194-480: 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Sociology is the scientific study of human society that focuses on society , human social behavior , patterns of social relationships , social interaction , and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. Regarded as
388-413: A set of essential features common to all. Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, argue that the term "education" is context-dependent. Evaluative or thick conceptions of education assert that it is inherent in the nature of education to lead to some form of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions, which offer a value-neutral explanation. Some theorists provide
582-562: A bachelor's degree. Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education and often involves independent research, normally in the form of a master's thesis. Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, usually a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually involves the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation . More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation . Successful completion of formal education typically leads to certification,
776-451: A balance of positive and negative feedback through praise and constructive criticism. Intelligence significantly influences individuals' responses to education. It is a cognitive trait associated with the capacity to learn from experience, comprehend, and apply knowledge and skills to solve problems. Individuals with higher scores in intelligence metrics typically perform better academically and pursue higher levels of education. Intelligence
970-885: A child's ethnicity. Historically, gender has played a pivotal role in education as societal norms dictated distinct roles for men and women. Education traditionally favored men, who were tasked with providing for the family, while women were expected to manage households and care for children, often limiting their access to education. Although these disparities have improved in many modern societies, gender differences persist in education . This includes biases and stereotypes related to gender roles in various academic domains, notably in fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), which are often portrayed as male-dominated. Such perceptions can deter female students from pursuing these subjects. In various instances, discrimination based on gender and social factors occurs openly as part of official educational policies, such as
1164-429: A comprehensive and well-rounded education, while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to
1358-474: A couch, she was cared for by her mother until purchasing a house and hiring a nurse to aid her. She next moved downriver to Tynemouth where she regained her health. She stayed at Mrs Halliday's boarding-house, 57 Front Street, for nearly five years from 16 March 1840. The establishment is still open as a guest house today, now named the "Martineau Guest House" in her honor. The critic Diana Postlethwaite wrote of this period for Martineau: Being homebound
1552-552: A deeper interest in the Bible. Up until her brother James, who was born when she was 3 years old, went off to college at the Manchester New College of York in 1821 ( Harris Manchester College, Oxford ), she did not write often. James and Harriet had a great relationship, so James had suggested that Harriet begin writing as a way to cope with their new separation. Martineau began losing her senses of taste and smell at
1746-511: A descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used in ordinary language . Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, define what constitutes good education or how education should be practiced. Many thick and prescriptive conceptions view education as an endeavor that strives to achieve specific objectives , which may encompass acquiring knowledge, learning to think rationally , and cultivating character traits such as kindness and honesty. Various scholars emphasize
1940-551: A dish together. Some theorists differentiate between the three types based on the learning environment: formal education occurs within schools , non-formal education takes place in settings not regularly frequented, such as museums, and informal education unfolds in the context of everyday routines. Additionally, there are disparities in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be propelled by extrinsic motivation , driven by external rewards. Conversely, in non-formal and informal education, intrinsic motivation, stemming from
2134-638: A distinctive way of thinking, the rational calculation which he associated with the Protestant Ethic (more or less what Marx and Engels speak of in terms of those 'icy waves of egotistical calculation'). Together the works of these great classical sociologists suggest what Giddens has recently described as 'a multidimensional view of institutions of modernity' and which emphasises not only capitalism and industrialism as key institutions of modernity, but also 'surveillance' (meaning 'control of information and social supervision') and 'military power' (control of
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#17327907785062328-498: A founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin , even though Marx did not consider himself to be a sociologist, he may be regarded as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so far as anyone can claim the title." To have given clear and unified answers in familiar empirical terms to those theoretical questions which most occupied men's minds at the time, and to have deduced from them clear practical directives without creating obviously artificial links between
2522-495: A hierarchical structure, with the attainment of earlier levels serving as a prerequisite for higher ones. Short-cycle tertiary education concentrates on practical aspects, providing advanced vocational and professional training tailored to specialized professions. Bachelor's level education, also known as undergraduate education , is typically longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is commonly offered by universities and culminates in an intermediary academic credential known as
