56-732: The Southampton Blitz was the heavy bombing of Southampton by the Nazi German Luftwaffe during World War II . Southampton was a strategic bombing target for the Luftwaffe as it contained both busy docks with associated business premises and factories and the Supermarine factory building Spitfires in Woolston . Being a large port city on the south coast it was within easy reach of German airfields in France. During
112-557: A military strategy is distinct both from close air support of ground forces and from tactical air power . During World War II, many military strategists of air power believed that air forces could win major victories by attacking industrial and political infrastructure , rather than purely military targets. Strategic bombing often involved bombing areas inhabited by civilians , and some campaigns were deliberately designed to target civilian populations in order to terrorize them and disrupt their usual activities. International law at
168-404: A conclusion that a grave threat to a moral order would justify the use of an indiscriminate force. Air Marshal Sir Robert Saundby concluded his analysis of the ethics of bombing by these words, A study of the ethics of bombing cannot fail to remind one that man is an illogical creature, still far more swayed by emotion than by calm reason. Man has wonderful powers of self-deception, and of
224-465: A perfect geometric grid for calculations and measurements." In his book, Augen am Himmel ( Eyes on the Sky ), Wolfgang Schreyer wrote: Frampol was chosen as an experimental object, because test bombers, flying at low speed, weren't endangered by AA fire. Also, the centrally placed town hall was an ideal orientation point for the crews. We watched possibility of orientation after visible signs, and also
280-603: A post-war debate if it was moral. Three separate lines of ethical reasoning emerged. The first was based on the Just War theory and emphasized that noncombatants possess an inherent right to be spared from the harm of war and should not be intentionally targeted. Noncombatant immunity and proportionality in use of force were insisted upon. The second approach was grounded in the so-called "industrial web theory" that proposed to concentrate on destroying enemy military, industrial, and economic infrastructure instead of forces in
336-728: A series of Allied bombing raids during World War II , from mid 1941 to early 1944. Bulgaria declared war on the United Kingdom and the United States on 13 December 1941. The Southern Italy -based Allied air forces extended the range of their strategic operations to include Bulgaria and other Axis allies in 1943. During the invasions of Yugoslavia and of Greece , the Yugoslav and British air forces targeted strategic points in Bulgaria, from which German troops had staged
392-518: A similar type of practice were not prosecuted. Chris Jochnick and Roger Normand in their article The Legitimation of Violence 1: A Critical History of the Laws of War explains that: "By leaving out morale bombing and other attacks on civilians unchallenged, the Tribunal conferred legal legitimacy on such practices." The concept of strategic bombing and its wide-scale implementation during WWII led to
448-571: The Luftwaffe confined attacks to purely military targets, the RAF should "launch an attack on the German fleet at Wilhelmshaven " and "attack warships at sea when found within range". The government communicated to their French allies the intention "not to initiate air action which might involve the risk of civilian casualties". While it was acknowledged bombing Germany would cause civilian casualties,
504-625: The Nuremberg Trials , wrote that: If the first badly bombed cities — Warsaw , Rotterdam , Belgrade , and London — suffered at the hands of the Germans and not the Allies, nonetheless the ruins of German and Japanese cities were the results not of reprisal but of deliberate policy, and bore witness that aerial bombardment of cities and factories has become a recognized part of modern warfare as carried out by all nations. Article 25 of
560-807: The Pacific War , the Japanese frequently bombed civilian populations as early as 1937–1938, such as in Shanghai and Chongqing . US air raids on Japan escalated from October 1944, culminating in widespread firebombing , and later in August 1945 with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The effectiveness of the strategic bombing campaigns is controversial. Although they did not produce decisive military victories in themselves, some argue that strategic bombing of non-military targets significantly reduced enemy industrial capacity and production, and
616-1057: The State Printing House , the Regional Court, the Small Baths and the National Library . These were not restored to their original appearance. The Bulgarian National Theatre , the Bulgarian Agricultural Bank, the Theological Faculty of Sofia University , the Museum of Natural History , the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and other buildings were damaged but subsequently reconstructed. Captain Gerhard Wengel [ bg ] (1915–1944)
