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127-588: Smithsonian Libraries and Archives is an institutional archives and library system comprising 21 branch libraries serving the various Smithsonian Institution museums and research centers . The Libraries and Archives serve Smithsonian Institution staff as well as the scholarly community and general public with information and reference support. Its collections number nearly 3 million volumes including 50,000 rare books and manuscripts. The Libraries' collections focus primarily on science, art, history and culture, and museology . The archives include materials documenting

254-784: A Digitization Suite in the Natural History Building in Washington, D.C. Macaw is an open-source metadata collection tool written by Joel Richard in the Digital Services Division. Macaw accomplishes 3 tasks in the scanning workflow: (1) import and manage images from input device (scanner or camera); (2) collect page-level metadata about physical aspects of scanned page; (3) post-processing and exporting digital book to other systems. The Libraries frequently creates exhibitions, often in collaboration with other organizations and scholars within and outside

381-532: A Preservation Education Directory of ALA Accredited schools in the U.S. and Canada offering courses in preservation. The directory is updated approximately every three years. The 10th Edition was made available on the ALCTS web site in March 2015. Additional preservation education is available to librarians through various professional organizations, such as: Limited, tax-driven funding can often interfere with

508-584: A botanical garden, and a museum that was designed to have a national and permanent status. The former occupied space where the present Botanic Garden sits. The museum contained specimens of zoology, botany, archeology, fossils, etc., some of which were passed on to the Smithsonian Institution after its formation. The institute's charter expired in 1838, but its spirit lived on in the National Institution , founded in 1840. With

635-503: A chemical laboratory, a gallery of art, lecture rooms, and a library. The Smithsonian Libraries system as it exists today was not established until 1968, when Secretary S. Dillon Ripley realized that the existing library organization was greatly in need of an overhaul. He created a new position, Director of the Smithsonian Institution Libraries, and hired Russell Shank to fill the role. Shank reorganized

762-574: A collection. Considerations include existing condition, rarity, and evidentiary and market values. With non-paper formats, the availability of equipment to access the information will be a factor (for example, playback equipment for audio-visual materials, or microform readers). An institution should determine how many, if any, other institutions hold the material, and consider coordinating efforts with those that do. Institutions should establish an environment that prioritizes preservation and create an understanding among administration and staff. Additionally,

889-654: A conservation lab." The Smithsonian Libraries and Smithsonian Institution Archives merged in December 2020. The collections held by the Libraries reflect the various disciplines and scholarly pursuits of the curators and researchers of the Smithsonian Institution. Strengths in the collections include the following areas: The Smithsonian Libraries also holds the United States ' largest trade literature collection, which includes nearly commercial catalogs dating from

1016-403: A constant humidity in the middle or low range. Generally, the relative humidity should be between 30–50% with as little variation as possible, however recommendations on specific levels to maintain vary depending on the type of material, i.e. paper-based, film, etc. A specialized dew point calculator for book preservation is available. Pests, such as insects and vermin, eat and destroy paper and

1143-620: A crucial resource for research and education communities at the Smithsonian, within the United States, and around the world. The original library was founded by an Act of Congress on August 10, 1846, when the Smithsonian Institution was named a trust instrumentality of the United States. The Act created a Board of Regents for the Institution, and called for a building to house a museum with geological and mineralogical cabinets,

1270-442: A different mechanism of decay. The preferred method for storing manuscripts , archival records, and other paper documents is to place them in acid-free paper folders which are then placed in acid-free of low-lignin boxes for further protection. Similarly, books that are fragile, valuable, oddly shaped, or in need of protection can be stored in archival boxes and enclosures. Additionally, housing books can protect them from many of

1397-599: A growth in the number of Smithsonian Libraries branches, brought about by a range of donations to the Institution. In 1976, ten thousand rare scientific books and manuscripts were gifted to the Smithsonian by the Burndy Library , prompting the creation of the Dibner Library of the History of Science and Technology under the Smithsonian umbrella. Several years later, large donations of artifact collections led to

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1524-591: A paid, one-month internship. Pilar O'Leary launched the program when she served as executive director of the Smithsonian Latino Center. According to the Latino Center, O'Leary told the press in 2007: "Our goal is to help our Young Ambassadors become the next generation of leaders in the arts and culture fields. This program encourages students to be proud of their roots and learn more about their cultural heritage to inspire them to educate

1651-399: A preservation program is to assess the institution's existing preservation needs. This process entails identifying the general and specific needs of the collection, establishing priorities, and gathering the resources to execute the plan. Because budget and time limitations require priorities to be set, standards have been established by the profession to determine what should be preserved in

1778-438: A preservation survey: general preservation assessment, collection condition surveys, and an item-by-item survey. General condition surveys can be part of a library inventory . Selection for treatment determines the survival of materials and should be done by a specialist, whether in relation to an established collection development policy or on an item by item basis. Once an object or collection has been chosen for preservation,

1905-471: A promising area for future preservation, there are also problems. The main problems are that digital space costs money, media and file formats may become obsolete, and backwards compatibility is not guaranteed. Higher-quality images take a longer time to scan, but are often more valuable for future use. Fragile items are often more difficult or more expensive to scan, which creates a selection problem for preservationists where they must decide if digital access in

2032-565: A tenure as Archivist which included the 1973 establishment of an oral history program, and the 1976 relocation of the Archives to the Arts and Industries Building . Most of the Smithsonian museums increased acquisitions and conducted surveys during this period; new guides were issued 1971 and 1978. In 1981, William A. Deiss became Acting Archivist, upon Lytle's departure to head up the Smithsonian's computer services. 1983 saw yet another new guide to