2716-816: A historical plaque marks this house. In 1841 she published a series of four novels for children, The Playfellow , comprising The Settlers at Home , The Peasant and the Prince , Feats on the Fiord , and The Crofton Boys . In 1844 she published Life in the Sickroom: Essays by an Invalid, an autobiographical reflection on invalidism. She wrote Household Education (1848), the handbook on the "proper" way to raise and educate children. Lastly, she began working on her autobiography. Completed much later, it included some hundred pages on this period. Notable visitors included Richard Cobden and Thomas and Jane Carlyle. Life in
2910-532: A letter, She was very agreeable and managed to talk on a most wonderful number of subjects, considering the limited time. I was astonished to find how little ugly she is, but as it appears to me, she is overwhelmed with her own projects, her own thoughts and own abilities. Erasmus palliated all this, by maintaining one ought not to look at her as a woman. Significantly, Martineau's earlier popularization of Thomas Malthus ' theories of population control may have helped convince Charles to read Malthus, which provided
3104-577: A long visit to the United States; she and her travelling companions spanning the nation from New York to Boston , and from Chicago through to Atlanta and elsewhere in Georgia . During this time, she visited a great many people, some little known, others as famous as James Madison , the former US president, at his home at Montpelier . She also met numerous abolitionists in Boston and studied
3298-640: A low cost. Conversely, in nations like the United States and Singapore, tertiary education often comes with high tuition fees , leading students to rely on substantial loans to finance their studies. High education costs can pose a significant barrier for students in developing countries , as their families may struggle to cover school fees, purchase uniforms, and buy textbooks. The academic literature explores various types of education, including traditional and alternative approaches. Traditional education encompasses long-standing and conventional schooling methods, characterized by teacher-centered instruction within
3492-410: A major contribution to the theoretical concept of structural functionalism . By carefully examining suicide statistics in different police districts, he attempted to demonstrate that Catholic communities have a lower suicide rate than that of Protestants, something he attributed to social (as opposed to individual or psychological ) causes. He developed the notion of objective social facts to delineate
3686-540: A more inclusive and emotionally supportive environment. This category encompasses various forms, such as charter schools and specialized programs catering to challenging or exceptionally talented students, alongside homeschooling and unschooling . Alternative education incorporates diverse educational philosophies, including Montessori schools , Waldorf education , Round Square schools , Escuela Nueva schools , free schools, and democratic schools . Alternative education encompasses indigenous education , which emphasizes
3880-603: A more individual level, education fosters personal development , encompassing learning new skills, honing talents , nurturing creativity , enhancing self-knowledge , and refining problem-solving and decision-making abilities. Moreover, education contributes positively to health and well-being. Educated individuals are often better informed about health issues and adjust their behavior accordingly, benefit from stronger social support networks and coping strategies , and enjoy higher incomes, granting them access to superior healthcare services . The social significance of education
4074-706: A more sustainable and equitable world. Thus, education not only serves to maintain societal norms but also acts as a catalyst for social development . This extends to evolving economic circumstances, where technological advancements, notably increased automation , impose new demands on the workforce that education can help meet. As circumstances evolve, skills and knowledge taught may become outdated, necessitating curriculum adjustments to include subjects like digital literacy , and promote proficiency in handling new technologies. Moreover, education can embrace innovative forms such as massive open online courses to prepare individuals for emerging challenges and opportunities. On
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#17327907785064268-439: A neo-Kantian inquiry into the limits of perception, asking 'What is society?' in a direct allusion to Kant's question 'What is nature?' The deepest problems of modern life flow from the attempt of the individual to maintain the independence and individuality of his existence against the sovereign powers of society, against the weight of the historical heritage and the external culture and technique of life. The antagonism represents
4462-403: A notable biologist , Spencer coined the term survival of the fittest . While Marxian ideas defined one strand of sociology, Spencer was a critic of socialism, as well as a strong advocate for a laissez-faire style of government. His ideas were closely observed by conservative political circles, especially in the United States and England. The first formal Department of Sociology in the world
4656-515: A part of both the social sciences and humanities , sociology uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order and social change . Sociological subject matter ranges from micro-level analyses of individual interaction and agency to macro-level analyses of social systems and social structure . Applied sociological research may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, whereas theoretical approaches may focus on
