97-711: The Declaration of Constitutional Principles (known informally as the Southern Manifesto ) was a document written in February and March 1956, during the 84th United States Congress , in opposition to racial integration of public places. The manifesto was signed by 19 US Senators and 82 Representatives from the Southern United States . The signatories included the entire congressional delegations from Alabama , Arkansas , Georgia , Louisiana , Mississippi , South Carolina , and Virginia , most of
194-560: A general ticket . Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket . The count below reflects changes from the beginning of this Congress. Lists of committees and their party leaders for members of the House and Senate committees can be found through the Official Congressional Directory at the bottom of this article. The directory after the pages of terms of service lists committees of
291-622: A balanced budget over tax cuts. He played a major role in establishing the Interstate Highway System , a massive infrastructure project consisting of tens of thousands of miles of divided highways . After the launch of Sputnik 1 , Eisenhower signed the National Defense Education Act and presided over the creation of NASA . Eisenhower signed the first significant civil rights bill since the end of Reconstruction and although he didn't fully embrace
388-660: A defensive alliance dedicated to preventing the spread of Communism in Southeast Asia . In September 1954, China began shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu which were controlled by the Republic of China (ROC). The shelling nearly escalated to nuclear war when Eisenhower considered using tactical nuclear weapons to prevent the invasion of Taiwan, the main island controlled by the ROC. The crisis ended when China halted its shelling and both sides agreed to diplomatic talks;
485-411: A gift—a dog named "Checkers"—and that he would not return it, because his daughters loved it. The public responded to the speech with an outpouring of support, and Eisenhower retained him on the ticket. Ultimately, the burden of the ongoing Korean War , Communist threat, and Truman administration scandals, as well as the popularity of Eisenhower, were too much for Stevenson to overcome. Eisenhower won
582-603: A high priority on undermining Soviet influence on Eastern Europe, and escalated a propaganda war under the leadership of Charles Douglas Jackson . The United States dropped over 300,000 propaganda leaflets in Eastern Europe between 1951 and 1956, and Radio Free Europe sent broadcasts throughout the region. A 1953 uprising in East Germany briefly stoked the administration's hopes of a decline in Soviet influence, but
679-464: A landslide victory, taking 55.2 percent of the popular vote and 442 electoral votes. Stevenson received 44.5 percent of the popular vote and 89 electoral votes. Eisenhower won every state outside of the South, as well as Virginia, Florida, and Texas, each of which voted Republican for just the second time since the end of Reconstruction . In the concurrent congressional elections, Republicans won control of
776-598: A larger landslide. Eisenhower was limited to two terms and was succeeded by Democrat John F. Kennedy , who won the 1960 presidential election . Eisenhower held office during the Cold War , a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union . Eisenhower's New Look policy stressed the importance of nuclear weapons as a deterrent to military threats, and the United States built up
873-563: A longtime bank president who also had extensive government experience, as the director of the Bureau of the Budget . He became the first budget director to be given cabinet-level status. Other Eisenhower cabinet selections provided patronage to political bases. Ezra Taft Benson , a high-ranking member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , was chosen as secretary of agriculture; he
970-810: A possible nuclear war situation. Known as the Defense Resources Act, this legislative text entered the Congressional Record in 1983. According to page 182 (printed page) of the relevant pdf, the Act would authorize establishment of Censorship of Communications and other emergency federal powers: " Whenever the President shall deem that the public safety demands it, he may cause to be censored under such rules and regulations as he may from time to time establish, communications by mail, cable radio, television or other means of transmission crossing
1067-424: A powerful presidential contender who would field a competitive campaign. Stevenson concentrated on giving a series of thoughtful speeches around the nation. Although his style thrilled intellectuals and academics, some political experts wondered if he were speaking "over the heads" of most of his listeners, and they dubbed him an "egghead," based on his baldness and intellectual demeanor. His biggest liability however,
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#17327722896971164-455: A result, it became a standing joke that Eisenhower's inaugural Cabinet was composed of "nine millionaires and a plumber." Dissatisfied with Eisenhower's labor policies, Durkin resigned after less than a year in office, and was replaced by James P. Mitchell . Eisenhower suffered a major political defeat when his nomination of Lewis Strauss as a later Secretary of Commerce was defeated in the U.S. Senate in 1959, in part due to Strauss's role in
1261-901: A stockpile of nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons delivery systems during Eisenhower's presidency. Soon after taking office, Eisenhower negotiated an end to the Korean War , resulting in the partition of Korea . Following the Suez Crisis , Eisenhower promulgated the Eisenhower Doctrine , strengthening U.S. commitments in the Middle East . In response to the Cuban Revolution , the Eisenhower administration broke ties with Cuba and began preparations for an invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles, eventually resulting in