2159-464: A year and includes as ex officio members the chief justice of the United States and the vice president of the United States . The nominal head of the institution is the chancellor , an office which has traditionally been held by the chief justice. In September 2007, the board created the position of chair of the Board of Regents, a position currently held by Risa Lavizzo-Mourey . Other members of

2286-793: Is a founding member and is the headquarters for the Biodiversity Heritage Library . Digitized books are provided through the Biodiversity Heritage Library and indexed in both the Smithsonian's Collections Search and through the Digital Public Library of America. Their mass digitization efforts operation partners with the Internet Archive . In-house digitization locations include an Imaging Center in Landover, Maryland, and

2413-556: Is achieved through scanning an item and saving it to a digital format. For example, the Google Book Search program has partnered with over forty libraries around the world to digitize books. The goal of this library partnership project is to "make it easier for people to find relevant books – specifically, books they wouldn't find any other way such as those that are out of print – while carefully respecting authors' and publishers' copyrights." Although digitization seems to be

2540-750: Is also located at the National Museum of Natural History. Additionally, the National Air and Space Museum Library features special collections housed in both the Dewitt Clinton Ramsey Room and the Aerospace Legacy Materials Collection Gift Collection (ALM Collection). Located in the National Air and Space Museum's Mall location, the Dewitt Clinton Ramsey Room houses rare books, serials, oral histories, vertical files, and

2667-429: Is another name for digitization, and is the term more commonly used in archival courses. The main goal of digital preservation is to guarantee that people will have access to the digitally preserved materials long into the future. When practicing preservation, one has several factors to consider in order to properly preserve a record: 1) the storage environment of the record, 2) the criteria to determine when preservation

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2794-424: Is considered to have two major components: importance and quality. "Importance" relates to the collection's role as a record, and "quality" covers comprehensiveness, depth, uniqueness, authenticity and reputation of the collection. Moreover, analyzing the significance of materials can be used to uncover more about their meaning. Assessment of significance can also aid in documenting the provenance and context to argue

2921-472: Is especially common in art museums . Museums typically hold to the same practices led by archival institutions. Preservation as a formal profession in libraries and archives dates from the twentieth century, but its philosophy and practice has roots in many earlier traditions. In many ancient societies, appeals to heavenly protectors were used to preserve books, scrolls and manuscripts from insects, fire and decay. Human record-keeping arguably dates back to

3048-421: Is important that preservation specialists be respectful of cultural property and the societies that created it, and it is also important for them to be aware of international and national laws pertaining to stolen items. In recent years there has been a rise in nations seeking out artifacts that have been stolen and are now in museums. In many cases museums are working with the nations to find a compromise to balance

3175-409: Is interested, might be interested or ought to be interested". Another Secretary of the Smithsonian, Walter Boyne, founded Air & Space . The organization publishes under the imprints Smithsonian Institution Press, Smithsonian Books, and Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. The Smithsonian makes a number of awards to acknowledge and support meritorious work. The Smithsonian Institution

3302-519: Is necessary, 3) what the standard preservation practices are for that particular institution, 4) research and testing, and 5) if any vendor services will be needed for further preservation and potentially conservation. Environmental controls are necessary to facilitate the preservation of organic materials and are especially important to monitor in rare and special collections . Key environmental factors to watch include temperature , relative humidity , pests, pollutants, and light exposure. In general,

3429-472: Is often resolved by a number of measures which can include heightened security, requiring the use of gloves for photographs, restricting the materials researchers may bring with them into a reading room, and restricting use of materials to patrons who are not able to satisfy their research needs with less valuable copies of an item. These restrictions can be considered hindrances to researchers who feel that these measures are in place solely to keep materials out of

3556-483: Is part of the larger Technical Services Division. It offers services on a fee basis to other archives and repositories, including offsite storage at the Boyers, Pennsylvania facility. The Smithsonian Center for Archives Conservation was created with initial funding of $ 100,000, provided by Eleanor McMillan, which supported the salary of a paper conservator. The Institutional History Division has authored an online history of

3683-665: Is that of digitization of original material to maintain the intellectual content of the material while ignoring the physical nature of the book. Further, the Modern Language Association 's Committee on the Future of the Print Record structured its "Statement on the Significance of Primary Records" on the inherent theoretical ideology that there is a need to preserve as many copies of a printed edition as

3810-593: The Biodiversity Heritage Library and the Digital Public Library of America . Formerly two separate units within the Smithsonian, the Smithsonian Libraries and Smithsonian Institution Archives merged in 2020. The Smithsonian Libraries promotes new ideas through knowledge sharing. We play a dynamic role in advancing scientific and cultural understanding and in preserving America's heritage. Our expert staff and extensive collections are

3937-683: The Hirshhorn Museum Library Audio Archive , Postal Files at the Smithsonian National Postal Museum Library , the E. F. Caldwell & Co. Collection of lighting fixtures at the Cooper-Hewitt Museum Library , and Art & Artists Files . Smithsonian Research Online provides a database of citations and full texts of publications by Smithsonian scholars and scientists. The Smithsonian Libraries

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4064-544: The Marquis de Lafayette . Operating expenses were covered from the $ 5 yearly dues collected from each member. The institute proposed a number of undertakings. These included the study of plant life and the creation of a botanical garden on the Capitol Mall , an examination of the country's mineral production, improvement in the management and care of livestock, and the writing of a topographical and statistical history of

4191-777: The National Museum of African Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery opened in a new, joint, underground museum between the Freer Gallery and the Smithsonian Castle. Reuse of another old building came in 1993 with the opening of the National Postal Museum in the 1904 former City Post Office building, a few city blocks from the Mall. In 2004, the Smithsonian opened the National Museum of

