. A. Bryan detonated with the energy of 2,000 tons of TNT (8,400  GJ ) in July 1944 as it was being loaded, killing 320 sailors and civilians in what was called the Port Chicago disaster . Another Liberty ship that exploded was the rechristened SS  Grandcamp , which caused the Texas City Disaster on 16 April 1947, killing at least 581 people. Six Liberty ships were converted at Point Clear, Alabama , by

2511-569: Is a species in the grass genus Sorghum cultivated for its grain . The grain is used for food for humans; the plant is used for animal feed and ethanol production. Sorghum originated in Africa, and is now cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical regions. Sorghum is the world's fifth-most important cereal crop after rice , wheat , maize , and barley . Sorghum is typically an annual, but some cultivars are perennial. It grows in clumps that may reach over 4 metres (13 ft) high. The grain

2604-428: Is also accounts for 7% of global sorghum production. The grain is edible and nutritious. It can be eaten raw when young and milky, but has to be boiled or ground into flour when mature. Sorghum grain is 72% carbohydrates including 7% dietary fiber, 11% protein, 3% fat , and 12% water (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), sorghum grain supplies 79 calories and rich contents (20% or more of

2697-589: Is also used to make alcoholic beverages , and biofuels such as ethanol . It can be made into couscous , porridge, or flatbreads such as Indian Jōḷada roṭṭi or tortillas; and it can be burst in hot oil to make a popcorn , smaller than that of maize. Since it does not contain gluten, it can be used in gluten-free diets . In Nigeria , the pulverized red leaf-sheaths of sorghum have been used to dye leather, while in Algeria , sorghum has been used to dye wool. In South Africa, characteristically sour malwa beer

2790-531: Is generally considered diploid and contains 20 chromosomes, however, there is evidence to suggest a tetraploid origin for S. bicolor . The genome size is approximately 800 Mbp. Paterson et al. , 2009 provides a genome assembly of 739 megabase . The most commonly used genome database is SorGSD maintained by Luo et al. , 2016. A gene expression atlas is available from Shakoor et al. , 2014 with 27,577 genes . For molecular breeding (or other purposes) an SNP array has been created by Bekele et al. , 2013,

2883-409: Is made from sorghum or millet. The process involves souring the mashed grain with lactic acid bacteria , followed by fermenting by the wild yeasts that were on the grain. In China and Taiwan, sorghum is one of the main materials of Kaoliang liquor , a type of the colourless distilled alcoholic drink Baijiu . In countries including the US, the stalks of sweet sorghum varieties are crushed in

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2976-521: Is native to Africa with many cultivated forms. Most production uses annual cultivars, but some wild species of Sorghum are perennial, which may enable the Land Institute to develop a perennial cultivar for "repeated, sufficient grain harvests without resowing." Sorghum is closely related to maize and the millets within the PACMAD clade of grasses, and more distantly to the cereals of

3069-449: Is planted in narrow rows. Sorghum actively suppresses weeds by producing sorgoleone, an alkylresorcinol . Sorghum grows in a wide range of temperatures. It can tolerate high altitude and toxic soils, and can recover growth after some drought. Optimum growth temperature range is 12–34 °C (54–93 °F), and the growing season lasts for around 115–140 days. It can grow on a wide range of soils, such as heavy clay to sandy soils with

3162-414: Is similar to the technique used by Palmer's at Jarrow , northeast England, but substituted welding for riveting . Riveted ships took several months to construct. The work force was newly trained as the yards responsible had not previously built welded ships. As America entered the war, the shipbuilding yards employed women, to replace men who were enlisting in the armed forces. The ships initially had

3255-471: Is small, 2 to 4 millimetres (0.08 to 0.2 in) in diameter. Sweet sorghums are cultivars primarily grown for forage, syrup production, and ethanol; they are taller than those grown for grain. Sorghum is a large stout grass that grows up to 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) tall. It has large bushy flowerheads or panicles that provide an edible starchy grain with up to 3,000 seeds in each flowerhead. It grows in warm climates worldwide for food and forage. Sorghum

3348-439: Is subject to a variety of plant pathogens . The fungus Colletotrichum sublineolum causes anthracnose . The toxic ergot fungus parasitises the grain, risking harm to humans and livestock. Sorghum produces chitinases as defensive compounds against fungal diseases . Transgenesis of additional chitinases increases the crop's disease resistance. The genome of S. bicolor was sequenced between 2005 and 2007. It