1358-555: A strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), strategic bombers , and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower insisted on having plans to retaliate , fight, and win a nuclear war against the Soviets, although he hoped he would never feel forced to use such weapons. As the fighting in Korea ended, Eisenhower sharply reduced
1455-454: A strong American role in stemming the expansion of Communism. Eisenhower adopted much of the rhetoric and positions of the contemporary GOP, and many of his public statements were designed to win over conservative supporters of Taft. A potentially devastating allegation hit when Nixon was accused by several newspapers of receiving $ 18,000 in undeclared "gifts" from wealthy California donors. Eisenhower and his aides considered dropping Nixon from
1552-529: A temporary partition of Vietnam; the country was divided into a Communist northern half (under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh ) and a non-Communist southern half (under the leadership of Ngo Dinh Diem ). Despite some doubts about the strength of Diem's government, the Eisenhower administration directed aid to the South in the hopes of creating a bulwark against further Communist expansion. With Eisenhower's approval, Diem refused to hold elections which had been scheduled for 1956 to re-unify Vietnam in contravention of
1649-779: The 1953 Iranian coup d'état (or Operation Ajax). Rumors of Soviet subversion had surfaced due to the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company . Historian Ervand Abrahamian states that Iran's oil was the central focus of the coup, for both the British and the U.S., though "much of the discourse at the time linked it to the Cold War." The CIA also instigated the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état (or Operation PBSuccess). President Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán 's ambitious agrarian reform program attempted to grant land to millions of landless peasants. This program threatened
1746-402: The 34th president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 1953, and ended on January 20, 1961. Eisenhower, a Republican from Kansas , took office following his landslide victory over Democratic nominee Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election . Four years later, in the 1956 presidential election , he defeated Stevenson again, to win re-election in
1843-579: The Brown decision, nor did it support extralegal resistance to desegregation. Instead, it was mostly a states' rights attack against the judicial branch for overstepping its role. The Southern Manifesto accused the Supreme Court of "clear abuse of judicial power" and promised to use "all lawful means to bring about a reversal of this decision which is contrary to the Constitution and to prevent
1940-635: The Katangan authorities, including Mobutu Sese Seko and Joseph Kasa-Vubu , received money and weapons directly from the CIA. In January 1953, Senator John W. Bricker of Ohio re-introduced the Bricker Amendment , which would limit the president's treaty making power and ability to enter into executive agreements with foreign nations. Fears that the steady stream of post-World War II-era international treaties and executive agreements entered into by
2037-528: The Korean War , which had begun on June 25, 1950, when North Korea invaded South Korea . The U.S. had joined the war to prevent the fall of South Korea, later expanding the mission to include victory over the Communist regime in North Korea. The intervention of Chinese forces in late 1950 led to a protracted stalemate around the 38th parallel north . Truman had begun peace talks in mid-1951, but
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#17327722896972134-705: The Oppenheimer security hearing . Eisenhower, who disliked partisan politics and politicians, left much of the building and sustaining of the Republican Party to Vice President Nixon. Eisenhower knew how ill-prepared Vice President Truman had been on major issues such as the atomic bomb when he suddenly became president in 1945, and therefore made sure to keep Nixon fully involved in the administration. He gave Nixon multiple diplomatic, domestic, and political assignments so that he "evolved into one of Ike's most valuable subordinates." The office of vice president
2231-585: The Supreme Court 's landmark desegregation ruling in the 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education , he did enforce the Court's ruling. Eisenhower maintained positive approval ratings throughout his tenure, but the launch of Sputnik 1 and a poor economy contributed to Republican losses in the 1958 elections . His preferred successor, Vice President Richard Nixon , won the Republican nomination but
2328-645: The United Kingdom . This was the first experiment at sharing strategic nuclear weapons in NATO and led to other placements abroad of American nuclear weapons. Critics at the time, led by Democratic Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts levied charges to the effect that there was a " missile gap ", that is, the U.S. had fallen militarily behind the Soviets because of their lead in space. Historians now discount those allegations, although they agree that Eisenhower did not effectively respond to his critics. In fact,