4318-602: The National Museum of African Art , as well as the National Gallery of Art , were formally returned to Nigerian cultural officials in a ceremony held in Washington D.C. The Nigerian Minister of Information and Culture, Lai Mohammed , and Prince Aghatise Erediauwa, representing the Oba of Benin Kingdom, spoke at the ceremony. Mohammed said the "decision to return the timeless artworks is worth emulating." In February 2020,

4445-498: The Renwick Gallery . A smaller amount of funds would go to educational initiatives and digitization of collections. As of September 2017, the Smithsonian claimed to have raised $ 1.79 billion, with three months left in the formal campaign calendar. Separately from the major capital campaign, the Smithsonian has begun fundraising through Kickstarter . An example is a campaign to fund the preservation and maintenance of

4572-505: The Smithsonian , is a group of museums , education and research centers , the largest such complex in the world, created by the U.S. government "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge." Founded on August 10, 1846, it operates as a trust instrumentality and is not formally a part of any of the three branches of the federal government . The institution is named after its founding donor, British scientist James Smithson . It

4699-541: The Smithsonian American Women's History Museum . In 2011, the Smithsonian undertook its first-ever capital fundraising campaign. The $ 1.5 billion effort raised $ 1 billion at the three-year mark. Smithsonian officials made the campaign public in October 2014 in an effort to raise the remaining $ 500 million. More than 60,000 individuals and organizations donated money to the campaign by

4826-632: The South Pacific Ocean . These specimens and artifacts became part of the Smithsonian collections, as did those collected by several military and civilian surveys of the American West , including the Mexican Boundary Survey and Pacific Railroad Surveys , which assembled many Native American artifacts and natural history specimens. In 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation; in 1847, money

4953-525: The cave painting boom of the Upper Paleolithic , some 32,000–40,000 years ago. More direct antecedents are the writing systems that developed in the 4th millennium BC. Written record keeping and information sharing practices, along with oral tradition , sustain and transmit information from one group to another. This level of preservation has been supplemented over the last century with the professional practice of preservation and conservation in

5080-458: The deaccession and restitution of items collected under circumstances considered unethical by contemporary standards and thus places moral over legal arguments. A month before, the Smithsonian's National Museum of African Art had announced the planned return of most of its 39 Benin Bronzes to Nigeria , as well as of other cultural items to Turkey . On October 11, 2022, Benin Bronzes from

5207-542: The privilege of the floor at the United States Senate . On September 18, 2013, Secretary G. Wayne Clough announced he would retire in October 2014. The Smithsonian Board of Regents said it asked regent John McCarter, Jr., to lead a search committee. On March 10, 2014, the Smithsonian Board selected David Skorton , a physician and president of Cornell University , as the thirteenth secretary of

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5334-1074: The ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland for her role as Dorothy Gale in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . Nineteen museums and galleries, as well as the National Zoological Park , comprise the Smithsonian museums. Eleven are on the National Mall , the park that runs between the Lincoln Memorial and the United States Capitol . Other museums are located elsewhere in Washington, D.C., with two more in New York City and one in Chantilly, Virginia . The Smithsonian has close ties with 168 other museums in 39 states, Panama , and Puerto Rico . These museums are known as Smithsonian Affiliated museums. Collections of artifacts are given to these museums in

5461-611: The American Indian in a new building near the United States Capitol . Twelve years later almost to the day, in 2016, the latest museum opened: the National Museum of African American History and Culture , in a new building near the Washington Monument . Two more museums have been established and are being planned for eventual construction on the mall: the National Museum of the American Latino and

5588-562: The Archives' resources more readily accessible to historians through better identification, preservation , and cataloging of Smithsonian documents." The Archives were physically relocated to the Smithsonian Castle , and received separate line-item funding. Nathan Reingold, the editor of the Joseph Henry Papers Project, served as Acting Archivist from 1969 to 1970. In January 1970, Richard H. Lytle began

5715-582: The Archives. He served until 1907. Current records and historical files were maintained by Office of the Secretary's administrative staff through the middle of the 20th century. John F. Jameson III became Archivist in 1958. His successor, John DeGurse, Jr., served from 1960 to 1964. Beginning in 1965, Smithsonian Archivist Samuel T. Suratt was charged with "development of the Archives as a facility for historical research in American Science by making

5842-689: The Association of North American Graduate Programs in the Conservation of Cultural Property (ANAGPIC). Another educational resource available to preservationists is the Northeast Document Conservation Center or NEDCC. The Preservation, Planning and Publications Committee of the Preservation and Reformatting Section (PARS) in the Association for Library Collections & Technical Services has created

5969-640: The Bella Landauer Collection of sheet music. Housed in the Smithsonian Institution Libraries’ Research Annex in Landover, Maryland, the ALM Collection is a growing body of largely grey literature in the form of government manuals, reports, studies, and surveys capturing the history and evolution of civil aviation. The organization's archives consist of material related to art, history, science and

6096-567: The Board of Regents are three members of the U.S. House of Representatives appointed by the speaker of the House ; three members of the Senate, appointed by the president pro tempore of the Senate ; and nine citizen members, nominated by the board and approved by the Congress in a joint resolution signed by the president of the United States. Regents who are senators or representatives serve for

6223-481: The Digital Preservation Network strive to ensure that "the complete scholarly record is preserved for future generations". The Library of Congress maintains a Sustainability of Digital Formats web site that educates institutions on various aspects of preservation: most notably, on approximately 200 digital format types and which are most likely to last into the future. Digital Preservation