4850-410: A pivotal role in democracies by enhancing civic participation through voting and organizing, while also promoting equal opportunities for all. On an economic level, individuals become productive members of society through education, acquiring the technical and analytical skills necessary for their professions, as well as for producing goods and providing services to others. In early societies, there
5044-438: A pivotal role in equipping a country to adapt to changes and effectively confront new challenges. It raises awareness and contributes to addressing contemporary global issues , including climate change , sustainability , and the widening disparities between the rich and the poor. By instilling in students an understanding of how their lives and actions impact others, education can inspire individuals to strive towards realizing
5238-1379: A pivotal role in policy-making endeavors aimed at mitigating their impact. Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond just income , including financial security , social status , social class , and various attributes related to quality of life . Low socioeconomic status impacts educational success in several ways. It correlates with slower cognitive development in language and memory, as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited financial means may struggle to meet their children's basic nutritional needs, hindering their development. Additionally, they may lack resources to invest in educational materials such as stimulating toys, books, and computers. Financial constraints may also prevent attendance at prestigious schools, leading to enrollment in institutions located in economically disadvantaged areas. Such schools often face challenges such as teacher shortages and inadequate educational materials and facilities like libraries, resulting in lower teaching standards. Moreover, parents may be unable to afford private lessons for children falling behind academically. In some cases, students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are compelled to drop out of school to contribute to family income. Limited access to information about higher education and challenges in securing and repaying student loans further exacerbate
5432-442: A possible character beyond positivist data-collection or grand, deterministic systems of structural law. Relatively isolated from the sociological academy throughout his lifetime, Simmel presented idiosyncratic analyses of modernity more reminiscent of the phenomenological and existential writers than of Comte or Durkheim, paying particular concern to the forms of, and possibilities for, social individuality. His sociology engaged in
5626-511: A prerequisite for advancing to higher levels of education and entering certain professions . Undetected cheating during exams, such as utilizing a cheat sheet , poses a threat to this system by potentially certifying unqualified students. In most countries, primary and secondary education is provided free of charge. However, there are significant global disparities in the cost of tertiary education. Some countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at
5820-647: A resolutely subjective perspective. Max Weber argued that sociology may be loosely described as a science as it is able to identify causal relationships of human " social action "—especially among " ideal types ", or hypothetical simplifications of complex social phenomena. As a non-positivist, however, Weber sought relationships that are not as "historical, invariant, or generalisable" as those pursued by natural scientists. Fellow German sociologist, Ferdinand Tönnies , theorised on two crucial abstract concepts with his work on " gemeinschaft and gesellschaft " ( lit. ' community' and 'society ' ). Tönnies marked
6014-402: A revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes. Symbolic interaction —often associated with interactionism , phenomenology , dramaturgy , interpretivism —is a sociological approach that places emphasis on subjective meanings and the empirical unfolding of social processes, generally accessed through micro-analysis. This tradition emerged in
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6208-559: A sewing needle" as well as the (hidden) pen. In the Martineau family, Harriet's mother Elizabeth made sure all her children received a proper education. With the Martineaus being Unitarian, both the boys and girls in the family were expected to receive a conventional education. In order to abide by this well-rounded education, Harriet was taught at home by several of her elder siblings in the beginning of her education journey. Harriet
6402-408: A sharp line between the realm of concepts and the reality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ("pure sociology"), whereas the second empirically and inductively ("applied sociology"). [Sociology is] ... the science whose object is to interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which the action proceeds and
6596-553: A social whole. The German philosopher Hegel criticised traditional empiricist epistemology, which he rejected as uncritical, and determinism, which he viewed as overly mechanistic. Karl Marx 's methodology borrowed from Hegelian dialecticism but also a rejection of positivism in favour of critical analysis, seeking to supplement the empirical acquisition of "facts" with the elimination of illusions. He maintained that appearances need to be critiqued rather than simply documented. Early hermeneuticians such as Wilhelm Dilthey pioneered
6790-701: A stable society by imparting fundamental skills necessary for interacting with the environment and fulfilling individual needs and aspirations. In contemporary society, these skills encompass speaking, reading, writing, arithmetic , and proficiency in information and communications technology . Additionally, education facilitates socialization by instilling awareness of dominant social and cultural norms , shaping appropriate behavior across diverse contexts. It fosters social cohesion , stability, and peace, fostering productive engagement in daily activities. While socialization occurs throughout life, early childhood education holds particular significance. Moreover, education plays
