South Britain is a term which was occasionally used in the 17th and 18th centuries, for England and Wales in relation to their position in the southern half of the island of Great Britain . It was used mainly by Scottish writers, in apposition to the term " North Britain ", which generally referred to Scotland .
122-550: Early uses of the designation have been noted after the 1603 Union of the Crowns of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland . King James VI & I used the terms "South Britain" and "North Britain" for England (and, implicitly, Wales ) and Scotland respectively, most famously in his Proclamation of 1606 ( here ) establishing the first Union Flag , where Scotland and England are not otherwise named: "Whereas some difference has
244-492: A Christian King under the Gospel, should be a polygamist and husband to two wives; that I being the head should have a divided or monstrous body or that being the shepherd to so fair a flock should have my flock parted in two. Parliament may very well have rejected polygamy; but the marriage, if marriage it was, between the realms of England and Scotland was to be morganatic at best. James's ambitions were greeted with horror from
366-467: A common ancestor, King Edward I of England . During his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry conducted an affair with Mary Boleyn , Catherine's lady-in-waiting . There has been speculation that Mary's two children, Henry Carey and Catherine Carey , were fathered by Henry but this has never been proven. King Henry never acknowledged them as he did in the case of Henry FitzRoy. In 1525, as Henry grew more impatient with Catherine's inability to produce
488-621: A consequence, the King was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December of the same year. In 1540, Henry sanctioned the complete destruction of shrines to saints. In 1542, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords . Consequently, the Lords Spiritual – as members of
610-399: A considerable part in the ceremonies surrounding his brother Arthur's marriage to Catherine , the youngest child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile . As duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine . He was further honoured on 9 February 1506 by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , who made him a Knight of
732-569: A court, he never had any intention of empowering his legate, Lorenzo Campeggio , to decide in Henry's favour. This bias was perhaps the result of pressure from Emperor Charles V, but it is not clear how far this influenced either Campeggio or the Pope. After less than two months of hearing evidence, Clement called the case back to Rome in July 1529, from which it was clear that it would never re-emerge. With
854-629: A diplomatic coup by convincing Emperor Maximilian to join the Holy League. Remarkably, Henry had secured the promised title of " Most Christian King of France" from Julius and possibly coronation by the Pope himself in Paris, if only Louis could be defeated. On 30 June 1513, Henry invaded France, and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs – a relatively minor result, but one which
976-444: A disappointing English one. The greatest and most obvious was the question of his exact status and title. In his first speech to his southern assembly on 19 March 1604 James gave a clear statement of the royal manifesto: What God hath conjoined let no man separate. I am the husband and the whole isle is my lawful wife; I am the head and it is my body; I am the shepherd and it is my flock. I hope therefore that no man will think that I,
1098-503: A fall from grace included the King's new mistress, the 28-year-old Jane Seymour , being moved into new quarters, and Anne's brother, George Boleyn , being refused the Order of the Garter , which was instead given to Nicholas Carew . Between 30 April and 2 May, five men, including George Boleyn, were arrested on charges of treasonable adultery and accused of having sexual relationships with
1220-414: A hundred thousand of them were there, for wee are all one Countrymen now, yee know; and wee shoulde finde ten times more comfort of them there, then wee do here. Anti-English satires proliferated, and in 1609, the king had an act passed that promised the direst penalties against the writers of "pasquillis, libellis, rymis, cockalanis, comedies and sicklyk occasiones whereby they slander and maligne and revile
1342-675: A kingdom in name, but since 1601, a subject nation in practice. The asymmetric relationship between Scotland and England had been evident for at least a decade. In 1589, the Spanish Armada shipwreck survivor Francisco de Cuellar sought refuge in Scotland, as he had heard the Scottish king "protected all the Spaniards who reached his kingdom, clothed them, and gave them passages to Spain". However, following his six-month ordeal within
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#17327731605531464-426: A mood of high expectation. The twilight years of Elizabeth had been a disappointment, and for a nation troubled for so many years by the question of succession, the new king was a family man who already had male heirs waiting in the wings. But James's honeymoon was of very short duration, and his initial political actions were to do much to create the rather negative tone, which was to turn a successful Scottish king into
1586-590: A reality. The attack, however, following a formal declaration of war in April 1512, was not led by Henry personally and was a considerable failure; Ferdinand used it simply to further his own ends, and it strained the Anglo-Spanish alliance. Nevertheless, the French were pushed out of Italy soon after, and the alliance survived, with both parties keen to win further victories over the French. Henry then pulled off
1708-458: A risen between our Subjects of South and North Britain, Travelling by Sea, about the bearing of their flags" This usage was repeated in Charles I 's Proclamation of 1634 on the use of the flag, though adding England and Scotland too for explanation: "Our further will and pleasure is, that all the other Ships of Our Subjects of England or South Britain bearing flags shall from henceforth carry
1830-522: A second wedding service in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid. Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen, becoming instead "princess dowager" as
1952-616: A territorial possession of Charles, and the continued support of the Emperor. A small English attack in the north of France made up little ground. Charles defeated and captured Francis at Pavia and could dictate peace, but he believed he owed Henry nothing. Sensing this, Henry decided to take England out of the war before his ally, signing the Treaty of the More on 30 August 1525. King Henry VIII and all six of his wives were related through