6350-602: The GDP at the time it may be more comparable to $ 220 million in the year 2007. Once the money was in hand, eight years of congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithson's rather vague mandate "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge." The money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas, which soon defaulted. After heated debate, Massachusetts representative (and former president) John Quincy Adams persuaded Congress to restore

6477-423: The History of Science and Technology contains 35,000 books and 2,000 manuscripts related to the history of science and technology. Established in 1976 with a donation from Bern Dibner , the Dibner Library is housed in the National Museum of American History . The Cullman Library of Natural History holds some 10,000 volumes published before 1840 in the fields of anthropology and natural sciences. The Cullman Library

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6604-445: The National Museum of African-American Heritage and Culture. The opening of the center was prompted, in part, by the publishing of a report called "Willful Neglect: The Smithsonian and U.S. Latinos". According to documents obtained by The Washington Post , when former Latino Center executive director Pilar O'Leary first took the job, the center faced employees who had "serious performance issues". No performance plans existed for

6731-444: The Smithsonian Institution Libraries formally changed its name to Smithsonian Libraries "to simplify and strengthen the Libraries as part of an overall rebranding in the modern era". The Smithsonian Libraries and Smithsonian Institution Archives merged in December 2020 and the organization changed its name to the Smithsonian Libraries and Archives. In 1891, William Jones Rhees, Chief Clerk of the Smithsonian Institution, became Keeper of

6858-416: The Smithsonian Libraries and Smithsonian Archives merged into one research center in 2020. The Smithsonian Institution includes three cultural centers among its units: In 1997, the Smithsonian Latino Center was created as a way to recognize Latinos across the Smithsonian Institution. The primary purpose of the center is to place Latino contributions to the arts, history, science, and national culture across

6985-646: The Smithsonian and funds to build the museum to hold it (which was named the Freer Gallery ), it was among the Smithsonian's first major donations from a private individual. The gallery opened in 1923. More than 40 years would pass before the next museum, the Museum of History and Technology (renamed the National Museum of American History in 1980), opened in 1964. It was designed by the world-renowned firm of McKim, Mead & White . The Anacostia Community Museum , an "experimental store-front" museum created at

7112-501: The Smithsonian made 2.8 million digital items available to the public under a Creative Commons Zero Public Domain Dedication, with a commitment to release further items in the future. The Smithsonian has eight research centers, located in Washington, D.C.; Front Royal, Virginia ; Edgewater, Maryland ; Suitland, Maryland ; Fort Pierce, Florida ; Cambridge, Massachusetts ; and Panama . Formerly two separate entities,

7239-666: The Smithsonian websites. It has also conducted joint research on e-mail record preservation with the Rockefeller Archive Center . The Smithsonian Institution Archives moved into the Capital Gallery Building in August 2006, and has "a state-of-the-art storage facility; a reading room; several special viewing/listening rooms; processing and preservation space; digital imaging and audiovisual processing facilities; an oral history interview studio; and

7366-683: The Smithsonian's Department of Living Animals. The park was designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted . The National Museum of Natural History opened in June 1911 to similarly accommodate the Smithsonian's United States National Museum, which had previously been housed in the Castle and then the Arts and Industries Building. This structure was designed by the D.C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall . When Detroit philanthropist Charles Lang Freer donated his private collection to

7493-411: The Smithsonian's museums and research centers. The center is a division of the Smithsonian Institution. As of May 2016, the center is run by an executive director, Eduardo Díaz. At the time of its creation, the Smithsonian Institution had other entities dedicated to other minority groups: National Museum of the American Indian, Freer-Sackler Gallery for Asian Arts and Culture, African Art Museum, and

7620-411: The Smithsonian, and provides web access to over 3,000 digital images. The 12-volume Joseph Henry Papers Project , a history of the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, was published in 2007. The Electronic Records Division has held digital records since the mid-1990s, and works with " risk management , preservation and conservation" of data in current and obsolete formats, including archiving of

7747-484: The Smithsonian, slightly increased from previous years. Institution exhibits are free of charge, though in 2010 the Deficit Commission recommended admission fees. As approved by Congress on August 10, 1846, the legislation that created the Smithsonian Institution called for the creation of a Board of Regents to govern and administer the organization. This seventeen-member board meets at least four times

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7874-532: The Smithsonian. Though the Smithsonian's first secretary, Joseph Henry , wanted the institution to be a center for scientific research, it also became the depository for various Washington and U.S. government collections. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U.S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842. The voyage amassed thousands of animal specimens, an herbarium of 50,000 plant specimens, and diverse shells and minerals, tropical birds, jars of seawater, and ethnographic artifacts from

8001-426: The Smithsonian. Many exhibitions have a digital component. A representative selection of Smithsonian Libraries and Archives exhibits include Artists Books and Africa , Once There Were Billions: Vanished Birds of North America , Cultivating America's Gardens , Fantastic Worlds , and Paper Engineering: Fold, Pull, Pop & Turn . Additionally, Smithsonian Libraries is the home of Library and Archival Exhibitions on

8128-451: The Smithsonian. Skorton took the reins of the institution on July 1, 2015. Upon Skorton's announced resignation in 2019, the Board selected Lonnie Bunch III , the founding director of the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture , as the fourteenth secretary. Preservation (library and archival science) Preservation should be distinguished from interventive conservation and restoration , which refers to

8255-505: The Special Collections Department which is primarily dedicated to that purpose. According to its mission statement, "The Special Collections Department arranges, describes, houses, and provides access to the rare books, manuscripts, and special collections held in the two dedicated special collections libraries of Smithsonian Institution Libraries." Access is provided to Smithsonian Institution curators, researchers, and other staff as well as outside scholars by appointment. The Dibner Library of