6984-539: A structured approach but occurs outside the formal schooling system, while informal education entails unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are categorized into levels, including early childhood education , primary education , secondary education , and tertiary education . Other classifications focus on teaching methods, such as teacher-centered and student-centered education , and on subjects, such as science education , language education , and physical education . Additionally,
7178-540: A structured school environment. Regulations govern various aspects, such as the curriculum and class schedules. Alternative education serves as an umbrella term for schooling methods that diverge from the conventional traditional approach. These variances might encompass differences in the learning environment, curriculum content, or the dynamics of the teacher-student relationship. Characteristics of alternative schooling include voluntary enrollment, relatively modest class and school sizes, and customized instruction, fostering
7372-526: A theoretical empiricism . The extent of antipositivist criticism has also diverged, with many rejecting the scientific method and others only seeking to amend it to reflect 20th-century developments in the philosophy of science. However, positivism (broadly understood as a scientific approach to the study of society) remains dominant in contemporary sociology, especially in the United States. Loïc Wacquant distinguishes three major strains of positivism: Durkheimian , Logical, and Instrumental. None of these are
7566-425: A unique empirical object for the science of sociology to study. Through such studies he posited that sociology would be able to determine whether any given society is healthy or pathological, and seek social reform to negate organic breakdown, or " social anomie ". Sociology quickly evolved as an academic response to the perceived challenges of modernity , such as industrialization, urbanization, secularization , and
7760-811: A variety of different fields. Since its inception, sociological epistemology, methods, and frames of inquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged. Durkheim, Marx, and the German theorist Max Weber are typically cited as the three principal architects of sociology. Herbert Spencer , William Graham Sumner , Lester F. Ward , W. E. B. Du Bois , Vilfredo Pareto , Alexis de Tocqueville , Werner Sombart , Thorstein Veblen , Ferdinand Tönnies , Georg Simmel , Jane Addams and Karl Mannheim are often included on academic curricula as founding theorists. Curricula also may include Charlotte Perkins Gilman , Marianne Weber , Harriet Martineau , and Friedrich Engels as founders of
7954-986: A variety of topics. Martineau's frequent publication in the Repository acquainted her with editor Rev. William Johnson Fox (not William Darwin Fox, see disambiguation). First coming to London around 1830, Martineau joined Fox's social circle of prominent thinkers, which also introduced her to Erasmus Alvey Darwin , older brother to Charles Darwin. In November 1832, Martineau moved to London. Among her acquaintances were: Henry Hallam , Harriet Taylor , Alexander Maconochie , Henry Hart Milman , Thomas Malthus , Monckton Milnes , Sydney Smith , John Stuart Mill , Edward Bulwer-Lytton , Elizabeth Barrett Browning , Sarah Austin , and Charles Lyell , as well as Jane Welsh Carlyle and Thomas Carlyle . She met Florence Nightingale , Charlotte Brontë , George Eliot and Charles Dickens later on in her literary career. Until 1834, Martineau
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8148-454: A whole, with primary education showing particularly high rates of return. Additionally, besides bolstering economic prosperity, education contributes to technological and scientific advancements, reduces unemployment, and promotes social equity . Moreover, increased education is associated with lower birth rates , partly due to heightened awareness of family planning , expanded opportunities for women, and delayed marriage . Education plays
8342-439: A woman was suggesting such a position in the power dynamic, critics suggested that, as she was an invalid, her mind must also be sick and the work was not to be taken seriously. British and Foreign Medical Review dismissed Martineau's piece on the same basis as the critics: an ill person cannot write a healthy work. They thought it was unheard of for a woman to suggest being in a position of control, especially in sickness. Instead,
8536-413: A writer and her father's business failure, which she describes as "one of the best things that ever happened to us". She described how she could then "truly live instead of vegetate". Her reflection emphasizes her experience with financial responsibility in her life while she writes "[her] fusion of literary and economic narratives". Harriet's first commissioned book, Illustrations of Political Economy ,
8730-491: A young age. She was deaf and having to use an ear trumpet at the young age of 12. However, it was said that Harriet did not actually utilize the ear trumpet until her late twenties as she was trying to avoid harassment from others by doing so. It was the beginning of many health problems in her life. With such an early onset of illness, and the passing of her father, requiring her to make a living for herself, she became an avid writer. In 1821, she began to write anonymously for
8924-434: Is a major part of the process of becoming feminine. In this interior setting she (Martineau) is taught the home arts of working, serving, and cleaning, as well as the rehearsals for the role of mothering. She sees her mother... doing these things. They define femininity for her. Her illness caused her to literally enact the social constraints of women during this time. Martineau wrote a number of books during her illness, and