2074-653: A time that his life was in danger. When news of this accident reached the Queen, she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child at about 15 weeks' gestation, on the day of Catherine's funeral, 29 January 1536. For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of this royal marriage. Although the Boleyn family still held important positions on the Privy Council , Anne had many enemies, including Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk . Even her own uncle,
2196-464: A treaty was signed for their marriage, and they were betrothed two days later. A papal dispensation was only needed for the "impediment of public honesty" if the marriage had not been consummated as Catherine and her duenna claimed, but Henry VII and the Spanish ambassador set out instead to obtain a dispensation for " affinity ", which took account of the possibility of consummation. Cohabitation
2318-457: A two-pronged attack. One force under Norfolk ineffectively besieged Montreuil . The other, under Suffolk, laid siege to Boulogne . Henry later took personal command, and Boulogne fell on 18 September 1544. However, Henry had refused Charles's request to march against Paris. Charles's own campaign fizzled, and he made peace with France that same day. Henry was left alone against France, unable to make peace. Francis attempted to invade England in
2440-553: A very limited extent", whilst Alison Weir believes there were numerous other affairs. Catherine is not known to have protested. In 1518, she fell pregnant again with another girl, who was also stillborn. Blount gave birth in June 1519 to Henry's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy . The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to his eventual legitimisation. FitzRoy married Mary Howard in 1533, but died childless three years later. At
2562-576: Is known for his six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon ) annulled . His disagreement with Pope Clement VII about such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation , separating the Church of England from papal authority. He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries , for which he
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#17327731605532684-554: Is traditionally believed to have had an affair with Madge Shelton in 1535, although historian Antonia Fraser argues that Henry in fact had an affair with her sister Mary Shelton . Opposition to Henry's religious policies was at first quickly suppressed in England. Some dissenting monks, including the first Carthusian Martyrs , were executed and many more pilloried . The most prominent resisters included John Fisher , Bishop of Rochester, and Thomas More, both of whom refused to take
2806-474: Is unclear exactly why, for there is little evidence of differences in domestic or foreign policy. Despite his role, he was never formally accused of being responsible for Henry's failed marriage. Cromwell was now surrounded by enemies at court, with Norfolk also able to draw on his niece Catherine's position. Cromwell was charged with treason, selling export licences, granting passports, and drawing up commissions without permission, and may also have been blamed for
2928-574: The Act of Succession 1533 , Catherine's daughter, Mary, was declared illegitimate; Henry's marriage to Anne was declared legitimate; and Anne's issue declared to be next in the line of succession. With the Acts of Supremacy in 1534, Parliament recognised the King's status as head of the church in England and, together with the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1532, abolished the right of appeal to Rome. It
3050-465: The Holy See by way of a deceptively worded draft papal bull. Knight was unsuccessful; the Pope could not be misled so easily, and he did not want to antagonise Catherine's nephew, Charles V, whose troops had recently sacked Rome . Other missions concentrated on arranging an ecclesiastical court to meet in England, with a representative from Clement VII. Although Clement agreed to the creation of such
3172-532: The Italian War in favour of his new ally. An invasion of France was planned for 1543. In preparation for it, Henry moved to eliminate the potential threat of Scotland under his young nephew, James V . The Scots were defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss on 24 November 1542, and James died on 15 December. Henry now hoped to unite the crowns of England and Scotland by marrying his son Edward to James's successor, Mary . The Scottish regent Lord Arran agreed to
3294-479: The King's "great matter" . These options were legitimising Henry FitzRoy, which would need the involvement of the Pope and would be open to challenge; marrying off Mary, his daughter with Catherine, as soon as possible and hoping for a grandson to inherit directly, but Mary was considered unlikely to conceive before Henry's death, or somehow rejecting Catherine and marrying someone else of child-bearing age. Probably seeing
3416-709: The Laws in Wales Act 1535 , which legally annexed Wales , uniting England and Wales into a single nation. This was followed by the Second Succession Act (the Succession to the Crown Act 1536), which declared Henry's children by Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne. The King was granted the power to further determine
3538-622: The Oath of Supremacy to the King. Neither Henry nor Cromwell sought at that stage to have the men executed; rather, they hoped that the two might change their minds and save themselves. Fisher openly rejected Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church, but More was careful to avoid openly breaking the Treasons Act 1534 , which (unlike later acts) did not forbid mere silence. Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason, however – More on
3660-646: The Palace of Placentia in Greenwich , Kent, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . Of the young Henry's six (or seven) siblings, only three – his brother Arthur, Prince of Wales , and sisters Margaret and Mary – survived infancy. He was baptised by Richard Foxe , the Bishop of Exeter , at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to
3782-455: The Palace of Whitehall , Whitehall , London, in Anne's closet, by Stephen Gardiner , Bishop of Winchester . With Charles V distracted by the internal politics of his many kingdoms and external threats, and Henry and Francis on relatively good terms, domestic and not foreign policy issues had been Henry's priority in the first half of the 1530s. In 1536, for example, Henry granted his assent to