8382-414: The United States. Reports were to be published periodically to share this knowledge with the greater public, but due to a lack of funds, this initially did not occur. The institute first met in Blodget's Hotel, later in the Treasury Department and City Hall, before being assigned a permanent home in 1824 in the Capitol building. Beginning in 1825, weekly sittings were arranged during sessions of Congress for

8509-740: The Web . This international database features over 3,000 links to online exhibitions from libraries, archives, historical societies, museums, and other scholarly institutions around the world. The Smithsonian Libraries and Archives offers research opportunities for historians, librarians, pre-doctoral and post-doctoral scholars wishing to conduct research in the history of science and technology or in areas pertaining to other special collections: Also offered are internship opportunities for students and recent graduates who wish to gain experience in archives or museum libraries. Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( / s m ɪ θ ˈ s oʊ n i ə n / smith- SOH -nee-ən ), or simply

8636-740: The ability for public libraries to engage in extensive preservation activities. Materials, particularly books, are often much easier to replace than to repair when damaged or worn. Public libraries usually try to tailor their services to meet the needs and desires of their local communities, which could cause an emphasis on acquiring new materials over preserving old ones. Librarians working in public facilities frequently have to make complicated decisions about how to best serve their patrons. Commonly, public library systems work with each other and sometimes with more academic libraries through interlibrary loan programs. By sharing resources, they are able to expand upon what might be available to their own patrons and share

8763-487: The adhesive that secures book bindings. Food and drink in libraries, archives, and museums can increase the attraction of pests. An Integrated Pest Management system is one way to control pests in libraries. Particulate and gaseous pollutants, such as soot, ozone , sulfur dioxide , oxides of nitrogen, can cause dust, soiling, and irreversible molecular damage to materials. Pollutants are exceedingly small and not easily detectable or removable. A special filtration system in

8890-478: The archival community have explored the possible moral responsibility to preserve all cultural phenomena, in regards to the concept of monumental preservation. Other advocates argue that such an undertaking is something that the indigenous or native communities that produce such cultural objects are better suited to perform. Currently, however, many indigenous communities are not financially able to support their own archives and museums. Still, indigenous archives are on

9017-405: The binding and pages, which may cause the binding to crack and/or the pages to warp. Changes in temperature and humidity should be done slowly so as to minimize the difference in expansion rates. However, an accelerated aging study on the effects of fluctuating temperature and humidity on paper color and strength showed no evidence that cycling of one temperature to another or one RH to another caused

9144-479: The building's HVAC is a helpful defense. Exposure to light also has a significant effect on materials. It is not only the light visible to humans that can cause damage, but also ultraviolet light and infrared radiation. Measured in lux or the amount of lumens/m , the generally accepted level of illumination with sensitive materials is limited to 50 lux per day. Materials receiving more lux than recommended can be placed in dark storage periodically to prolong

9271-761: The burdens of preservation across a greater array of systems. Archival facilities focus specifically on rare and fragile materials. With staff trained in appropriate techniques, archives are often available to many public and private library facilities as an alternative to destroying older materials. Items that are unique, such as photographs, or items that are out of print, can be preserved in archival facilities more easily than in many library settings. Because so many museum holdings are unique, including print materials, art, and other objects, preservationists are often most active in this setting; however, since most holdings are usually much more fragile, or possibly corrupted, conservation may be more necessary than preservation. This

9398-508: The case for grant funding for the object and collection. Forms of significance can be historically, culturally, socially, or spiritually significant. In the preservation context, libraries and archives make decisions in different ways. In libraries, decision-making likely targets existing holding materials, whereas in archives, decisions for preservation are often made when they acquire materials. Therefore, different criteria might be needed on different occasions. In general, for archive criteria,

9525-432: The conservator is dealing with cultural objects. The AIC Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice has addressed such concerns, stating "All actions of the conservation professional must be governed by an informed respect for cultural property, its unique character and significance and the people or person who created it." This can be applied in both the care and long-term storage of objects in archives and institutions. It

9652-460: The conservator should do what is best for the object in question and not yield to pressure or opinion from outside sources. Conservators should refer to the AIC Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice, which states that the conservation professional must "strive to attain the highest possible standards in all aspects of conservation." One instance in which these decisions may get tricky is when

9779-565: The construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881. Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, based on original plans developed by Major General Montgomery C. Meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers . It opened in 1881. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate

9906-452: The contributing factors to book damage: pests, light, temperature changes, and water. Contamination can occur at the time of manufacture, especially with electronic materials. It must be stopped before it spreads, but it is usually irreversible. Making a proper decision is an important factor before starting preservation practices. Decision making for preservation should be made considering significance and value of materials. Significance

10033-499: The cultural heritage community. The Paul Banks and Carolyn Harris Preservation Award for outstanding preservation specialists in library and archival science, is given annually by the Association for Library Collections & Technical Services, a subdivision of the American Library Association . It is awarded in recognition of professional preservation specialists who have made significant contributions to

10160-401: The duration of their elected terms, while citizen Regents serve a maximum of two six-year terms. Regents are compensated on a part-time basis. The chief executive officer (CEO) of the Smithsonian is the secretary, who is appointed by the Board of Regents. The secretary also serves as secretary to the Board of Regents but is not a voting member of that body. The secretary of the Smithsonian has