2425-728: The Western European Union to coordinate European defense. In response to the integration of West Germany into NATO, Eastern bloc leaders established the Warsaw Pact . Austria , which had been jointly-occupied by the Soviet Union and the Western powers, regained its sovereignty with the 1955 Austrian State Treaty . As part of the arrangement that ended the occupation, Austria declared its neutrality after gaining independence. The Eisenhower administration placed
2522-638: The rollback of Soviet influence was a long-term goal, but that NATO would not provoke war with the Soviet Union. Peace would be maintained by being so much stronger in terms of atomic weapons than the USSR that it would never risk using its much larger land-based army to attack Western Europe. He planned for to mobilize psychological insights, CIA intelligence and American scientific technological superiority counter conventional Soviet forces. After Joseph Stalin died in March 1953, Georgy Malenkov took leadership of
2619-643: The "Changes in membership" section. The independent Wayne Morse, who caucused with Republicans in the second session of the previous Congress, began caucusing with the Democrats at the start of this Congress before ultimately becoming a Democrat himself. Democrats would briefly lose control of the Senate after the last Congressional session. This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are popularly elected statewide every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding
2716-531: The "full independence" of Eastern European nations, and United Nations control of atomic energy. Though well received in the West, the Soviet leadership viewed Eisenhower's speech as little more than propaganda. In 1954, a more confrontational leader, Nikita Khrushchev , took charge in the Soviet Union. Eisenhower became increasingly skeptical of the possibility of cooperation with the Soviet Union after it refused to support his Atoms for Peace proposal, which called for
2813-738: The Attorney General, Herbert Brownell, usually in consultation with the state's senators. The administration appointed 45 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 129 judges to the United States district courts . Since nearly all were appointed to serve specific geographical area, their regional origins matched the national population. All were white men. Most judges had an upper-middle-class background. One in five attended an Ivy League undergraduate college; half attended an Ivy League law school. Party affiliation
2910-571: The CEO of General Motors , was Eisenhower's first secretary of defense. In 1957, he was replaced by president of Procter & Gamble , Neil H. McElroy . For the position of secretary of the treasury, Ike selected George M. Humphrey , the CEO of several steel and coal companies. His postmaster general, Arthur E. Summerfield , and first secretary of the interior, Douglas McKay , were both automobile distributors. Former senator Sinclair Weeks became Secretary of Commerce. Eisenhower appointed Joseph Dodge ,
3007-731: The Cold War and anti-communist position led Eisenhower to build a trade and military alliance with the Spanish through the Pact of Madrid . These relations brought an end to Spain's isolation after World War II, which in turn led to a Spanish economic boom known as the Spanish miracle . After the end of World War II, the Việt Minh launched an insurrection against the French-backed State of Vietnam . Seeking to support France and prevent
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3104-650: The Congo , and his acceptance of Soviet support during the Congo Crisis , the CIA saw "another possible Cuba." This view swayed the White House. President Eisenhower discussed plans at a National Security Council meeting on August 18, 1960, to assassinate Lumumba. However, the plot to poison him was abandoned. Declassified documents indicate that the Congolese leaders who overthrew Lumumba and transferred him to
3201-414: The House and Senate, thus giving them full control of Congress, although Republican Party briefly won the Senate after the last Congressional session. The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this Congress, and includes members from vacancies and newly admitted states, when they were first seated. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in
3298-473: The House of Representatives and the Senate. Eisenhower entered the White House with a strong background in organizing complex operations (such as the invasion of Europe in 1944). More than any previous president he paid attention to improving staff performance and defining duties. He paid special attention to having a powerful Chief of Staff in Sherman Adams , a former governor. Eisenhower delegated
3395-636: The Korean War. Eisenhower, while accepting the doctrine of containment, sought to counter the Soviet Union through more active means as detailed in the State-Defense report NSC 68 . The Eisenhower administration and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) used covert action to interfere with governments abroad. An early use of covert action was against the elected Prime Minister of Iran , Mohammed Mosaddeq , resulting in
3492-551: The Manifesto: Charles Jonas of North Carolina, William Cramer of Florida, Joel Broyhill and Richard Poff of Virginia. In many southern States, signing was much more common than not signing, with signatories including the entire delegations from Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Virginia. Those from southern states who refused to sign are noted below. 84th United States Congress The 84th United States Congress