9118-482: Is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge , skills, and character traits. However, extensive debate surrounds its precise nature beyond these general features. One approach views education as a process occurring during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning. Another perspective perceives education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated individuals resulting from this process. Furthermore,
9312-610: Is advocating for education policies, such as the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child , which declares education as a fundamental human right for all children and young people. The Education for All initiative aimed to provide basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by 2015, later succeeded by the Sustainable Development Goals initiative, particularly goal 4 . Related policies include
9506-596: Is akin to secondary education in complexity but places greater emphasis on vocational training to ready students for the workforce. In some countries, tertiary education is synonymous with higher education , while in others, tertiary education encompasses a broader spectrum. Tertiary education builds upon the foundation laid in secondary education but delves deeper into specific fields or subjects. Its culmination results in an academic degree . Tertiary education comprises four levels: short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's , master's , and doctoral education. These levels often form
9700-522: Is also in this tradition that the radical-empirical approach of ethnomethodology emerges from the work of Harold Garfinkel . Utilitarianism is often referred to as exchange theory or rational choice theory in the context of sociology. This tradition tends to privilege the agency of individual rational actors and assumes that within interactions individuals always seek to maximize their own self-interest. As argued by Josh Whitford , rational actors are assumed to have four basic elements: Exchange theory
9894-815: Is an established tradition within sociological theory. Lastly, as argued by Raewyn Connell , a tradition that is often forgotten is that of Social Darwinism , which applies the logic of Darwinian biological evolution to people and societies. This tradition often aligns with classical functionalism, and was once the dominant theoretical stance in American sociology, from c. 1881 – c. 1915 , associated with several founders of sociology, primarily Herbert Spencer , Lester F. Ward , and William Graham Sumner . Contemporary sociological theory retains traces of each of these traditions and they are by no means mutually exclusive. A broad historical paradigm in both sociology and anthropology , functionalism addresses
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#173279077850610088-427: Is but a consequence of this rationalism. The term has long since ceased to carry this meaning; there are no fewer than twelve distinct epistemologies that are referred to as positivism. Many of these approaches do not self-identify as "positivist", some because they themselves arose in opposition to older forms of positivism, and some because the label has over time become a pejorative term by being mistakenly linked with
10282-605: Is compulsory in numerous countries across Central and East Asia, Europe, and the Americas. In some nations, it represents the final phase of compulsory education. However, mandatory lower secondary education is less common in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia. Upper secondary education typically commences around the age of 15, aiming to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge for employment or tertiary education. Completion of lower secondary education
10476-442: Is confined by an unjustifiable restriction of... education... As women have none of the objects in life for which an enlarged education is considered requisite, the education is not given... The choice is to either be 'ill-educated, passive, and subservient, or well-educated, vigorous, and free only upon sufferance. The publication of Martineau's Illustrations of Political Economy found public success. So much success that, "by 1834,
10670-420: Is connected with the division of labor) and his achievements which make him unique and indispensable but which at the same time make him so much the more dependent on the complementary activity of others; Nietzsche may have seen the relentless struggle of the individual as the prerequisite for his full development, while socialism found the same thing in the suppression of all competition – but in each of these
10864-403: Is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public. It typically does not require tuition fees and is therefore a form of free education . In contrast, private education is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees. A more detailed classification focuses on
11058-621: Is more or less synonymous with quantitative research , and so only resembles older positivism in practice. Since it carries no explicit philosophical commitment, its practitioners may not belong to any particular school of thought. Modern sociology of this type is often credited to Paul Lazarsfeld , who pioneered large-scale survey studies and developed statistical techniques for analysing them. This approach lends itself to what Robert K. Merton called middle-range theory : abstract statements that generalize from segregated hypotheses and empirical regularities rather than starting with an abstract idea of
11252-424: Is necessary to maintain social stability. By facilitating individuals' integration into society, education fosters economic growth and diminishes poverty . It enables workers to enhance their skills, thereby improving the quality of goods and services produced, which ultimately fosters prosperity and enhances competitiveness. Public education is widely regarded as a long-term investment that benefits society as