10287-484: The early nineteenth century, representing about 40,000 companies. Most of the Smithsonian Libraries are located in the Washington, D.C., area, where most of the Smithsonian Institution's museums and research centers are. Other locations include New York City; Suitland, Maryland; Edgewater, Maryland; and the Republic of Panama. While all Smithsonian libraries hold some special collections material, two libraries comprise

10414-589: The expanding repositories, and the appointment of William W. Moss as Director. By fiscal year 1988, the stacks in the Arts and Industry Building had filled up, and about 5,000 cubic feet of records were sent to leased warehouses at Fullerton Industrial Park, South Springfield, Virginia. New developments included the Smithsonian Archives and Special Collections Council, The Smithsonian Videohistory Program, which collected interviews focused on American science starting in 1987, and an "exhaustive survey" of

10541-501: The field of conservation and preservation. Everything from how to preserve paper media to creating and maintaining electronic resources and gauging their digital permanence is being explored by students and professionals in archives/libraries. The two main issues that most institutions tend to face are the rapid disintegration of acidic paper and water damage (due to flooding, plumbing problems, etc.). Therefore, these areas of preservation, as well as new digital technologies, receive much of

10668-443: The field. Reformatting, or in any other way copying an item's contents, raises obvious copyright issues. In many cases, a library is allowed to make a limited number of copies of an item for preservation purposes. In the United States, certain exceptions have been made for libraries and archives. Ethics will play an important role in many aspects of the conservator's activities. When choosing which objects are in need of treatment,

10795-944: The form of long-term loans. The Smithsonian also has a large number of traveling exhibitions, operated through the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service (SITES). In 2008, 58 of these traveling exhibitions went to 510 venues across the country. Smithsonian collections include 156 million artworks, artifacts, and specimens. The National Museum of Natural History houses 145 million of these specimens and artifacts, which are mostly animals preserved in formaldehyde. The Collections Search Center has 9.9 million digital records available online. The Smithsonian Institution Libraries hold 2 million library volumes. Smithsonian Archives hold 156,830 cubic feet (4,441 m ) of archival material. The Smithsonian Institution has many categories of displays that can be visited at

10922-443: The formation of new museums for subjects such as African art , American Indian culture and postal history and a new library branch was subsequently formed for each of these as well. The 1990s introduced an expansion of the Libraries' focus to improve their ability to reach and educate the general public. The introduction of electronic and Internet technology played a large role in spurring this new outreach endeavor. In 1999, under

11049-513: The future is worth potentially damaging the item during the scanning process. Other problems include scan quality, redundancy of digitized books among different libraries, and copyright law. However, many of these problems are being solved through educational initiatives. Educational programs are tailoring themselves to fit preservation needs and help new students understand preservation practices. Programs teaching graduate students about digital librarianship are especially important. Groups such as

11176-537: The hands of the public. There is also controversy surrounding preservation methods. A major controversy at the end of the twentieth century centered on the practice of discarding items that had been microfilmed. This was the subject of novelist Nicholson Baker 's book Double Fold , which chronicled his efforts to save many old runs of American newspapers (formerly owned by the British Library) from being sold to dealers or pulped. A similar concern persists over

11303-655: The history of the 19 museums and galleries, the National Zoological Park, 9 research facilities, and the people of the Smithsonian. The Smithsonian Libraries and Archives is dedicated to advancing scientific and cultural understanding as well as preserving American heritage. The organization's Book Conservation Lab and other preservation efforts work to ensure long-term access to library and archival resources. Additional efforts include educational programs for learners of all ages, hosting internships and fellowships, and participating in collaborative projects such as

11430-821: The humanities. This includes document, image, audio-visual, electronic, oral history, and video history collections about expeditions, biographies, and general history about the Smithsonian Institution. Digital initiatives are conducted by cross-disciplinary teams that include staff from the Division of Digital Programs and Initiatives and other divisions. They include publications, images, collections and objects such as online exhibits, webcasts, finding aids, digital versions of print editions, bibliographies, etc. The organization's digital collections include over 35,000 digitized books and manuscripts along with digitized photo collections, ephemera, and seed catalogs. Separately indexed collections of bibliographies, photos, and ephemera include

11557-857: The initiative of Smithsonian Secretary S. Dillon Ripley , opened in the Anacostia neighborhood of Washington, D.C., in 1967. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration (now the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum ). The National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building (built in 1867) on October 7, 1968. The reuse of an older building continued with

11684-494: The institution's 30 million annual visitors are admitted without charge, the exception being Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum in New York City, which charges an admissions fee. The Smithsonian's annual budget is around $ 1.25 billion, with two-thirds coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the institution's endowment , private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, and licensing revenue. As of 2021,

11811-457: The institution's commitment to preservation should be communicated to funders and stakeholders so that funds can be allocated towards preservation efforts. The first steps an institution should implement, according to the NEDCC, are to establish a policy that defines and charts the course of action and create a framework for carrying out goals and priorities. There are three methods for carrying out

11938-552: The institution's endowment had a total value of about $ 5.4 billion. In many ways, the origin of the Smithsonian Institution can be traced to a group of Washington citizens who, being "impressed with the importance of forming an association for promoting useful knowledge," met on June 28, 1816, to establish the Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences . Officers were elected in October 1816, and

12065-429: The introduction of passive preservation techniques. Rather than maintaining a flat line, consistent 24/7 condition for a collection's environment, fluctuation can occur within acceptable limits to create a preservation environment while also thinking of energy efficiency and taking advantage of the outside environment. Bound materials are sensitive to rapid temperature or humidity cycling due to differential expansion of