3441-479: Is used primarily as poultry feed, and secondarily as cattle feed and in brewing applications. Insect damage is a major threat to sorghum plants. Over 150 species damage crop plants at different stages of development, resulting in significant biomass loss. Stored sorghum grain is attacked by other insect pests such as the lesser grain borer beetle. Sorghum is a host of the parasitic plant Striga hermonthica , purple witchweed; that can reduce production. Sorghum

3534-521: The BOP clade such as wheat and barley . Bambusoideae (bamboos)  ( fescue , ryegrass ) Hordeum (barley) Triticum (wheat) Secale (rye) Oryza (rice) Pennisetum (fountaingrasses, pearl millet ) Millets Sorghum (sorghum) Zea (maize) S. bicolor was domesticated from its wild ancestor more than 5,000 years ago in Eastern Sudan in the area of

3627-630: The Battle of Anzio in Italy. It was under repeated bombardment from shore batteries and aircraft for eight days. It endured a prolonged barrage of shelling, machine-gun fire and bombs. The ship shot down five German planes. More than 2,400 Liberty ships survived the war. Of these, 835 made up the postwar cargo fleet. Greek entrepreneurs bought 526 ships and Italians bought 98. Shipping magnates including John Fredriksen , John Theodoracopoulos, Aristotle Onassis , Stavros Niarchos , Stavros George Livanos ,

3720-465: The Daily Value , DV) of several B vitamins and dietary minerals (table). In the early stages of plant growth, some sorghum species may contain levels of hydrogen cyanide , hordenine , and nitrates lethal to grazing animals. Plants stressed by drought or heat can also contain toxic levels of cyanide and nitrates at later stages in growth. Sorghum is widely used for food and animal fodder. It

3813-765: The Naval Vessel Register in 1969 and 1970. From 1946 to 1963, the Pacific Ready Reserve Fleet – Columbia River Group, retained as many as 500 ships. In 1946, Liberty ships were mothballed in the Hudson River Reserve Fleet near Tarrytown, New York . At its peak in 1965, 189 hulls were stored there. The last two were sold for scrap to Spain in 1971 and the reserve permanently shut down. Only two operational Liberty ships, SS  John W. Brown and SS  Jeremiah O'Brien , remain. John W. Brown has had

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3906-497: The Philippine Islands and Okinawa. The last new-build Liberty ship constructed was SS  Albert M. Boe , launched on 26 September 1945 and delivered on 30 October 1945. She was named after the chief engineer of a United States Army freighter who had stayed below decks to shut down his engines after a 13 April 1945 explosion, an act that won him a posthumous Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal . In 1950,

3999-643: The Six Companies . Liberty ships were designed to carry 10,000 long tons (10,200 t) of cargo, usually one type per ship, but, during wartime, generally carried loads far exceeding this. On 27 March 1941, the number of lend-lease ships was increased to 200 by the Defense Aid Supplemental Appropriations Act and increased again in April to 306, of which 117 would be Liberty ships. The basic EC2-S-C1 cargo design

4092-563: The United Service Organizations (USO). Another notable Liberty ship was SS  Stephen Hopkins , which sank the German commerce raider Stier in a ship-to-ship gun battle in 1942 and became the first American ship to sink a German surface combatant. The wreck of SS  Richard Montgomery lies off the coast of Kent with 1,500 short tons (1,400 tonnes ) of explosives still on board, enough to match

4185-721: The United States Army Air Force , into floating aircraft repair depots, operated by the Army Transport Service , starting in April 1944. The secret project, dubbed "Project Ivory Soap", provided mobile depot support for B-29 Superfortress bombers and P-51 Mustang fighters based on Guam , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa beginning in December 1944. The six ARU(F)s (Aircraft Repair Unit, Floating), however, were also fitted with landing platforms to accommodate four Sikorsky R-4 helicopters, where they provided medical evacuation of combat casualties in both

4278-573: The United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp featuring the Liberty ship as part of a set on the U.S. Merchant Marine . Liberty ships were built at eighteen shipyards located along the U.S. Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf coasts: There are four surviving Liberty Ships. Sorghum Sorghum bicolor , commonly called sorghum ( / ˈ s ɔːr ɡ ə m / ) and also known as great millet , broomcorn , guinea corn , durra , imphee , jowar , or milo ,