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#1732772190799672-577: The 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions on Land Warfare also did not provide a clear guideline on the extent to which civilians may be spared; the same can be held for naval forces. Consequently, cyclical arguments, such as those advanced by Italian general and air power theorist Giulio Douhet , do not appear to violate any of the convention's provisions. Due to these reasons, the Allies at the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials never criminalized aerial bombardment of non-combatant targets and Axis leaders who ordered
728-649: The Audit House, the Ordnance Survey offices and many shops, factories and homes. The last casualties of air raids in the city were in a small raid on the suburbs of the city in May 1941 and on 8 July 1941 in the area of Victory Crescent, Millbrook , killing three people. The last major raid of over 50 bombers was in June 1942. There were occasional tip and run raids and in 1944 two V1 flying bombs in mid-July were
784-578: The British government renounced deliberate bombing of civilian property, outside combat zones, as a military tactic. The British changed their policy on 15 May 1940, one day after the German bombing of Rotterdam, when the RAF was given permission to attack targets in the Ruhr Area , including oil plants and other civilian industrial targets which aided the German war effort, such as blast furnaces that at night were self-illuminating. The first RAF raid on
840-465: The Civic Centre appeared like a "piece of cake" from the air, and that he was going to "cut himself a slice". During the raid, twelve bombs were dropped, including a direct hit on the Civic Centre with a 500lb high explosive. The bomb penetrated to the lower floors of the art gallery killing 35 people, including 15 children, who were having an art lesson in the basement. Of the 57 air raids, by far
896-540: The Daily Echo newspaper building and the General Motors factory were severely damaged or destroyed. All Saints' , Holyrood and St. Mary's churches , were destroyed, although St. Michael's escaped with only minor damage, allegedly because the spire was used by the German bombers as a landmark and their pilots were ordered not to hit it. Altogether, Southampton lost seven churches during the blitz, as well as
952-718: The French Air attaché in Warsaw reported to Paris, "the German Air Force acted in accordance to the international laws of war [...] and bombed only targets of military nature. Therefore, there is no reason for French retorsions ." That day – the Jewish New Year – the Germans concentrated again on the Warsaw's Jewish population, bombing the Jewish quarter and targeting synagogues . According to professor Szarota
1008-525: The Jewish Quarter ablaze. On 22 September, Wolfram von Richthofen messaged, "Urgently request exploitation of last opportunity for large-scale experiment as devastation terror raid ... Every effort will be made to eradicate Warsaw completely". His request was rejected. However, Adolf Hitler issued an order to prevent civilians from leaving the city and to continue with the bombing, which he thought would encourage Polish surrender. On 14 September,
1064-662: The Luftwaffe began targeting British civilians in the Blitz . After the beginning of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the Luftwaffe attacked Soviet cities and infrastructure . From February 1942 onward, the British bombing campaign against Germany became even less restricted and increasingly targeted industrial sites and civilian areas . When the United States began flying bombing missions against Germany, it reinforced British efforts. The Allies attacked oil installations , and controversial firebombings took place against Hamburg (1943), Dresden (1945), and other German cities. In
1120-623: The Polish Air Force. Polish Air Force bases across Poland were also subjected to Luftwaffe bombing from 1 September 1939. On 13 September, following orders of the ObdL to launch an attack on Warsaw's Jewish Quarter, justified as being for unspecified crimes committed against German soldiers but probably in response to a recent defeat by Polish ground troops, and intended as a terror attack, 183 bomber sorties were flown with 50:50 load of high explosive and incendiary bombs, reportedly set
1176-493: The absence of international law regarding aerial bombing in World War II. Most nations had refused to ratify such laws or agreements because of the vague or impractical wording in treaties such as the 1923 Hague Rules of Air Warfare. Also, the major powers' possession of newly developed advanced bombers was a great military advantage; they would be hard pressed to accept any negotiated limitations regarding this new weapon. In
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#17327721907991232-444: The absence of specific laws relating to aerial warfare, the belligerents' aerial forces at the start of World War II used the 1907 Hague Conventions — signed and ratified by most major powers — as the customary standard to govern their conduct in warfare, and these conventions were interpreted by both sides to allow the indiscriminate bombing of enemy cities throughout the war. General Telford Taylor , Chief Counsel for War Crimes at