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3904-564: The Third Succession Act put them back in the line of succession after Edward. The same act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will. In 1538, the chief minister Thomas Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what the government termed "idolatry" practised under the old religion, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral . As
4026-415: The male heir he desired, he became enamoured of Mary Boleyn's sister, Anne Boleyn , then a charismatic young woman of 25 in the Queen's entourage. Anne, however, resisted his attempts to seduce her, and refused to become his mistress as her sister had. It was in this context that Henry considered his three options for finding a dynastic successor and hence resolving what came to be described at court as
4148-552: The "middle shires". Free trade proved contentious, as did the issue of equal rights before the law. Fears were openly expressed in the Westminster Parliament that English jobs would be threatened by all the poor people of the realm of Scotland, who will "draw near to the Sonn, and flocking hither in such Multitudes, that death and dearth is very probable to ensue". The exact status of the post nati , those born after
4270-502: The Countrey ... is too good for those that possesse yt, and too bad for others to be at the charge of conquering yt. The ayre might be wholesome, but for the stincking people that inhabit yt ... Their beasts be generallie small (women excepted) of which sort there are no greater in the world. A wounding observation came in the comedy Eastward Ho , a collaboration between Ben Jonson , George Chapman and John Marston . In enthusing over
4392-510: The Crowns ( Scottish Gaelic : Aonadh nan Crùintean ; Scots : Union o the Crouns ) was the accession of James VI of Scotland to the throne of the Kingdom of England as James I and the practical unification of some functions (such as overseas diplomacy) of the two separate realms under a single individual on 24 March 1603. It followed the death of James's cousin, Elizabeth I of England ,
4514-467: The Duke of Norfolk, had come to resent her attitude to her power. The Boleyns preferred France over the Emperor as a potential ally, but the King's favour had swung towards the latter (partly because of Cromwell), damaging the family's influence. Also opposed to Anne were supporters of reconciliation with Princess Mary (among them the former supporters of Catherine), who had reached maturity. A second annulment
4636-552: The English army, overseen by Queen Catherine, decisively defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513. Among the dead was the Scottish king, thus ending Scotland 's brief involvement in the war. These campaigns had given Henry a taste of the military success he so desired. However, despite initial indications, he decided not to pursue a 1514 campaign. He had been supporting Ferdinand and Maximilian financially during
4758-436: The English parliament who feared the loss of the ancient and famous name of England. Legal objections were raised, with legal opinion at the time being that a union would end all established laws of both countries. For James, whose experience of parliaments was limited to the stage-managed and semi-feudal Scottish variety, the self-assurance — and obduracy — of the English version, which had long experience of upsetting monarchs,
4880-477: The English side were concerned by the dynastic implications of matrimony, including some Privy Councillors . In countering these fears Henry VII is reputed to have said: our realme wald receive na damage thair thorow, for in that caise Ingland wald not accress unto Scotland, bot Scotland wald acress unto Ingland, as to the most noble heid of the hole yle...evin as quhan Normandy came in the power of Inglis men our forbearis. The peace did not last in "perpetuity"; it
5002-617: The English throne. Strategic fortresses were put on alert, with London placed under guard. English agents including Thomas Chaloner were advising James in Edinburgh on forms of government. Elizabeth died in the early hours of 24 March. Within eight hours, James was proclaimed king in London, with the news received without protest or disturbance. On 5 April 1603, James left Edinburgh for London and promised to return every three years, which he failed to keep by returning only once, in 1617. He progressed slowly from town to town to arrive in
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5124-526: The Golden Fleece . In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15, just 20 weeks after his marriage to Catherine of Aragon . Arthur's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother. The 10-year-old Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall , and the new Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in February 1504. Henry VII gave his second son few responsibilities even after the death of Arthur. Young Henry
5246-611: The King that they injured and hurt one another". James's English coronation took place on 25 July though the festivities had to be restricted because of an outbreak of the plague. A Royal Entry featuring elaborate allegories provided by dramatic poets such as Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson was deferred until 15 March 1604, when all London turned out for the occasion: "The streets seemed paved with men", wrote Dekker, "Stalls instead of rich wares were set out with children, open casements filled up with women". Whatever residual fears that many in England may have felt, James's arrival aroused
5368-496: The King. Soon after marrying Henry, Catherine conceived. She gave birth to a stillborn girl on 31 January 1510. About four months later, Catherine again became pregnant. On 1 January 1511, New Year's Day, a son Henry was born. After the grief of losing their first child, the couple were pleased to have a boy and festivities were held, including a two-day joust known as the Westminster Tournament . However,
5490-430: The Pope had lacked the authority to grant a dispensation from this impediment. It was this argument Henry took to Pope Clement VII in 1527 in the hope of having his marriage to Catherine annulled, forgoing at least one less openly defiant line of attack. In going public, all hope of tempting Catherine to retire to a nunnery or otherwise stay quiet was lost. Henry sent his secretary, William Knight , to appeal directly to