4371-678: The hull classification symbol AGTR (auxiliary, technical research) and used to gather electronic intelligence and for radar picket duties by the United States Navy. The Liberty ships SS Samuel R. Aitken became USS  Oxford , SS Robert W. Hart became USS  Georgetown , SS J. Howland Gardner became USS  Jamestown with the Victory ships being SS  Iran Victory which became USS  Belmont and SS  Simmons Victory becoming USS  Liberty . All of these ships were decommissioned and struck from

4464-599: The "Northeast Coast, Open Shelter Deck Steamer", were based on a simple ship originally produced in Sunderland by J.L. Thompson & Sons based on a 1939 design for a simple tramp steamer , which was cheap to build and cheap to run (see Silver Line ). Examples include SS Dorington Court built in 1939. The order specified an 18-inch (0.46 m) increase in draft to boost displacement by 800 long tons (810 t) to 10,100 long tons (10,300 t). The accommodation, bridge , and main engine were located amidships, with

4557-514: The $ 11 million program. SS Benjamin Chew had its existing condensers modified and a new superheater and geared turbine installed to give the ship 6,000 shp, up from 2,500. SS Thomas Nelson had its bow lengthened, diesel engines installed in place of the original steam engine, and movable cranes outfitted in place of the original cargo handling gear. The GTS (Gas Turbine Ship) John Sergeant had its bow extended, and its steam engine replaced with

4650-506: The British government ordered 60 Ocean-class freighters from American yards to replace war losses and boost the merchant fleet. These were simple but fairly large (for the time) with a single 2,500 horsepower (1,900 kW) compound steam engine of outdated but reliable design. Britain specified coal-fired plants, because it then had extensive coal mines and no significant domestic oil production. The predecessor designs, which included

4743-695: The Caribbean. The problem of hull cracks caused concern with the United States Coast Guard , which recommended that Liberty ships be withdrawn from troop carrying in February 1944 although military commitments required their continued use. The more direct problem was the general unsuitability of the ships as troop transports, particularly with the hasty conversions in 1943, that generated considerable complaints regarding poor mess, food and water storage, sanitation, heating / ventilation and

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4836-666: The Goulandris brothers, and the Andreadis, Tsavliris, Achille Lauro, Grimaldi and Bottiglieri families were known to have started their fleets by buying Liberty ships. Andrea Corrado , the dominant Italian shipping magnate at the time, and leader of the Italian shipping delegation, rebuilt his fleet under the programme. Weyerhaeuser operated a fleet of six Liberty Ships (which were later extensively refurbished and modernized) carrying lumber, newsprint, and general cargo for years after

4929-746: The Greek flag, broke in three and sank in the northern Adriatic Sea after hitting a mine. Other Liberty ships lost to mines after the end of the war include John Woolman , Calvin Coolidge , Cyrus Adler , and Lord Delaware . On April 16, 1947, a Liberty ship owned by the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique called the Grandcamp (originally built as the SS Benjamin R. Curtis) docked in Texas City, Texas to load

5022-640: The Indian subcontinent; around 3,000 years ago it reached West Africa. Four other races evolved through cultivation to have larger grains and to become free-threshing, making harvests easier and more productive. These were caudatum in the Sahel ; durra , most likely in India; guinea in West Africa (later reaching India), and from that race mageritiferum that gave rise to the varieties of Southern Africa. In

5115-399: The Liberty ship came to symbolize U.S. wartime industrial output. The class was developed to meet British orders for transports to replace ships that had been lost. Eighteen American shipyards built 2,710 Liberty ships between 1941 and 1945 (an average of three ships every two days), easily the largest number of ships ever produced to a single design. Their production mirrored (albeit on

5208-472: The Liberty ships led to a new way of thinking about ship design and manufacturing. Ships today avoid the use of rectangular corners to avoid stress concentration . New types of steel were developed that have higher fracture toughness , especially at lower temperatures. In addition, more talented and educated welders can produce welds without, or at least with fewer, flaws. While the context and time in which Liberty ships were constructed resulted in many failures,

5301-646: The Middle Ages, the Arab Agricultural Revolution spread sorghum and other crops from Africa and Asia across the Arab world as far as Al-Andalus in Spain. Sorghum remained the staple food of the medieval kingdom of Alodia and most Sub-Saharan cultures prior to European colonialism. Tall varieties of sorghum with a high sugar content are called sweet sorghum; these are useful for producing

5394-611: The Pacific. The need for the troopship conversions persisted into the immediate postwar period in order to return troops from overseas as quickly as possible. On 27 September 1942 the SS ; Stephen Hopkins was the only US merchant ship to sink a German surface combatant during the war. Ordered to stop, Stephen Hopkins refused to surrender, so the heavily armed German commerce raider Stier and her tender Tannenfels with one machine gun opened fire. Although greatly outgunned,