1288-438: The advance of German ground forces through direct tactical and indirect air support with attacks against Polish mobilisation centres and thus delay an orderly Polish strategic concentration of forces and to deny mobility for Polish reinforcements through the destruction of strategic Polish rail routes. Preparations were made for a concentrated attack (Operation Wasserkante) by all bomber forces against targets in Warsaw. However,
1344-520: The attackers, shooting down eight Allied bombers and two American P-38 Lightning fighters for no losses in return. The casualty figures were relatively modest due to preliminary evacuation of the civilians. The bombing raid targeted the city center of Sofia. This bombing is known as "the black Easter" (the second day of Easter) for the citizens of Sofia. The raid was carried out by 350 bombers (B-17 and B-24) with an escort of 100 fighter planes –Mustangs and Lightnings. About 2500 bombs were dropped over
1400-468: The bombing of Warsaw as within the agreement because it was supposedly a fortified city—Germany did not have a policy of targeting enemy civilians as part of their doctrine prior to World War II. The British Government's policy was formulated on 31 August 1939: if Germany initiated unrestricted air action, the RAF "should attack objectives vital to Germany's war effort, and in particular her oil resources". If
1456-462: The bombing of the capital, 14 buildings were destroyed and three fires were started. Sofia was bombed a second time on 13 April, provoking a large exodus. The air raid was carried out on 14 November 1943 by 91 B-25 Mitchell bombers. Forty-seven buildings and structures were destroyed, 59 military personnel were killed and over 128 were injured. A new bombing followed on 24 November, this time executed by 60 B-24 Liberator aircraft. 87 buildings in
1512-677: The bombing. Due to prevailing strong winds they achieved poor accuracy, even causing some casualties to besieging German troops. The only Polish raid against a target in Germany was executed by PZL.23 Karaś light bombers against a factory in Ohlau . The Polish air force left Poland on 18 September 1939 due to the Soviet attack on 17 September 1939, and imminent capture of the Polish airstrips and aircraft stationed in eastern parts of Poland. There
1568-475: The city could be legitimately attacked as it was a defended city in the front line that refused calls to surrender. The bombing of the rail network, crossroads, and troop concentrations played havoc on Polish mobilisation, while attacks upon civilian and military targets in towns and cities disrupted command and control by wrecking the antiquated Polish signal network. Over a period of a few days, Luftwaffe numerical and technological superiority took its toll on
1624-480: The city, instructing citizens to evacuate the city pending a possible bomber attack. On 25 September the Luftwaffe flew 1,150 sorties and dropped 560 tonnes of high explosive and 72 tonnes of incendiaries. (Overall, incendiaries made up only three percent of the total tonnage dropped.) To conserve the strength of the bomber units for the upcoming Western campaign, the modern He 111 bombers were replaced by Ju 52 transports using "worse than primitive methods" for
1680-561: The civilian population in an aerial bombardment campaign . As the war continued to expand, bombing by both the Axis and the Allies increased significantly. The Royal Air Force , in retaliation for Luftwaffe attacks on the UK which started on 16 October 1939, began bombing military targets in Germany, commencing with the Luftwaffe seaplane air base at Hörnum on the 19–20 March 1940. In September 1940
1736-565: The field as the fastest way to win the war. Proponents of this approach argued that civilian deaths inflicted by strategic bombing of the cities during the WWII were justified in the sense that they allowed to shorten the war and thus helped to avoid much more casualties. The third approach was demonstrated by Michael Walzer in his Just and Unjust Wars (1977). Walzer formulated the so-called "supreme emergency" thesis. While agreeing in general with prior Just War theoretical postulates, he came to
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1792-528: The first military acts of World War II and the first major act of bombing, was carried out on a town that had little to no military value. Similarly, the bombing of Frampol has been described as an experiment to test the German tactics and weapons effectiveness. British historian Norman Davies writes in Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory : "Frampol was chosen partly because it was completely defenceless, and partly because its baroque street plan presented
1848-443: The glow of the firestorm of Southampton burning could be seen from as far away as Cherbourg on the coast of France. Nazi publicity declared in propaganda that the city had been left a smoking ruin. A week later, 120 German bombers returned for a further six-hour attack on the evening of 30 November. The 800 bombs dropped on the city left 137 dead, 96 killed in their air raid shelters. Major buildings including Pirelli Cable Works,
1904-563: The interior of Germany took place on the night of 15/16 May 1940 while the Battle of France was still continuing. During the German invasion of Poland, the Luftwaffe engaged in massive air raids against Polish cities, bombing civilian infrastructure such as hospitals and targeting fleeing refugees. Notably, the Luftwaffe bombed the Polish capital of Warsaw, and the small towns Wieluń and Frampol . The bombing of Wieluń , one of