5612-410: The Queen. Anne was arrested, accused of treasonous adultery and incest. Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death. On 17 May 1536, Henry and Anne's marriage was annulled by Archbishop Cranmer at Lambeth Palace and the accused men were executed. Cranmer appears to have had difficulty finding grounds for an annulment and probably based it on
5734-674: The Red Cross, commonly called S. George’s Cross, as of old time hath been used; And also that all other ships of Our Subjects of Scotland or North Britain shall henceforth carry the White Cross commonly called S. Andrews Cross" This article related to the history of the United Kingdom or its predecessor states is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Union of the Crowns The Union of
5856-629: The Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise . He founded the Royal Navy , oversaw the annexation of Wales to England with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 , and was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 . Henry's contemporaries considered him an attractive, educated, and accomplished king. He has been described as "one of
5978-556: The Union of March 1603, was not decided by Parliament but in the courts by Calvin's Case (1608), which extended property rights to all the King's subjects in English common law and allowed them to bring cases before the courts. Scottish aristocrats and other placeseekers made their way to London to compete for high positions in government. In 1617, Sir Anthony Weldon wrote of the poverty of Scotland, as conceived by English courtiers:
6100-487: The Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the King. Despite speculation that Holbein painted her in an overly flattering light, it is more likely that the portrait was accurate; Holbein remained in favour at court. After seeing Holbein's portrait, and urged on by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, the 49-year-old King agreed to wed Anne. When Henry met Anne, however, he
6222-585: The allegations, Dereham confessed. It took another meeting of the council, however, before Henry believed the accusations against Dereham and went into a rage, blaming the council before consoling himself in hunting. When questioned, the Queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Catherine's relationship with Culpeper. Culpeper and Dereham were both executed, and Catherine too
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#17327731605536344-473: The ancient laws and liberties of Scotland ; for any such hurt would mean that "it culd no more be a frie monarchie". James attempted to reassure his new English subjects that the new union would be much like that between England and Wales and that if Scotland should refuse, "he would compel their assents, having a stronger party there than the opposite party of the mutineers". In October 1604 English and Scottish MP's were appointed as commissioners to explore
6466-538: The ane kingdome, to great honor and beccome forȝetfull of the uther, sua to mak the samyn altogidder solitat and desoltat qhilk cannot stand vith your Majestie's honor. As god hes heichlie advanceit your Majestie lett Scotland qhilk is ȝour auldest impyir be partakeris of ȝour blissings. Those fears were echoed by the Scottish Parliament, whose members were telling the King that they were "confident" that his plans for an incorporating union would not prejudice
6588-402: The campaign but had received little in return; England's coffers were now empty. With the replacement of Julius by Pope Leo X , who was inclined to negotiate for peace with France, Henry signed his own treaty with Louis: his sister Mary would become Louis's wife, having previously been pledged to the younger Charles, and peace was secured for eight years, a remarkably long time. Charles V ,
6710-421: The capital after Elizabeth's funeral. Local lords received James with lavish hospitality along the route, and James's new subjects flocked to see him and were relieved above all that the succession had triggered neither unrest nor invasion. As James entered London, he was mobbed. The crowds of people, one observer reported, were so great that "they covered the beauty of the fields; and so greedy were they to behold
6832-548: The ceremony, there was a grand banquet in Westminster Hall . As Catherine wrote to her father, "our time is spent in continuous festival". Two days after his coronation, Henry arrested his father's two most unpopular ministers, Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley . They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510. Politically motivated executions would remain one of Henry's primary tactics for dealing with those who stood in his way. Henry returned some of
6954-561: The chance for an annulment lost, Cardinal Wolsey bore the blame. He was charged with praemunire in October 1529, and his fall from grace was "sudden and total". Briefly reconciled with Henry (and officially pardoned) in the first half of 1530, he was charged once more in November 1530, this time for treason, but died while awaiting trial. After a short period in which Henry took government upon his own shoulders, Thomas More took on
7076-443: The child died seven weeks later. Catherine had two stillborn sons in 1513 and 1515, but gave birth in February 1516 to a girl, Mary . Relations between Henry and Catherine had been strained, but they eased slightly after Mary's birth. Although Henry's marriage to Catherine has since been described as "unusually good", it is known that Henry took mistresses. It was revealed in 1510 that Henry had been conducting an affair with one of
7198-532: The clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known – were for the first time outnumbered by the Lords Temporal . The 1539 alliance between Francis and Charles had soured, eventually degenerating into renewed war. With Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn dead, relations between Charles and Henry improved considerably, and Henry concluded a secret alliance with the Emperor and decided to enter
7320-453: The courtier Thomas Culpeper . She also employed Francis Dereham , who had previously been informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary. The Privy Council was informed of her affair with Dereham whilst Henry was away; Thomas Cranmer was dispatched to investigate, and he brought evidence of Queen Catherine's previous affair with Dereham to the King's notice. Though Henry originally refused to believe
7442-443: The creation of a perfect union. James closed the final session of his first parliament with a rebuke to his opponents in the House of Commons: "Here all things suspected.... He merits to be buried in the bottom of the sea that shall but think of separation, where God had made such a Union". The Union Commission made some limited progress, on discrete issues such as hostile border laws, trade and citizenship. The borders were to become