5487-663: The Rivers Atbara and Gash . It has been found at an archaeological site near Kassala in eastern Sudan, dating from 3500 to 3000 BC, and is associated with the neolithic Butana Group culture. Sorghum bread from graves in Predynastic Egypt , some 5,100 years ago, is displayed in the Egyptian Museum, Turin , Italy. The first race to be domesticated was bicolor ; it had tight husks that had to be removed forcibly. Around 4,000 years ago, this spread to

5580-600: The SS Quartette , a 422-foot-long (129 m) Liberty Ship of 7,198 gross register tons , struck the eastern reef of the Pearl and Hermes atoll at a speed of 10.5 kn (19 km/h; 12 mph). The ship was driven further onto the reef by rough waves and 35 mph (56 km/h) winds, which collapsed the forward bow and damaged two forward holds. The crew was evacuated by the SS Frontenac Victory

5673-520: The Semi-Arid Tropics has improved sorghum using traditional genetic improvement and integrated genetic and natural resources management practices. Some 194 improved cultivars are now planted worldwide. In India , increases in sorghum productivity resulting from improved cultivars have freed up 7 million hectares (17 million acres) of land, enabling farmers to diversify into high-income cash crops and boost their livelihoods. Sorghum

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5766-549: The Southwest Pacific were turned into makeshift troop transports for New Guinea operations by installing field kitchens on deck, latrines aft between #4 and #5 hatches flushed by hoses attached to fire hydrants and about 900 troops sleeping on deck or in 'tween deck spaces. While most of the Liberty ships converted were intended to carry no more than 550 troops, thirty-three were converted to transport 1,600 on shorter voyages from mainland U.S. ports to Alaska, Hawaii and

5859-644: The Wilmington Fleet and transferred, loaded with grain, to the Hudson River Fleet. Between 1955 and 1959, 16 former Liberty ships were repurchased by the United States Navy and converted to the Guardian -class radar picket ships for the Atlantic and Pacific Barrier . In the 1960s, three Liberty ships and two Victory ships were reactivated and converted to technical research ships with

5952-443: The companies capable of producing them were already committed to the large construction program for warships . Therefore, a 140-short-ton (130 t) vertical triple expansion steam engine, of obsolete design, was selected to power Liberty ships because it was cheaper and easier to build in the numbers required for the Liberty ship program, and because more companies could manufacture it. Eighteen different companies eventually built

6045-523: The crew of Stephen Hopkins fought back, replacing the Armed Guard crew of the ship's single 4-inch (100 mm) gun with volunteers as they fell. The fight was short, and both ships were wrecks. On 10 March 1943 SS  Lawton B. Evans became the only ship to survive an attack by the German submarine  U-221 . The following year from 22 to 30 January 1944, Lawton B. Evans was involved in

6138-404: The destroyer escorts could not help the ships when they arrived, other than to protect them from potential enemy U-boats . Late in the afternoon of March 2, the captain of Lone Jack gave the order to abandon ship as the tanker had no power and was adrift. On March 3, Lone Jack was still afloat and a team from USS Hammann was sent to check its seaworthiness. After examination, it

6231-422: The end of 1945. Early Liberty ships suffered hull and deck cracks, and a few were lost due to such structural defects. During World War II there were nearly 1,500 instances of significant brittle fractures . Twelve ships, including three of the 2,710 Liberty ships built, broke in half without warning, including SS  John P. Gaines , which sank on 24 November 1943 with the loss of 10 lives. Suspicion fell on

6324-598: The end of the war. Some Liberty ships were lost after the war to naval mines that were inadequately cleared. Pierre Gibault was scrapped after hitting a mine in a previously cleared area off the Greek island of Kythira in June 1945, and the same month saw Colin P. Kelly Jnr take mortal damage from a mine hit off the Belgian port of Ostend . In August 1945, William J. Palmer was carrying horses from New York to Trieste when she rolled over and sank 15 minutes after hitting

6417-520: The engine. It had the additional advantage of ruggedness, simplicity and familiarity to seamen. Parts manufactured by one company were interchangeable with those made by another, and the openness of its design made most of its moving parts easy to see, access, and oil. The engine—21 feet (6.4 m) long and 19 feet (5.8 m) tall—was designed to operate at 76 rpm and propel a Liberty ship at about 11 knots (20 km/h; 13 mph). The ships were constructed of sections that were welded together. This