3589-501: The Office of War Resources. A 2010 publication confirms the Office of War Resources plan. The selection and appointment of these administrator-designates was classified Top Secret . In an emergency, each administrator was to take charge of a specifically activated agency to maintain the continuity of government . Named to the group were: Research in 2024 subsequently revealed the existence of standby emergency legislation to be used in
3686-451: The PRC full status in the international community, pursuant to the view that making any concessions would strengthen the PRC. Eisenhower held office during a period in which both the United States and the Soviet Union developed nuclear stockpiles theoretically capable of destroying not just each other, but all life on Earth. The United States had tested the first atomic bomb in 1945, and both
3783-480: The Senate, House (Standing with Subcommittees, Select and Special) and Joint and, after that, House/Senate committee assignments. On the committees section of the House and Senate in the Official Congressional Directory, the committee's members on the first row on the left side shows the chairman of the committee and on the right side shows the ranking member of the committee. Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower [REDACTED] Dwight D. Eisenhower 's tenure as
3880-508: The Soviet Union did not deploy ICBMs until after Eisenhower left office, and the U.S. retained an overall advantage in nuclear weaponry. Eisenhower was aware of the American advantage in ICBM development because of intelligence gathered by U-2 planes , which had begun flying over the Soviet Union in 1956. The administration decided the best way to minimize the proliferation of nuclear weapons
3977-455: The Soviet Union. Malenkov proposed a "peaceful coexistence" with the West, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill proposed a summit of the world leaders. Fearing that the summit would delay the rearmament of West Germany , and skeptical of Malenkov's intentions, Eisenhower rejected the summit idea. In April, Eisenhower delivered his " Chance for Peace speech ," in which he called for an armistice in Korea, free elections to re-unify Germany,
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4074-544: The Soviet Union: Eisenhower knew that the United States had many other assets that could be translated into influence over the Soviet bloc—its democratic values and institutions, its rich and competitive capitalist economy, its intelligence technology and skills in obtaining information as to the enemy's capabilities and intentions, its psychological warfare and covert operations capabilities, its negotiating skills, and its economic and military assistance to
4171-415: The Supreme Court for just five years before resigning. The fifth and final Supreme Court vacancy of Eisenhower's tenure arose in 1958 due to the retirement of Harold Burton . Eisenhower successfully nominated federal appellate judge Potter Stewart to succeed Burton, and Stewart became a centrist on the court. Eisenhower paid attention to Supreme Court appointments. Other judicial nominees were selected by
4268-577: The Supreme Court. Eisenhower hoped that the appointment of Brennan, a liberal-leaning Catholic, would boost his own re-election campaign. Opposition from Senator Joseph McCarthy and others delayed Brennan's confirmation, so Eisenhower placed Brennan on the court via a recess appointment in 1956; the Senate confirmed Brennan's nomination in early 1957. Brennan joined Warren as a leader of the court's liberal bloc. Stanley Reed 's retirement in 1957 created another vacancy, and Eisenhower nominated federal appellate judge Charles Evans Whittaker , who would serve on
4365-576: The Third World. In 1953, the Eisenhower administration's National Security Council wrote three policy papers on opposing the People's Republic of China. NSC 146 proposed backing Republic of China maritime raids and raids against the Chinese mainland. NSC 148 proposed to foster and support anti-communist Chinese elements both inside and outside of the country. NSC 166 proposed strategies to deny
4462-462: The U.S. were undermining the nation's sovereignty united isolationists, conservative Democrats, most Republicans, and numerous professional groups and civic organizations behind the amendment. Believing that the amendment would weaken the president to such a degree that it would be impossible for the U.S. to exercise leadership on the global stage, Eisenhower worked with Senate Minority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson to defeat Bricker's proposal. Although
4559-572: The USSR quickly crushed the insurrection. In 1956, a major uprising broke out in Hungary . After Hungarian leader Imre Nagy promised the establishment of a multiparty democracy and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev dispatched 60,000 soldiers into Hungary to crush the rebellion. The United States strongly condemned the military response but did not take direct action, disappointing many Hungarian revolutionaries. After
4656-539: The United States ." Eisenhower appointed five justices of the Supreme Court of the United States . In 1953, Eisenhower nominated Governor Earl Warren to succeed Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson . Many conservative Republicans opposed Warren's nomination, but they were unable to block the appointment, and Warren's nomination was approved by the Senate in January 1954. Warren presided over a court that generated numerous liberal rulings on various topics, beginning in 1954 with
4753-498: The United States, North Korea, and China agreed to the Korean Armistice Agreement , ending the Korean War. Historian Edward C. Keefer says that in accepting the American demands that POWs could refuse to return to their home country, "China and North Korea still swallowed the bitter pill, probably forced down in part by the atomic ultimatum." Historian William I. Hitchcock writes that the key factors in reaching