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#17327731605537564-580: The dissolution of the monasteries, Henry used some of his financial reserves to build a series of coastal defences and set some aside for use in the event of a Franco-German invasion. Having considered the matter, Cromwell suggested Anne , the 25-year-old sister of William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg , who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England, for the Duke fell between Lutheranism and Catholicism . Other potential brides included Christina of Denmark, Anna of Lorraine , Louise of Guise and Amalia of Cleves . Hans Holbein
7686-423: The disturbances ended. On 8 January 1536, news reached the King and Queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. The following day, Henry dressed all in yellow, with a white feather in his bonnet. Queen Anne was pregnant again, and she was aware that there might be consequences if she failed to give birth to a son. Later that month, the King was thrown from his horse in a tournament and was badly injured; it seemed for
7808-475: The estait and countrey of England..." In October 1605 Nicolò Molin , the Venetian ambassador in London, noted that "the question of the Union will, I am assured, be dropped; for His Majesty is now well aware that nothing can be effected, both sides displaying such obstinacy that an accommodation is impossible; and so his Majesty is resolved to abandon the question for the present, in hope that time may consume
7930-643: The evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich , the Solicitor General – and both were executed in the summer of 1535. These suppressions, as well as the Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535 , in turn, contributed to a more general resistance to Henry's reforms, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace , a large uprising in northern England in October 1536. Some 20,000 to 40,000 rebels were led by Robert Aske , together with parts of
8052-635: The extent that his 1521 publication Assertio Septem Sacramentorum ("Defence of the Seven Sacraments") earned him the title of Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith) from Pope Leo X. The work represented a staunch defence of papal supremacy, albeit one couched in somewhat contingent terms. It is not clear exactly when Henry changed his mind on the issue as he grew more intent on a second marriage. Certainly, by 1527, he had convinced himself that Catherine had produced no male heir because their union
8174-532: The extent that his doctors found it difficult to treat. The chronic wound festered for the remainder of his life and became ulcerated , preventing him from maintaining the level of physical activity he had previously enjoyed. The jousting accident is also believed to have caused Henry's mood swings , which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament. The theory that Henry had syphilis has been dismissed by most historians. Historian Susan Maclean Kybett ascribes his demise to scurvy , which
8296-456: The failure of the foreign policy that accompanied the attempted marriage to Anne. He was subsequently attainted and beheaded. On 28 July 1540 (the same day Cromwell was executed), Henry married the young Catherine Howard, a first cousin and lady-in-waiting of Anne Boleyn. He was delighted with his new queen and awarded her the lands of Cromwell and a vast array of jewellery. Soon after the marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with
8418-588: The friars' church in Greenwich on 11 June 1509. Henry claimed descent from Constantine the Great and King Arthur and saw himself as their successor. On 23 June 1509, Henry led the now 23-year-old Catherine from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey for their coronation, which took place the following day. It was a grand affair: the King's passage was lined with tapestries and laid with fine cloth. Following
8540-473: The good life to be had in the Colony of Virginia , it is observed: And then you shal live freely there, without Sergeants, or Courtiers, or Lawyers, or Intelligencers – onely a few industrious Scots perhaps, who indeed are disperst over the face of the whole earth. But as for them, there are no greater friends of Englishmen and England, when they are out an't, in the world, then they are. And for my part, I would
8662-471: The ideas of the Protestant Reformers, but the extent to which she herself was a committed Protestant is much debated. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, Anne's influence and the need to find a trustworthy supporter of the annulment had Thomas Cranmer appointed to the vacant position. This was approved by the Pope, unaware of the King's nascent plans for the Church. Henry
8784-448: The ill-humours". King James devised new coats of arms and a uniform coinage. The creation of a national flag proved contentious, designs acceptable to one side typically offending the other. James finally proclaimed the new Union Flag on 12 April 1606: Scots who saw in it a St George's Cross superimposed upon a St Andrew's Saltire sought to create their own 'Scotch' design, which saw the reverse superimposition take place. (that design
8906-470: The infant Edward would marry one of Charles's daughters. It was suggested the widowed Henry might marry Christina, Dowager Duchess of Milan . However, when Charles and Francis made peace in January 1539, Henry became increasingly paranoid, perhaps as a result of receiving a constant list of threats to the kingdom (real or imaginary, minor or serious) supplied by Cromwell in his role as spymaster. Enriched by
9028-544: The kingdom, he concluded "the King of Scotland is nobody: nor does he possess the authority or position of a king: and he does not move a step, nor eat a mouthful, that is not by order of the Queen ( Elizabeth I )". John Russell , lawyer and writer, an initial enthusiast for "the happie and blissed Unioun betuixt the tua ancienne realmes of Scotland and Ingland" was later to warn James: Lett it not begyne vith ane comedie, and end in ane tragedie; to be ane verball unioun in disparitie nor reall in conformity... hairby, to advance
9150-590: The kingdoms of western Europe in the wake of a new Ottoman threat, and it seemed that peace might be secured. Henry met King Francis on 7 June 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Calais for a fortnight of lavish entertainment. Both hoped for friendly relations in place of the wars of the previous decade. The strong air of competition laid to rest any hopes of a renewal of the Treaty of London, however, and conflict