6510-459: The fifth was modified to house the drivers and assistants. The modifications into troop transports also were not given special type designations. By 1941, the steam turbine was the preferred marine steam engine because of its greater efficiency compared to earlier reciprocating compound steam engines . Steam turbine engines however, required very precise manufacturing techniques to machine their complicated double helical reduction gears , and

6603-529: The following day. The salvage tug Ono arrived on December 25 to attempt to tow the ship clear, but persistent stormy weather forced a delay of the rescue attempt. On January 3, before another rescue attempt could be made, the ship's anchors tore loose and the Quartette was blown onto the reef, and deemed a total loss . Several weeks later, it snapped in half at the keel and the two pieces sank. The wreck site now serves as an artificial reef which provides

6696-480: The grain is one of the staples for poor and rural people. These varieties provide forage in many tropical regions. S. bicolor is a food crop in Africa, Central America , and South Asia , and is the fifth most common cereal crop grown in the world. It is most often grown without application of fertilizers or other inputs by small-holder farmers in developing countries. They benefit from sorghum's ability to compete effectively with weeds, especially when it

6789-441: The hatches and various reinforcements were applied to the Liberty ships to arrest the cracking problem. These are some of the first structural tests that gave birth to the study of materials. The successor Victory ships used the same steel, also welded rather than riveted, but spacing between frames was widened from 30 inches (760 mm) to 36 inches (910 mm), making the ships less stiff and more able to flex. The sinking of

6882-527: The hulls of Richard Henry Dana and Jane Addams serve as the basis of floating docks. SS  Albert M. Boe survives as the Star of Kodiak , a landlocked cannery , in Kodiak Harbor at 57°47′12″N 152°24′18″W  /  57.78667°N 152.40500°W  / 57.78667; -152.40500 . SS  Charles H. Cugle was converted into MH-1A (otherwise known as USS Sturgis ). MH-1A

6975-493: The lessons learned led to new innovations that allow for more efficient and safer shipbuilding today. In September 1943 strategic plans and shortage of more suitable hulls required that Liberty ships be pressed into emergency use as troop transports with about 225 eventually converted for this purpose. The first general conversions were hastily undertaken by the War Shipping Administration (WSA) so that

7068-453: The origin tale " Brother and sister who became the Sun and Moon " is also called "The reason sorghum is red". In the tale, a tiger who is chasing a brother and sister follows them up a rotten rope as they climb into the sky, and become the sun and moon. The rope breaks, and the tiger falls to its death, impaling itself on a sorghum stalk, which becomes red with its blood. In Northeastern Italy in

7161-534: The pH tolerance ranging from 5.0 to 8.5. It requires an arable field that has been left fallow for at least two years or where crop rotation with legumes has taken place in the previous year. Diversified 2- or 4-year crop rotation can improve sorghum yield, additionally making it more resilient to inconsistent growth conditions. In terms of nutrient requirements, sorghum is comparable to other cereal grain crops with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium required for growth. The International Crops Research Institute for

7254-473: The post war prices of Maritime Commission types the Liberty variants are noted as: In preparation for the Normandy landings and afterward to support the rapid expansion of logistical transport ashore a modification was made to make standard Liberty vessels more suitable for mass transport of vehicles and in records are seen as "MT" for Motor Transport vessels. As MTs four holds were loaded with vehicles while

7347-510: The same steel did not have this problem. Tipper discovered that at a certain temperature, the steel the ships were made of changed from being ductile to brittle , allowing cracks to form and propagate. This temperature is known as the critical ductile-brittle transition temperature . Ships in the North Atlantic were exposed to temperatures that could fall below this critical point. The predominantly welded hull construction, effectively

7440-630: The ships could join convoys on the way to North Africa for Operation Torch . Even earlier the Southwest Pacific Area command's U.S. Army Services of Supply had converted at least one, William Ellery Channing , in Australia into an assault troop carrier with landing craft ( LCIs and LCVs ) and troops with the ship being reconverted for cargo after the Navy was given exclusive responsibility for amphibious assault operations. Others in

7533-518: The shipyards, which had often used inexperienced workers and new welding techniques to produce large numbers of ships in great haste. The Ministry of War Transport borrowed the British-built Empire Duke for testing purposes. Constance Tipper of Cambridge University demonstrated that the fractures did not start in the welds, but were due to the embrittlement of the steel used. When used in riveted construction, however,