1960-642: The invasions. On 6 April, Yugoslav Dornier Do 17 aircraft bombed the industrial section of Sofia and Kyustendil . In Sofia, eight people were killed. In the bombing of Kyustendil 58 civilians, two Bulgarian and eight German soldiers were killed and 59 civilians, five Bulgarian and 31 German soldiers were wounded. Between 20:05 and 21:40 on 6 April, the Royal Air Force (RAF) carried out bombing raids over Bulgaria. Bristol Blenheim aircraft bombed Petrich and Haskovo and six Vickers Wellington bombers dropped bombs over Sofia and nearby villages. During
2016-900: The last enemy ordnance to fall in the city. Among the victims of the bombing was Edgar L. Perry, who had worked as a coal trimmer on board the RMS Titanic in 1912. Perry, who had survived the sinking, perished along with his wife on 23 November 1940 as they sought shelter from the bombing. Strategic bombing during World War II Britain: China: France: Netherlands: Poland: Soviet Union: United States: Yugoslavia: Germany: Japan: Italy: Hungary: Romania: Bulgaria : Thailand : Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War II (1939–1945) involved sustained strategic bombing of railways, harbours, cities, workers' and civilian housing, and industrial districts in enemy territory. Strategic bombing as
2072-549: The major belligerents (Britain, France, Germany, and Poland) to confine their air raids to military targets, and "under no circumstances undertake bombardment from the air of civilian populations in unfortified cities". The British and French agreed to abide by the request, with the British reply undertaking to "confine bombardment to strictly military objectives upon the understanding that these same rules of warfare will be scrupulously observed by all their opponents". Germany also agreed to abide by Roosevelt's request and explained
2128-465: The most destructive raids followed on 20 December, with over 113 buildings being razed to the ground, the belt line being cut off, with 93 people injured. Bulgarian fighter aircraft downed three bombers and seven fighters for the loss of two aircraft, including one destroyed in a suicidal ramming attack by Dimitar Spisarevski which brought down a bomber. A day bombing in the Sofia railway junction area
2184-491: The night 50 RAF bombers attacked Sofia. 58 people were wounded and 72 buildings were destroyed. During the night about 40 RAF bombers attacked Sofia. There were no casualties. The most severe bombing of Sofia ever occurred on 30 March 1944. Some 450 American and British heavy bombers escorted by 150 Allied fighters attacked the city center of Sofia, destroying 3575 buildings. Over 3000 high explosive bombs and 30000 incendiary bombs were used. Bulgarian fighter aircraft intercepted
2240-533: The open to avoid such targeting), and indiscriminate attacks on fleeing civilians which according to Szarota was a direct violation of the Hague Convention . Warsaw was first attacked by German ground forces on 9 September and was put under siege on 13 September. German author Boog claims that with the arrival of German ground forces, the situation of Warsaw changed; under the Hague Convention,
2296-620: The operation was cancelled, according to Polish professor Tomasz Szarota due to bad weather conditions, while German author Horst Boog claims it was possibly due to Roosevelt's plea to avoid civilian casualties; according to Boog the bombing of military and industrial targets within the Warsaw residential area called Praga was prohibited. Polish reports from the beginning of September note strafing of civilians by German attacks and bombing of cemeteries and marked hospitals (marking of hospitals proved counterproductive as German aircraft began to specifically target them, until hospitals were moved into
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2352-630: The outset of World War II did not specifically forbid the aerial bombardment of cities – despite the prior occurrence of such bombing during World War I (1914–1918), the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). Strategic bombing during World War II in Europe began on 1 September 1939 when Germany invaded Poland and the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) began bombing Polish cities and
2408-405: The rapid pace of aviation technology created a belief that groups of bombers would be capable of devastating cities. For example, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin warned in 1932, " The bomber will always get through ." When the war began on 1 September 1939 with Germany's invasion of Poland , Franklin D. Roosevelt , President of the armed neutralitarian United States, issued an appeal to
2464-538: The report was inaccurate – as its author Armengaud didn't know about the most barbaric bombings like those in Wieluń or Kamieniec, left Poland on 12 September, and was motivated by his personal political goal to avoid French involvement in the war, in addition the report published in 1948 rather than in 1939. Three days later, Warsaw was surrounded by the Wehrmacht , and hundreds of thousands of leaflets were dropped on