9272-404: The largely ceremonial role of a royal wife and it made her many enemies. For his part, Henry disliked Anne's constant irritability and violent temper. After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine. Henry
9394-471: The last monarch of the Tudor dynasty . The union was personal or dynastic , with the Crown of England and the Crown of Scotland remaining both distinct and separate despite James's best efforts to create a new imperial throne. England and Scotland continued as two separate states sharing a monarch, who directed their domestic and foreign policies, along with Ireland , until the Acts of Union of 1707 during
9516-492: The line of succession in his will, should he have no further issue. On 12 October 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, the future Edward VI . The birth was difficult, and Queen Jane died on 24 October 1537 from an infection and was buried in Windsor. The euphoria that had accompanied Edward's birth became sorrow, but it was only over time that Henry came to long for his wife. At the time, Henry recovered quickly from
9638-580: The marriage in the Treaty of Greenwich on 1 July 1543, but it was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland on 11 December. The result was eight years of war between England and Scotland, a campaign later dubbed "the Rough Wooing ". Despite several peace treaties, unrest continued in Scotland until Henry's death. Despite the early success with Scotland, Henry hesitated to invade France, annoying Charles. Henry finally went to France in June 1544 with
9760-403: The middle of Henry's reign, the problems of the royal succession, which seemed so unimportant in 1503, acquired ever larger dimensions, when the question of Tudor fertility or the lack thereof entered directly into the political arena. Margaret's line was excluded from the English succession though during the reign of Elizabeth I , concerns were once again raised. In the last decade of her reign it
9882-466: The money supposedly extorted by the two ministers. By contrast, Henry's view of the House of York – potential rival claimants for the throne – was more moderate than his father's had been. Several who had been imprisoned by his father, including Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset , were pardoned. Others went unreconciled; Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk was eventually beheaded in 1513, an execution prompted by his brother Richard siding against
10004-404: The most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne" and his reign described as the "most important" in English history. He was an author and composer. As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered. He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, paranoid, and tyrannical monarch. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI . Born on 28 June 1491 at
10126-535: The nephew of Henry's wife Catherine, inherited a large empire in Europe, becoming king of Spain in 1516 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. When Louis XII of France died in 1515, he was succeeded by his cousin Francis I . These accessions left three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate. The careful diplomacy of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey had resulted in the Treaty of London (1518) , aimed at uniting
10248-496: The new reforms from challenge, convincing the public of their legitimacy, and exposing and dealing with opponents. Although the canon law was dealt with at length by Cranmer and others, these acts were advanced by Thomas Cromwell , Thomas Audley and Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk and indeed by Henry himself. With this process complete, in May 1532 More resigned as Lord Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. With
10370-517: The northern nobility. Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues. Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home. Henry saw the rebels as traitors and did not feel obliged to keep his promises to them, so when further violence occurred after Henry's offer of a pardon he was quick to break his promise of clemency. The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and executed for treason. In total, about 200 rebels were executed, and
10492-593: The palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three and was made a Knight of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony, he was created Duke of York and a month or so later made Warden of the Scottish Marches . In May 1495, he
10614-406: The papal dispensation and a missing part of the marriage portion . The new king maintained that it had been his father's dying wish that he marry Catherine. Whether or not this was true, it was convenient. Emperor Maximilian I had been attempting to marry his granddaughter Eleanor , Catherine's niece, to Henry; she had now been jilted. Henry's wedding to Catherine was kept low-key and was held at
10736-513: The poet William Dunbar in The Thrissil and the Rois . The marriage was the outcome of the Treaty of Perpetual Peace , concluded the previous year, which, in theory, ended centuries of Anglo-Scottish war. The marriage brought Scotland's Stuarts into England's Tudor line of succession , despite the improbability of a Scottish prince acceding the English throne at the time. However, many on
10858-414: The possibility of marrying Anne, the third was ultimately the most attractive possibility to the 34-year-old Henry, and it soon became the King's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to the now 40-year-old Catherine. Henry's precise motivations and intentions over the coming years are not widely agreed on. Henry himself, at least in the early part of his reign, was a devout and well-informed Catholic to
10980-437: The prior liaison between Henry and Anne's sister Mary, which in canon law meant that Henry's marriage to Anne was, like his first marriage, within a forbidden degree of affinity and therefore void. At 8 am on 19 May 1536, Anne was executed on Tower Green . The day after Anne's execution the 45-year-old Henry became engaged to Seymour, who had been one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting . They were married ten days later at
11102-589: The reign of the last Stuart monarch , Anne . However, there was a republican interregnum in the 1650s, during which the Tender of Union of Oliver Cromwell created the Commonwealth of England and Scotland which ended with the Stuart Restoration . In August 1503, James IV of Scotland married Margaret , eldest daughter of Henry VII of England , and the spirit of the new age was celebrated by