12192-433: The leadership of director Robert Maloy, Smithsonian Libraries staff completed a fourteen-year long effort to create a public access online catalog, with 97 percent of their then-holdings gaining digital records. The Smithsonian Research Information System (SIRIS) was introduced in the 2000s, providing the capability to search records of text, images, video and sound files from across the Smithsonian Institution. In March 2013,

12319-478: The legacy bequeathed to the nation and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1, 1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest. Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns . This is approximately $ 500,000 at the time, which is equivalent to $ 14,000,000 in 2023 or equivalent to £12,000,000 in 2023. However, when considering

12446-579: The library staff and procedures, and created a modern, unified system with central services and a union catalog. By 1977, when Shank left, the quality and research value of the scientific collections were recognized nationally, and SIL was invited to join the Association of Research Libraries . SIL was granted a seat on the executive board of the Federal Libraries and Information Centers Coordinating Committee. The late 1970s and 1980s also saw

12573-400: The lost funds with interest and, despite designs on the money for other purposes, convinced his colleagues to preserve it for an institution of science and learning. Finally, on August 10, 1846, President James K. Polk signed the legislation that established the Smithsonian Institution as a trust instrumentality of the United States, to be administered by a Board of Regents and a secretary of

12700-684: The lower the temperature is, the better it is for the collection. However, since books and other materials are often housed in areas with people, a compromise must be struck to accommodate human comfort. A reasonable temperature to accomplish both goals is 65–68˚F (18–20 °C) however, if possible, film and photography collections should be kept in a segregated area at 55 ˚F (13 °C). Books and other materials take up and give off moisture making them sensitive to relative humidity. Very high humidity encourages mold growth and insect infestations. Low humidity causes materials to lose their flexibility. Fluctuations in relative humidity are more damaging than

12827-452: The mission to "promote science and the useful arts, and to establish a national museum of natural history," this organization continued to press Congress to establish a museum that would be structured in terms that were very similar to those finally incorporated into the founding of the Smithsonian Institution. Its work helped to develop an underlying philosophy that pushed for the pursuit and development of scientific knowledge that would benefit

12954-629: The museums. In 1912, First Lady Helen Herron Taft donated her inauguration gown to the museum to begin the First Ladies' Gown display at the National Museum of American History , one of the Smithsonian's most popular exhibits. The museum displays treasures such as the Star-Spangled Banner , the stove pipe hat that was worn by President Abraham Lincoln , the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland in The Wizard Of Oz , and

13081-473: The nation, and edify its citizens at the same time. The British scientist James Smithson (1765–1829) left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford. When Hungerford died childless in 1835, the estate passed "to the United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an Establishment for the increase & diffusion of knowledge among men", in accordance with Smithson's will. Congress officially accepted

13208-744: The need for reliable supervision as well as access for both the public and researchers. Conservators are not just bound by ethics to treat cultural and religious objects with respect, but also in some cases by law. For example, in the United States, conservators must comply with the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). The First Archivists Circle, a group of Native American archivists, has also created Protocols for Native American Archival Materials. The non-binding guidelines are suggestions for libraries and archives with Native American archival materials. The care of cultural and sacred objects often affects

13335-621: The opening of the Renwick Gallery in 1972 in the 1874 Renwick-designed art gallery originally built by local philanthropist William Wilson Corcoran to house the Corcoran Gallery of Art . The first new museum building to open since the National Museum of History and Technology was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden , which opened in 1974. The National Air and Space Museum , the Smithsonian's largest in terms of floor space, opened in June 1976. Eleven years later,

13462-809: The organization was granted a charter by Congress on April 20, 1818 (this charter expired in 1838). Benjamin Latrobe , who was architect for the US Capitol after the War of 1812, and William Thornton , the architect who designed the Octagon House and Tudor Place , would serve as officers. Other prominent members, who numbered from 30 to 70 during the institute's existence, included John Quincy Adams , Andrew Jackson , Henry Clay , Judge William Cranch , and James Hoban . Honorary members included James Madison , James Monroe , John Adams , Thomas Jefferson , and

13589-443: The original Teddy Bear that was named after President Theodore Roosevelt . In 2016, the Smithsonian's Air & Space museum curators restored the large model Enterprise from the original Star Trek TV series. Following international debates about the decolonisation of museums and the legal and moral justifications of their acquisitions, the Smithsonian adopted a new "ethical returns policy" on April 29, 2022. This will permit

13716-429: The original appearance of the object. Recent concerns about the impact of climate change on the management of cultural heritage objects as well as the historic environment has prompted research efforts to investigate alternative climate control methods and strategies that include the implementation of alternative climate control systems to replace or supplement traditional high-energy consuming HVAC systems as well as

13843-437: The photographs housed in Smithsonian facilities. Moss continued as director of the reorganized Office of Smithsonian Institution Archives in 1993, which contained an Archives Division, an Institutional History Division, and a National Collections Program. Pamela M. Henson succeeded Moss as Acting Director in 1993, followed by John F. Jameson Fr. in 1994. In 1994, Edie Hedlin became Director. She served until 2005, presiding over

13970-583: The physical storage or the object. For example, sacred objects of the native peoples of the Western United States are supposed to be stored with sage to ensure their spiritual well-being. The idea of storing an object with plant material is inherently problematic to an archival collection because of the possibility of insect infestation. When conservators have faced this problem, they have addressed it by using freeze-dried sage, thereby meeting both conservation and cultural needs. Some individuals in

14097-495: The points include: For archival criteria, the following are evidence of significance: Since the 1970s, the Northeast Document Conservation Center has stated that the study of understanding the needs of the archive/library is inherently important to their survival. To prolong the life of a collection, it is important that a systematic preservation plan is in place. The first step in planning