4850-714: The United States. The Taft forces put up a strong fight in the remaining primaries, and, by the time of the July 1952 Republican National Convention , it was still unclear whether Taft or Eisenhower would win the presidential nomination. When the 1952 Republican National Convention opened in Chicago , Eisenhower's managers accused Taft of "stealing" delegate votes in Southern states, claiming that Taft's allies had unfairly denied delegate spots to Eisenhower supporters and put Taft delegates in their place. Lodge and Dewey proposed to evict
4947-473: The alleged failures of the Truman administration: "Korea, Communism, and corruption." In addition to the speeches, he got his message out to voters through 30-second television advertisements; this was the first presidential election in which television played a major role. In domestic policy, Eisenhower attacked the growing influence of the federal government in the economy, while in foreign affairs, he supported
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#17327722896975044-652: The amendment started out with 56 co-sponsors, it went down to defeat in the U.S. Senate in 1954 on 42–50 vote. Later in 1954, a watered-down version of the amendment missed the required two-thirds majority in the Senate by one vote. This episode proved to be the last hurrah for the isolationist Republicans, as younger conservatives increasingly turned to an internationalism based on aggressive anti-communism, typified by Senator Barry Goldwater . Eisenhower sought troop reductions in Europe by sharing of defense responsibilities with NATO allies. Europeans, however, never quite trusted
5141-524: The armistice were the exhaustion of North Korean forces and the desire of the Soviet leaders (who exerted pressure on China) to avoid nuclear war. The armistice led to decades of uneasy peace between North Korea and South Korea. The United States and South Korea signed a defensive treaty in October 1953, and the U.S. would continue to station thousands of soldiers in South Korea long after the end of
5238-423: The blame from a hostile foreign press. Eisenhower often relied upon him for advice about public opinion, and how to phrase complex issues. Hagerty had a reputation for supporting civil rights initiatives. Historian Robert Hugh Ferrell considered him to be the best press secretary in presidential history, because he "organized the presidency for the single innovation in press relations that has itself almost changed
5335-605: The borders of the United States which for the purposes of this section shall include territories and possessions, the Canal Zone, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Trust Territories and other areas under the jurisdiction of the United States, or communications which may be carried by any vessel, airplane or other means of transportation bound to or from any foreign country and touching at any port or place of
5432-606: The cabinet, Eisenhower selected Sherman Adams as White House Chief of Staff , and Milton S. Eisenhower , the president's brother and a prominent college administrator, emerged as an important adviser. Eisenhower also elevated the role of the National Security Council , and designated Robert Cutler to serve as the first National Security Advisor . Eisenhower sought out leaders of big business for many of his other cabinet appointments. Charles Erwin Wilson ,
5529-399: The causal factors, but according to historian Stephen M. Streeter, CIA documents show the United Fruit Company played no major role in Eisenhower's decision, that the Eisenhower administration did not need to be forced into the action by any lobby groups, and that Soviet influence in Guatemala was minimal. In the election of Patrice Lumumba as Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of
5626-420: The conditions his administration agreed to at the Geneva Conference. In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of U.S. military advisors in South Vietnam to 900. Eisenhower's commitment in South Vietnam was part of a broader program to contain China and the Soviet Union in East Asia. In 1954, the United States and seven other countries created the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO),
5723-565: The creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency and the creation of peaceful nuclear power plants. Eisenhower unveiled the New Look , his first national security policy, on October 30, 1953. It reflected his concern for balancing the Cold War military commitments of the United States with the risk of overwhelming the nation's financial resources. The new policy emphasized reliance on strategic nuclear weapons , rather than conventional military power, to deter both conventional and nuclear military threats. The U.S. military developed
5820-542: The desegregation case of Brown v. Board of Education . Eisenhower approved of the Brown decision. Robert H. Jackson 's death in late 1954 generated another vacancy on the Supreme Court, and Eisenhower successfully nominated federal appellate judge John Marshall Harlan II to succeed Jackson. Harlan joined the conservative bloc on the bench, often supporting the position of Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter . After Sherman Minton resigned in 1956, Eisenhower nominated state supreme court justice William J. Brennan to
5917-457: The development of the UGM-27 Polaris missile, which was capable of being launched from submarines, and continued funding for long-range bombers like the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress . In January 1956 the United States Air Force began developing the Thor , a 1,500 miles (2,400 km) Intermediate-range ballistic missile . The program proceeded quickly, and beginning in 1958 the first of 20 Royal Air Force Thor squadrons became operational in