11224-438: The rest. I can have none appetite for displeasant airs. I have left her as good a maid and I found her. Henry wished to annul the marriage as soon as possible so he could marry another. Anne did not argue, and confirmed that the marriage had never been consummated. Anne's previous betrothal to Francis of Lorraine provided further grounds for the annulment. The marriage was subsequently dissolved in July 1540, and Anne received
11346-472: The role of Lord Chancellor and chief minister. Intelligent and able, but a devout Catholic and opponent of the annulment, More initially cooperated with the King's new policy, denouncing Wolsey in Parliament. A year later, Catherine was banished from court, and her rooms were given to Anne Boleyn. Anne was an unusually educated and intellectual woman for her time and was keenly absorbed and engaged with
11468-563: The shock. Measures were immediately put in place to find another wife for Henry, which, at the insistence of Cromwell and the Privy Council, were focused on the European continent. In 1538, as part of the negotiation of a secret treaty by Cromwell with Charles V, a series of dynastic marriages were proposed: Mary would marry a son of King John III of Portugal , Elizabeth would marry one of the sons of King Ferdinand I of Hungary and
11590-425: The sisters of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham , either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon . The most significant mistress for about three years, starting in 1516, was Elizabeth Blount . Blount is one of only two completely undisputed mistresses, considered by some to be few for a virile young king. Exactly how many Henry had is disputed: David Loades believes Henry had mistresses "only to
11712-412: The succession upon the queen but simply to treat her with kindness and respect. The approach proved effective: "I trust that you will not doubt", Elizabeth wrote to James, "but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them you in grateful sort". In March 1603, with the queen clearly dying, Cecil sent James a draft proclamation of his accession to
11834-502: The summer of 1545 but his forces reached only the Isle of Wight before being repulsed in the Battle of the Solent . Financially exhausted, France and England signed the Treaty of Camp on 7 June 1546. Henry secured Boulogne for eight years. The city was then to be returned to France for 2 million crowns (£750,000). Henry needed the money; the 1544 campaign had cost £650,000, and England
11956-539: The time of his death in July 1536, parliament was considering the Second Succession Act , which could have allowed him to become king. In 1510, France , with a fragile alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in the League of Cambrai , was winning a war against Venice . Henry renewed his father's friendship with Louis XII of France , an issue that divided his council. Certainly, war with the combined might of
12078-447: The title of "The King's Sister", two houses, and a generous allowance. It was soon clear that Henry had fallen for the 17-year-old Catherine Howard , the Duke of Norfolk's niece. This worried Cromwell, for Norfolk was his political opponent. Shortly after, the religious reformers (and protégés of Cromwell) Robert Barnes , William Jerome and Thomas Garret were burned as heretics. Cromwell, meanwhile, fell out of favour although it
12200-443: The two powers would have been exceedingly difficult. Shortly thereafter, however, Henry also signed a pact with Ferdinand II of Aragon. After Pope Julius II created the anti-French Holy League in October 1511, Henry followed Ferdinand's lead and brought England into the new League. An initial joint Anglo-Spanish attack was planned for the spring to recover Aquitaine for England, the start of making Henry's dreams of ruling France
12322-529: The widow of Arthur. In her place, Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533. The Queen gave birth to a daughter slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. The child was christened Elizabeth , in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. Following the marriage, there was a period of consolidation, taking the form of a series of statutes of the Reformation Parliament aimed at finding solutions to any remaining issues, whilst protecting
12444-699: Was excommunicated by the pope. Henry brought radical changes to the Constitution of England , expanding royal power and ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings in opposition to papal supremacy . He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial using bills of attainder . He achieved many of his political aims through his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey , Thomas More , Thomas Cromwell , and Thomas Cranmer all figured prominently in his administration. Henry
12566-543: Was "blighted in the eyes of God". Indeed, in marrying Catherine, his brother's wife, he had acted contrary to Leviticus 20:21, a justification Thomas Cranmer used to declare the marriage null. Martin Luther , on the other hand, had initially argued against the annulment, stating that Henry VIII could take a second wife in accordance with his teaching that the Bible allowed for polygamy but not divorce . Henry now believed
12688-458: Was an extravagant spender, using proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament . He converted money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue. Despite the money from these sources, he was often on the verge of financial ruin due to personal extravagance and costly and largely unproductive wars, particularly with King Francis I of France , Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , King James V of Scotland , and
12810-504: Was an obvious shock. He decided to side-step the whole issue by unilaterally assuming the title of King of Great Britain by a Proclamation concerning the Kings Majesties Stile on 20 October 1604 announcing that he did "assume to Our selfe by the cleerenesse of our Right, The Name and Stile of KING OF GREAT BRITTAINE, FRANCE AND IRELAND, DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, &c." . This only deepened the offence. Even in Scotland there
12932-576: Was appointed to the Order of the Garter . The reason for giving such appointments to a small child was to enable his father to retain personal control of lucrative positions and not share them with established families. Not much is known about Henry's early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, but it is known that he received a first-rate education from leading tutors. He became fluent in Latin and French and learned at least some Italian. In November 1501, Henry played