7626-462: The signatories of the Declaration of Independence . 17 of the Liberty ships were named in honor of outstanding African-Americans. The first, in honor of Booker T. Washington , was christened by Marian Anderson in 1942, and the SS  Harriet Tubman , recognizing the only woman on the list, was christened on 3 June 1944. Any group that raised war bonds worth $ 2 million could propose

7719-469: Was SS  Patrick Henry , launched by President Roosevelt. In remarks at the launch ceremony FDR cited Patrick Henry 's 1775 speech that finished " Give me liberty or give me death ". Roosevelt said that this new class of ship would bring liberty to Europe, which gave rise to the name Liberty ship. The first ships required about 230 days to build ( Patrick Henry took 244 days), but the median production time per ship dropped to 39 days by 1943. The record

7812-528: Was scrapped at Kaohsiung , Taiwan . See also, similar role:- Empire ship , Fort ship , Park ship , Ocean ship . Liberty ship Liberty ships were a class of cargo ship built in the United States during World War II under the Emergency Shipbuilding Program . Although British in concept, the design was adopted by the United States for its simple, low-cost construction. Mass-produced on an unprecedented scale,

7905-646: Was a floating nuclear power plant and the first ever built. MH-1A was used to generate electricity at the Panama Canal Zone from 1968 to 1975. She was also used as a fresh water generating plant. She is anchored in the James River Reserve Fleet . The ship was dismantled in 2019 in Brownsville, Texas. Fifty-eight Liberty ships were lengthened by 70 feet (21 m) starting in 1958, giving them additional carrying capacity at

7998-404: Was considered to be a failure as reliability was poor and the scalability of the design was poor. All four vessels were fueled with Bunker C fuel oil, though John Sergeant required a quality of fuel available at limited ports and also required further treatment to reduce contaminants. Three were scrapped in 1971 or 1972 and the diesel-equipped Thomas Nelson was scrapped in 1981. In 2011,

8091-844: Was converted to a livestock ship, also called a cowboy ship. From 1945 to 1947, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and the Brethren Service Committee of the Church of the Brethren sent livestock to war-torn countries. These " seagoing cowboys " made about 360 trips on 73 different ships. The Heifers for Relief project was started by the Church of the Brethren in 1942; in 1953, this became Heifer International . Frontenac Victory made four trips moving horses, heifers, and mules, as well as

8184-439: Was declared she was worth saving, though she was low in the water. Two salvage tugs , USS  Kiowa and USS  Escape , towed Lone Jack back to port. USS Hammann escorted the three ships back to the US. Frontenac Victory returned to the US under her own power, and under the protection of USS Robert E. Peary . Frontenac Victory was repaired and put back in service. In 1946, after World War II, Frontenac Victory

8277-549: Was delivered by merchant marine ships. SS Frontenac Victory transported goods, mail, food, and other supplies, making 11 trips between 1951 and 1952. Frontenac Victory participated in the Hungnam redeployment and took supplies to Pusan, Korea . On December 21, 1952, the Liberty ship SS Quartette steamed through the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands when high winds and rough seas pushed her onto

8370-427: Was modified during construction into three major variants with the same basic dimensions and slight variance in tonnage. One variant, with basically the same features but different type numbers, had four rather than five holds served by large hatches and kingpost with large capacity booms. Those four hold ships were designated for transport of tanks and boxed aircraft. In the detailed Federal Register publication of

8463-588: Was passed to subsidize the annual construction of 50 commercial merchant vessels which could be used in wartime by the United States Navy as naval auxiliaries, crewed by U.S. Merchant Mariners . The number was doubled in 1939 and again in 1940 to 200 ships a year. Ship types included two tankers and three types of merchant vessel, all to be powered by steam turbines . Limited industrial capacity, especially for reduction gears, meant that relatively few of these designs of ships were built. However, in 1940,

8556-500: Was set by SS  Robert E. Peary , which was launched 4 days and 15 1 ⁄ 2 hours after the keel had been laid, although this publicity stunt was not repeated: in fact much fitting-out and other work remained to be done after the Peary was launched. The ships were made assembly-line style, from prefabricated sections. In 1943 three Liberty ships were completed daily. They were usually named after famous Americans, starting with

8649-489: Was viewed as a plant that would be productive in the West Indies. The name sorghum derives from Italian sorgo , which in turn most likely comes from 12th century Medieval Latin surgum or suricum . This in turn may be from Latin syricum , meaning "[grass] of Syria". Most varieties of sorghum are drought - and heat-tolerant, nitrogen -efficient, and are grown particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where

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