2520-537: The size of village, what guaranteed that bombs nevertheless fall down on Frampol. From one side it should make easier the note of probe, from second side it should confirm the efficiency of used bombs. The directives issued to the Luftwaffe for the Polish Campaign were to prevent the Polish Air Force from influencing the ground battles or attacking German territory. In addition, it was to support
2576-455: The target – railroad marshaling yards. 749 buildings were totally destroyed. Casualties were 69 people wounded. The bombing raids in 1943–1944 resulted in 1,743 being injured. The number of buildings damaged were 12,564 (of which 2,670 completely destroyed). Sixty motor cars and 55 trailers were also destroyed. The Allies lost a total of 117 aircraft. Among the historic buildings destroyed were several schools and hotels, as well as
2632-422: The uncritical suppression of unwelcome facts; he is still capable of believing what he wants to believe, in the face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary. Indeed, there are none so blind as will not see, or so deaf as will not hear. It is, therefore, no doubt unrealistic to hope for the general acceptance of rational views about such an emotive subject as the ethics of air bombardment. Before World War II began,
2688-497: The vessel had already left the city, so the seaplane flew over the center of Danzig, where it bombed and opened fire on the German troops celebrating the capitulation of the Polish garrison of Westerplatte. Bombing of Sofia in World War II Military ranks: 256 killed (159 in battle, 28 missing, 69 died of their wounds); 333 captured; unspecified number of wounded The Bulgarian capital of Sofia suffered
2744-558: The vicinity of the Central Railway Station were destroyed with 29 being wounded. Bulgarian fighters shot down two bombers for the loss of one aircraft to escorting American fighters. The 10 December raid was carried out by 120 aircraft. About 90 bombs were released over the Hadzhi Dimitar, Industrialen, Malashevtsi and Voenna rampa quarters, another 90 hit Vrazhdebna Airport and the nearby villages. One of
2800-538: The war, 57 attacks on the city were made, but over 1,500 air raid warnings were issued. According to the Air Raid Precautions (ARP) Department approximately 2,300 bombs were dropped amounting to over 470 tonnes of high explosives . Over 30,000 incendiary devices were dropped on the city with nearly 45,000 buildings damaged or destroyed, with most of the city's High Street being hit. The Supermarine factory building manufacturing Spitfires in Woolston
2856-461: The worst were on 23 and 30 November and 1 December 1940 and these attacks are generally referred to as "Southampton's Blitz". Starting at 18:15, or 6:15 P.M, and running until midnight on the evening of 23 November, 77 people were killed and over 300 injured with the Civic Centre taking much of the brunt of the attack. The scale of the raid ruined the city's water supply and many of the fires had to be left to burn themselves out. There were reports that
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#17327721907992912-412: Was a target in the city. On 24 and 26 September 1940, the Luftwaffe bombed the riverside factory during two day-time raids. Much of the factory was destroyed and 110 people were killed. Northam gasworks was also targeted on 26 September and 11 workers were killed in the raid. A daylight raid on 6 November 1940 targeted the city's Civic Centre. Hermann Goering , head of the Luftwaffe , had remarked that
2968-467: Was executed on 30 December 1943, injuring 96. Sofia suffered another bombing on 10 January 1944, carried out consecutively by 143 American B-17s during the day and 44 RAF Wellingtons (during the night). 448 buildings were destroyed. 611 were wounded. During the daylight raid by the B-17s, Bulgarian fighters shot down six of the bombers and three escorting P-38 fighters for the loss of one aircraft. During
3024-544: Was no exception; even Pursuit Brigade , an organic part of the defences of the Polish capital, Warsaw , was transferred to Lublin , one week into the war. There happened also a non-planned single bombing of the Free City of Danzig . On 7 September, at about 11 PM, a Polish Lublin R.XIII G seaplane was flying over the city, on a mission to attack the German Schleswig-Holstein battleship . However,
3080-489: Was not updated before the outbreak of World War II. The absence of specific international humanitarian law did not mean aerial warfare was not covered under the laws of war , but rather that there was no general agreement of how to interpret those laws. This means that aerial bombardment of civilian areas in enemy territory by all major belligerents during World War II was not prohibited by positive or specific customary international humanitarian law. Many reasons exist for
3136-520: Was vindicated by the surrender of Japan . Estimates of the death toll from strategic bombing range from hundreds of thousands to over a million. Millions of civilians were made homeless, and many major cities were destroyed, especially in Europe and Asia. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 , which address the codes of wartime conduct on land and at sea, were adopted before the rise of air power. Despite repeated diplomatic attempts to update international humanitarian law to include aerial warfare , it
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