13054-476: Was beheaded on 13 February 1542. Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr , in July 1543. A reformer at heart, she argued with Henry over religion. Henry remained committed to an idiosyncratic mixture of Catholicism and Protestantism; the reactionary mood that had gained ground after Cromwell's fall had neither eliminated his Protestant streak nor been overcome by it. Parr helped reconcile Henry with his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth. In 1543,
13176-401: Was clear to all that James VI of Scotland , great-grandson of James IV and Margaret, was the only generally acceptable heir. From 1601, in the last years of Elizabeth I's life, certain English politicians, notably her chief minister, Sir Robert Cecil , maintained a secret correspondence with James to prepare in advance for a smooth succession. Cecil advised James not to press the matter of
13298-601: Was disturbed in 1513 when Henry VIII of England , who had succeeded his father four years before, declared war on France in the War of the League of Cambrai . In response France invoked the terms of the Auld Alliance , her ancient bond with Scotland. James duly invaded Northern England leading to the Battle of Flodden . In the decades that followed, England repeatedly invaded Scotland , including burning its capital . By
13420-523: Was inevitable. Henry had more in common with Charles, whom he met once before and once after Francis. Charles brought his realms into war with France in 1521; Henry offered to mediate, but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles. He still clung to his previous aim of restoring English lands in France but sought to secure an alliance with the Netherlands , then
13542-417: Was little real enthusiasm for the project, though the two parliaments were eventually prodded into taking the whole matter 'under consideration'. Consider it they did for several years, never drawing the desired conclusion. In Scotland there were early signs that many saw the risk of the "lesser being drawn by the greater", as Henry VII once predicted. An example before Scottish eyes was the case of Ireland ,
13664-399: Was married to Catherine for 24 years. Their divorce has been described as a "deeply wounding and isolating" experience for Henry. In the winter of 1532, Henry met with Francis I at Calais and enlisted Francis's support for his new marriage. Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry, now 41, and Anne went through a secret wedding service. She soon became pregnant, and there was
13786-424: Was much displeased with her appearance. The King was reportedly taken aback and told his courtiers "I promise you, I see no such thing as hath been shown me of her, by pictures and report. I am ashamed that men have praised her as they have done, and I love her not!" Despite his protests, Henry knew that the situation was too far gone and he would have to wed his bride. The marriage took place in January 1540, but it
13908-439: Was never consummated. The morning after their wedding night, Henry complained about his new wife to Cromwell, stating: Surely, my lord, I liked her before not well, but now I like her much worse! She is nothing fair, and have very evil smells about her. I took her to be no maid by reason of the closeness of her breasts and other tokens, which, when I felt them, strake me so to the heart, that I had neither will nor courage to prove
14030-543: Was not possible because Henry was too young. Isabella's death in 1504, and the ensuing problems of succession in Castile , complicated matters. Ferdinand II preferred Catherine to stay in England, but Henry VII's relations with Ferdinand had deteriorated. Catherine was therefore left in limbo for some time, culminating in Prince Henry's rejection of the marriage as soon he was able, at the age of 14. Ferdinand's solution
14152-402: Was now a real possibility, although it is commonly believed that it was Cromwell's anti-Boleyn influence that led opponents to look for a way of having her executed. Anne's downfall came shortly after she had recovered from her final miscarriage. Whether it was primarily the result of allegations of conspiracy, adultery, or witchcraft remains a matter of debate among historians. Early signs of
14274-478: Was once again facing bankruptcy. Late in life, Henry became obese , with a waist measurement of 54 inches (140 cm), and had to be moved about with the help of mechanical devices. He was covered with painful, pus -filled boils and possibly had gout . His obesity and other medical problems can be traced to the jousting accident on 24 January 1536 in which he suffered a leg wound. The accident reopened and aggravated an injury he had sustained years earlier, to
14396-462: Was only then that Pope Clement VII took the step of excommunicating the King and Cranmer, although the excommunication was not made official until some time later. The King and Queen were not pleased with married life. The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her. The vivacity and opinionated intellect that had made her so attractive as an illicit lover made her too independent for
14518-402: Was seized on by the English for propaganda purposes. Soon after, the English took Thérouanne and handed it over to Maximilian; Tournai , a more significant settlement, followed. Henry had led the army personally, complete with a large entourage. His absence from the country, however, had prompted his brother-in-law James IV of Scotland to invade England at the behest of Louis. Nevertheless,
14640-415: Was strictly supervised and did not appear in public. As a result, he ascended the throne "untrained in the exacting art of kingship". Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering his son Henry in marriage to the widowed Catherine. Henry VII and Queen Isabella were both keen on the idea, which had arisen very shortly after Arthur's death. On 23 June 1503,
14762-469: Was to make his daughter ambassador, allowing her to stay in England indefinitely. Devout, she began to believe that it was God's will that she marry the Prince despite his opposition. Henry VII died in April 1509, and the 17-year-old Henry succeeded him as king. Soon after his father's burial on 10 May, Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine, leaving unresolved several issues concerning
14884-416: Was used in Scotland until 1707). For years afterwards, vessels of the two nations continued to fly their respective "flags", the royal proclamation notwithstanding. The Union Flag entered into common use only under Cromwell's Protectorate . Henry VIII of England Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry
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