11446-417: Is normally a prerequisite. The curriculum encompasses a broader range of subjects, often affording students the opportunity to select from various options. Attainment of a formal qualification, such as a high school diploma , is frequently linked to successful completion of upper secondary education. Education beyond the secondary level may fall under the category of post-secondary non-tertiary education, which
11640-677: Is often closely associated with the concept of IQ , a standardized numerical measure assessing intelligence based on mathematical-logical and verbal abilities. However, it has been argued that intelligence encompasses various types beyond IQ. Psychologist Howard Gardner posited distinct forms of intelligence in domains such as mathematics , logic , spatial cognition , language, and music. Additional types of intelligence influence interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. These intelligences are largely autonomous, meaning that an individual may excel in one type while performing less well in another. According to proponents of learning style theory,
11834-535: Is part of her doctrine. I much doubt whether it will be equality in practice. The Darwins shared Martineau's Unitarian background and Whig politics, but their father Robert was concerned that, as a potential daughter-in-law, she was too extreme in her politics. Charles noted that his father was upset by a piece in the Westminster Review calling for the radicals to break with the Whigs and give working men
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#173279077850612028-415: Is seen as a process of shared experience, involving the discovery of a common world and the collaborative solving of problems . There are several classifications of education. One classification depends on the institutional framework, distinguishing between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Another classification involves different levels of education based on factors such as the student's age and
12222-598: Is so very plain; otherwise I should be frightened: She is a wonderful woman. Martineau wrote Deerbrook (1838), a three-volume novel published after her American books. She portrayed a failed love affair between a physician and his sister-in-law. It was considered her most successful novel. She also wrote The Hour and the Man: An Historical Romance (1841), a three-volume novel about the Haitian slave leader Toussaint L'Ouverture , who contributed to
12416-421: Is specifically attributed to the work of George C. Homans , Peter Blau and Richard Emerson. Organizational sociologists James G. March and Herbert A. Simon noted that an individual's rationality is bounded by the context or organizational setting. The utilitarian perspective in sociology was, most notably, revitalized in the late 20th century by the work of former ASA president James Coleman . Following
12610-416: Is to extract from their subject-matter 'correct' or 'valid' meaning. Both Weber and Georg Simmel pioneered the " Verstehen " (or 'interpretative') method in social science; a systematic process by which an outside observer attempts to relate to a particular cultural group, or indigenous people, on their own terms and from their own point of view. Through the work of Simmel, in particular, sociology acquired
12804-399: Is to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments, providing affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure. In the broadest sense, special education also encompasses education for intellectually gifted children , who require adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential. Classifications based on the teaching method include teacher-centered education, where
12998-836: Is underscored by the annual International Day of Education on January 24, established by the United Nations , which designated 1970 as the International Education Year. Organized institutions play a pivotal role in multiple facets of education. Entities such as schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education comprise the education sector. They interact not only with one another but also with various stakeholders, including parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations , healthcare professionals, law enforcement agencies, media platforms, and political leaders. Numerous individuals are directly engaged in
13192-413: Is usually overseen and regulated by the government and often mandated up to a certain age. Non-formal and informal education occur outside the formal schooling system, with non-formal education serving as a middle ground. Like formal education, non-formal education is organized, systematic, and pursued with a clear purpose, as seen in activities such as tutoring , fitness classes, and participation in
13386-537: The Monthly Repository , a Unitarian periodical. Her first contribution was "Female Writers of Practical Divinity," and in 1823 she published Devotional Exercises and Addresses, Prayers and Hymns . The year 1823 was the same year that Harriet's brother James introduced her to one of his friends from school, John Hugh Worthington. The two were engaged, however never married as Worthington fell ill and died. Martineau later reveals in her autobiography that she
13580-578: The Big Five personality traits , are associated with academic success. Other mental factors include self-efficacy , self-esteem , and metacognitive abilities. Sociological factors center not on the psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and societal position. These factors encompass socioeconomic status , ethnicity , cultural background , and gender , drawing significant interest from researchers due to their association with inequality and discrimination . Consequently, they play