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#17327722896976014-403: The electorate from its desire to repudiate 'Trumanism.' Republican strategy during the fall campaign focused on Eisenhower's unrivaled popularity. Ike traveled to 45 of the 48 states ; his heroic image and plain talk excited the large crowds who heard him speak from the campaign train's rear platform . In his speeches, Eisenhower never mentioned Stevenson by name, instead relentlessly attacking
6111-473: The failed Bay of Pigs Invasion . Eisenhower also allowed the Central Intelligence Agency to engage in covert actions, such as the 1953 Iranian coup d'état and the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état . In domestic affairs, Eisenhower supported a policy of modern Republicanism that occupied a middle ground between liberal Democrats and the conservative wing of the Republican Party. Eisenhower continued New Deal programs, expanded Social Security , and prioritized
6208-407: The fall of Vietnam to Communism, the U.S. played a major role in financing French military operations in Vietnam. By 1954, the Eisenhower administration was paying more than 75 percent of the France's military expenditures in the First Indochina War . The French requested U.S. aid in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu , which proved to be the climactic battle of the war. Seeking to rally public support for
6305-410: The first president to conduct a televised news conference . Reporters found performance at press conferences as awkward. Some concluded mistakenly that he was ill-informed or merely a figurehead. At times, he was able to use his reputation to deliberately obfuscate his position on difficult subjects. His press secretary , James Hagerty , was known for providing much more detail on the lifestyle of
6402-457: The former Confederate states also did not sign: Also, none of the 12 U.S. Senators or 39 U.S. House Representatives from the states of Delaware , Maryland , West Virginia , Kentucky , Missouri , and Oklahoma signed the Manifesto despite all requiring segregation in their public school systems prior to the Brown v. Board decision. There were seven Republican Representatives and three Senators from former Confederate states. Only four signed
6499-544: The idea of nuclear deterrence and were reluctant to shift away from NATO into a proposed European Defence Community (EDC). Like Truman, Eisenhower believed that the rearmament of West Germany was vital to NATO's strategic interests. The administration backed an arrangement , devised by Churchill and British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden , in which West Germany was rearmed and became a fully sovereign member of NATO in return for promises to not establish atomic, biological, or chemical weapons programs. European leaders also created
6596-474: The intervention, Eisenhower espoused the domino theory , which held that the fall of Vietnam would lead to the fall of other countries to communism. Congress refused to endorse intervention without the participation of Britain and a pledge from France to grant independence for Vietnam. The French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu on May 7, 1954. At the contemporaneous Geneva Conference , Dulles convinced Chinese and Soviet leaders to pressure Viet Minh leaders to accept
6693-664: The issue of North Korean and Chinese prisoners remained a sticking point. Over 40,000 prisoners from the two countries refused repatriation, but North Korea and China nonetheless demanded their return. Upon taking office, Eisenhower demanded a solution, warning China that he would use nuclear weapons if the war continued. Whether China was informed of the potential for nuclear force is unknown. South Korean leader Syngman Rhee attempted to derail peace negotiations by releasing North Korean prisoners who refused repatriation, but Rhee agreed to accept an armistice after Eisenhower threatened to withdraw all U.S. forces from Korea. On July 27, 1953,
6790-407: The land holdings of the United Fruit Company . American fears heightened when Arbenz purchased weapons from Communist Czechoslovakia. In June 1954, the CIA helped counterrevolutionaries remove Arbenz from power. The CIA then orchestrated a series of power transfers that ended with the confirmation of Carlos Castillo Armas as president in July 1954. Critics have produced conspiracy theories about
6887-430: The members from Florida and North Carolina , and several members from Tennessee and Texas . All of them were from the former Confederate states . 97 were Democrats ; 4 were Republicans . The Manifesto was drafted to support reversing the landmark Supreme Court 1954 ruling Brown v. Board of Education , which determined that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. School segregation laws were some of
6984-525: The most enduring and best-known of the Jim Crow laws that characterized the South at the time. " Massive resistance " to federal court orders requiring school integration was already being practiced across the South, and was not caused by the Manifesto. Senator J. William Fulbright of Arkansas had worked behind the scenes to tone down the original harsh draft. The final version did not pledge to nullify
7081-512: The names in the list below are Senate class numbers , which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1958; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, facing re-election in 1960; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1956. The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. Both representatives were elected statewide on