14224-678: The present (as of 2012) Director, Anne Van Camp . The Archives division consisted of three divisions: a Records Management (RM) Team, the Arrangement and Description Team which created " finding aids , bibliographic records, and agency histories" and the Reference Team responding to visits and remote queries from researchers. The Records Management Team took over the work of the Arrangement and Description Team in 2007. The Preservation Team, responsible for long-term preservation of Smithsonian Archives materials, consultation, and outreach,

14351-628: The proper methods of preservation is important and most archivists are educated on the subject at academic institutions that specifically cover archives and preservation. In the United States most repositories require archivists to have a degree from an ALA-accredited library school. Similar institutions exist in countries outside the US. Since 2010, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation has enhanced funding for library and archives conservation education in three major conservation programs. These programs are all part of

14478-422: The public in their own communities about how Latinos are enriching America's cultural fabric." The institution publishes Smithsonian magazine monthly and Air & Space magazine bimonthly. Smithsonian was the result of Secretary of the Smithsonian S. Dillon Ripley asking the retired editor of Life magazine Edward K. Thompson to produce a magazine "about things in which the Smithsonian Institution

14605-419: The reading of scientific and literary productions, but this was continued for only a short time, as the number attending declined rapidly. Eighty-five communications by 26 people were made to Congress during the entire life of the society, with more than a half relating to astronomy or mathematics. Among all the activities planned by the institute, only a few were actually implemented. Two were the establishment of

14732-542: The research attention. The American Library Association has many scholarly journals that publish articles on preservation topics, such as College and Research Libraries, Information Technology and Libraries, and Library Resources and Technical Services . Scholarly periodicals in this field from other publishers include International Preservation News, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation , and Collection Management among many others. Learning

14859-420: The retention of original documents reformatted by any means, analog or digital. Concerns include scholarly needs and legal requirements for authentic or original records as well as questions about the longevity, quality, and completeness of reformatted materials. Retention of originals as a source or fail-safe copy is now a fairly common practice. Another controversy revolving around different preservation methods

14986-421: The rise in the United States. There is a longstanding tension between preservation of and access to library materials, particularly in the area of special collections . Handling materials promotes their progression to an unusable state, especially if they are handled carelessly. On the other hand, materials must be used in order to gain any benefit from them. In a collection with valuable materials, this conflict

15113-640: The staff and unfulfilled financial obligations to sponsors existed. The website's quality was poor, and the center did not have a public affairs manager, a programs director, adequate human resources support, or cohesive mission statement. After difficult times in the first few years, the center improved. According to the Smithsonian, the center "support[s] scholarly research, exhibitions, public and educational programs, web-based content and virtual platforms, and collections and archives. [It] also manage[s] leadership and professional development programs for Latino youth, emerging scholars and museum professionals." Today,

15240-473: The time it went public. This included 192 gifts of at least $ 1 million. Members of the boards of directors of various Smithsonian museums donated $ 372 million. The Smithsonian said that funds raised would go toward completion of the National Museum of African American History and Culture building, and renovations of the National Air and Space Museum , National Museum of American History , and

15367-412: The transition to electronic information and the creation of the first websites. The "fourth (and last) printed Guide to the Smithsonian Archives ... described over 1,100 record units comprising some 15,500 cubic feet of archival material," and appeared in 1996. Many archival records were moved to a storage facility, Iron Mountain , in 1997. Acting Director Thomas Soapes served from 2005 to 2007, followed by

15494-416: The treatment and repair of individual items to slow the process of decay, or restore them to a usable state. " Preventive conservation " is used interchangeably with "preservation". A relatively new concept, digitization , has been hailed as a way to preserve historical items for future use. "Digitizing refers to the process of converting analog materials into digital form." For manuscripts, digitization

15621-437: The treatment must be determined that is most appropriate to the material and its collecting institution. If the information is most important, reformatting or creation of a surrogate is a likely option. If the artifact itself is of value, it will receive conservation treatment, ideally of a reversible nature. With old media deteriorating or showing their vulnerabilities and new media becoming available, research remains active in

15748-546: The website features a high-tech virtual museum including self-guided virtual tours of past and present exhibits. The Smithsonian Latino Center's Young Ambassadors Program (YAP) is a program within the Latino Center that reaches out to Latino high school students with the goal of encouraging them to become leaders in arts, sciences, and the humanities. Students selected for the program travel to Washington, D.C. for an "enrichment seminar" that lasts approximately five days. Afterwards, students return to their communities to serve in

15875-802: Was appropriated for meteorological research. The institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, who formed a group called the Megatherium Club . The Smithsonian played a critical role as the US partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba . Construction began on the Smithsonian Institution Building ("the Castle") in 1849. Designed by architect James Renwick Jr. , its interiors were completed by general contractor Gilbert Cameron. The building opened in 1855. The Smithsonian's first expansion came with

16002-559: Was established as a trust instrumentality by act of Congress. More than two-thirds of the Smithsonian's workforce of some 6,300 persons are employees of the federal government. The Smithsonian Institution Office of Protection Services oversees security at the Smithsonian facilities and enforces laws and regulations for National Capital Parks together with the United States Park Police . The president's 2011 budget proposed just under $ 800 million in support for

16129-849: Was originally organized as the United States National Museum , but that name ceased to exist administratively in 1967. The Smithsonian Institution has historical holdings of over 157 million items, 21 museums, 21 libraries, 14 education and research centers, a zoo, and historical and architectural landmarks, mostly located in Washington, D.C. Additional facilities are located in Maryland , New York , and Virginia . More than 200 institutions and museums in 47 states , Puerto Rico , and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates . Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. Almost all of

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