7178-600: The nature of the nation's highest office in recent decades." As early as 1956, per a memo on page 256 of a 2021 book, Eisenhower established emergency administrators in the event of a national crisis, such as a nuclear attack. The formerly classified memo, "Wartime Structure of the Executive Branch," specifies an Office of War Resources directly under the president, including a War Communications Administration and formerly undisclosed Office for Free World Cooperation. The memo does not specify person(s) selected to head
7275-541: The nomination actively. In January 1952, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. announced that Eisenhower's name would be entered in the March New Hampshire primary , even though he had not yet officially entered the race. The result in New Hampshire was a solid Eisenhower victory with 46,661 votes to 35,838 for Taft and 6,574 for Stassen. In April, Eisenhower resigned from his NATO command and returned to
7372-525: The nomination. Taft led the conservative wing of the party, which rejected many of the New Deal social welfare programs created in the 1930s and supported a noninterventionist foreign policy. Taft had been a candidate for the Republican nomination twice before but had been defeated both times by moderate Republicans from New York: Wendell Willkie in 1940 and Thomas E. Dewey in 1948. Dewey,
7469-513: The party's presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948, led the moderate wing of the party, centered in the Eastern states . These moderates supported most of the New Deal and tended to be interventionists in the Cold War . Dewey himself declined to run for president a third time, but he and other moderates sought to use his influence to ensure that 1952 Republican ticket hewed closer to their wing of
7566-618: The party. To this end, they assembled a Draft Eisenhower movement in September 1951. Two weeks later, at the National Governors' Conference meeting, seven Republican governors endorsed his candidacy. Eisenhower, then serving as the Supreme Allied Commander of NATO , had long been mentioned as a possible presidential contender, but he was reluctant to become involved in partisan politics. Nonetheless, he
7663-528: The polls and decided to not run in 1952. There was no clear frontrunner for the Democratic presidential nomination. Delegates to the 1952 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, nominated Illinois governor Adlai E. Stevenson for president on the third ballot. Senator John Sparkman of Alabama was selected as his running mate. The convention ended with widespread confidence that the party had selected
7760-537: The president than previous press secretaries; for example, he covered in great detail Eisenhower's medical condition. Most of the time, he handled routine affairs such as daily reports on presidential activities, defending presidential policies, and assisting diplomatic visitors. He handled embarrassing episodes, such as those related to the Soviet downing of an American spy plane, the U-2 in 1960. He handled press relations on Eisenhower's international trips, sometimes taking
7857-568: The pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace them with pro-Eisenhower delegates; they called this proposal "Fair Play." Although Taft and his supporters angrily denied this charge, the convention voted to support Fair Play 658 to 548, and Taft lost many Southern delegates. Eisenhower also received two more boosts: first when several uncommitted state delegations, such as Michigan and Pennsylvania, decided to support him; and second, when Stassen released his delegates and asked them to support Eisenhower. The removal of many pro-Taft Southern delegates and
7954-400: The reliance on expensive Army divisions. Historian Saki Dockrill argues that his long-term strategy was to promote the collective security of NATO and other American allies, strengthen the Third World against Soviet pressures, avoid another Korean stalemate, and produce a momentum that would steadily weaken Soviet power and influence. Dockrill points to Eisenhower's use of multiple assets against
8051-566: The revolution, the United States shifted from encouraging revolt to seeking cultural and economic ties as a means of undermining Communist regimes. Among the administration's cultural diplomacy initiatives were continuous goodwill tours by the "soldier-musician ambassadors" of the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra . In 1953, Eisenhower opened relations with Spain under dictator Francisco Franco . Despite its undemocratic nature, Spain's strategic position in light of
8148-586: The selection of his cabinet to two close associates, Lucius D. Clay and Herbert Brownell Jr. Brownell, a legal aide to Dewey, became attorney general. The office of Secretary of State went to John Foster Dulles , a long-time Republican spokesman on foreign policy who had helped design the United Nations Charter and the Treaty of San Francisco . Dulles would travel nearly 560,000 miles (901,233 km) during his six years in office. Outside of
8245-545: The superpowers had tested thermonuclear weapons by the end of 1953. Strategic bombers had been the delivery method of previous nuclear weapons, but Eisenhower sought to create a nuclear triad consisting of land-launched nuclear missiles, nuclear-missile-armed submarines, and strategic aircraft. Throughout the 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union developed intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBMs) and intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBMs) capable of delivering nuclear warheads. Eisenhower also presided over
8342-499: The support of the uncommitted states decided the nomination in Eisenhower's favor, which he won on the first ballot. Afterward, Senator Richard Nixon of California was nominated by acclamation as his vice-presidential running mate. Nixon, whose name came to the forefront early and often in preconvention conversations among Eisenhower's campaign managers, was selected because of his youth (39 years old) and solid anti-communist record. Incumbent President Harry S. Truman fared poorly in
8439-417: The ticket and picking another running mate. Nixon responded to the allegations in a nationally televised speech, the " Checkers speech ," on September 23. In this speech, Nixon denied the charges against him, gave a detailed account of his modest financial assets, and offered a glowing assessment of Eisenhower's candidacy. The highlight of the speech came when Nixon stated that a supporter had given his daughters
8536-577: The use of force in its implementation." It suggested that the Tenth Amendment should limit the reach of the Supreme Court on such issues. Senators in the Southern Caucus led the opposition, with Strom Thurmond writing the initial draft and Richard Russell the final version. Three Democratic Senators from the former Confederate states (all of whom had Presidential ambitions) did not sign: The following Democratic Representatives from
8633-491: Was Truman's unpopularity. Even though Stevenson had not been a part of the Truman administration, voters largely ignored his record and burdened him with Truman's. Historian Herbert Parmet says that Stevenson: failed to dispel the widespread recognition that, for a divided America, torn by paranoia and unable to understand what had disrupted the anticipated tranquility of the postwar world, the time for change had really arrived. Neither Stevenson nor anyone else could have dissuaded
8730-723: Was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington, D.C. from January 3, 1955, to January 3, 1957, during the third and fourth years of Dwight D. Eisenhower's presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the 1950 United States census . The Democratic Party won back majorities in both
8827-520: Was decisive: 93% of the men were Republicans, 7% Democrats; relatively few had been conspicuous in elective politics. Nearly 80% of the men were Protestants, 15% Catholic, and 6% Jewish. The Cold War dominated international politics in the 1950s. As both the United States and the Soviet Union possessed nuclear weapons , any conflict presented the risk of escalation into nuclear warfare. The isolationist element led by Senator Taft would avoid war by staying out of European affairs. Eisenhower's 1952 candidacy
8924-470: Was motivated by his opposition to Taft's isolationist views in opposition to NATO and American reliance on collective security with Western Europe. Eisenhower continued the basic Truman administration policy of containment of Soviet expansion but added a concern with propaganda suggesting eventual liberation of Eastern Europe. Eisenhower's overall Cold War policy was codified in NSC 174, which held that
9021-498: Was narrowly defeated by John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election. Eisenhower left office popular with the public. Eisenhower is generally ranked among the 10 greatest presidents. Going into the 1952 Republican presidential primaries , the two major contenders for the Republican presidential nomination were General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio . Governor Earl Warren of California and former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota also sought
9118-590: Was the only person appointed from the Taft wing of the party. As the first secretary of the new Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) , Eisenhower named the wartime head of the Army's Women's Army Corps, Oveta Culp Hobby . She was the second woman to ever be a cabinet member . Martin Patrick Durkin , a Democrat and president of the plumbers and steamfitters union, was selected as secretary of labor. As
9215-466: Was thereby fundamentally upgraded from a minor ceremonial post to a major role in the presidential team. Nixon went well beyond the assignment, "[throwing] himself into state and local politics, making hundreds of speeches across the land. With Eisenhower uninvolved in party building, Nixon became the de facto national GOP leader." In his two terms he delivered about 750 speeches and conducted 193 news conferences. On January 19, 1955, Eisenhower became
9312-798: Was to tightly control knowledge of gas-centrifuge technology , which was essential to turn ordinary uranium into weapons-grade uranium . American diplomats by 1960 reached agreement with the German, Dutch, and British governments to limit access to the technology. The four-power understanding on gas-centrifuge secrecy would last until 1975, when scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan took the Dutch centrifuge technology to Pakistan . France sought American help in developing its own nuclear program , but Eisenhower rejected these overtures due to France's instability and his distrust of French leader Charles de Gaulle . During his campaign, Eisenhower said he would go to Korea to end
9409-514: Was troubled by Taft's non-interventionist views, especially his opposition to NATO , which Eisenhower considered to be an important deterrence against Soviet aggression. He was also motivated by the corruption that he believed had crept into the federal government during the later years of the Truman administration . Eisenhower suggested in late 1951 that he would not oppose any effort to nominate him for president, although he still refused to seek
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