13774-560: The Chicago School of the 1920s and 1930s, which, prior to World War II, "had been the center of sociological research and graduate study." The approach focuses on creating a framework for building a theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. Society is nothing more than the shared reality that people construct as they interact with one another. This approach sees people interacting in countless settings using symbolic communications to accomplish
13968-757: The Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative. Some influential organizations are non-governmental rather than intergovernmental. For instance, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and knowledge exchange among colleges and universities worldwide, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs. Institutions like
14162-461: The Domesday Book in 1086, while ancient philosophers such as Confucius wrote about the importance of social roles. Medieval Arabic writings encompass a rich tradition that unveils early insights into the field of sociology. Some sources consider Ibn Khaldun , a 14th-century Muslim scholar from Tunisia , to have been the father of sociology, although there is no reference to his work in
14356-887: The Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries, while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide similar services for teachers. Educational success, also referred to as student and academic achievement, pertains to the extent to which educational objectives are met, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by students. For practical purposes, it is often primarily measured in terms of official exam scores, but numerous additional indicators exist, including attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as later income and incarceration rates. Several factors influence educational achievement, such as psychological factors related to
14550-541: The Frankfurt School of critical theory ) was founded in 1923. International co-operation in sociology began in 1893, when René Worms founded the Institut International de Sociologie , an institution later eclipsed by the much larger International Sociological Association (ISA), founded in 1949. The overarching methodological principle of positivism is to conduct sociology in broadly
14744-613: The Gurney family of Earlham Hall , Norfolk . Harriet's father, Thomas, owned the leasehold of the Gurney's home, Gurney Court, Harriet's birth place. The family's wealth remained intact until around 1825–26 when the stock market and banking system collapsed. As previously mentioned Harriet and her mother's relationship was quite hostile early on. It was a traditional gesture for mothers to hire wet nurses for their children, especially if they could not nurse their child by themselves. However
14938-533: The Lake District , where she designed herself and oversaw the construction of the house called The Knoll, Ambleside (made a Grade II Listed Building in 1974 ), where she spent the greater part of her later life. Although she was single and had no children she believed that: "No true woman, married or single, can be happy without some sort of domestic life; – without having somebody's happiness dependent on her: and my own ideal of an innocent and happy life
15132-549: The Review recommended that patients follow "unconditional submission" to the advice of doctors. They disagreed with the idea that Martineau might hold any sort of "authority to Britain's invalids". Expecting to remain an invalid for the rest of her life, Martineau delighted in the new freedom of views using her telescope . Across the Tyne was the sandy beach "where there are frequent wrecks — too interesting to an invalid... and above
15326-720: The abolitionist movement has seen Martineau's celebrity and achievements studied world-wide, particularly at American institutions of higher education such as Northwestern University . When unveiling a statue of Martineau in December 1883 at the Old South Meeting House in Boston , Wendell Phillips referred to her as the "greatest American abolitionist". Martineau's statue was gifted to Wellesley College in 1886. Born in Norwich , England, Harriet Martineau
15520-407: The effects which it produces . By 'action' in this definition is meant the human behaviour when and to the extent that the agent or agents see it as subjectively meaningful ... the meaning to which we refer may be either (a) the meaning actually intended either by an individual agent on a particular historical occasion or by a number of agents on an approximate average in a given set of cases, or (b)
15714-479: The institution of medicine ; economy ; military ; punishment and systems of control ; the Internet ; sociology of education ; social capital ; and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge . The range of social scientific methods has also expanded, as social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of
15908-536: The sciences , music , and art . Another objective is to facilitate personal development. Presently, primary education is compulsory in nearly all nations, with over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attending such schools. Secondary education succeeds primary education and typically spans the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is normally divided into lower secondary education (such as middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (like high school , senior high school, or college , depending on
16102-500: The scouting movement. Informal education, on the other hand, occurs in an unsystematic manner through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is typically no designated authority figure responsible for teaching. Informal education unfolds in various settings and situations throughout one's life, often spontaneously, such as children learning their first language from their parents or individuals mastering cooking skills by preparing
16296-443: The social structure —referred to as " social organization " by the classical theorists—with respect to the whole as well as the necessary function of the whole's constituent elements. A common analogy (popularized by Herbert Spencer ) is to regard norms and institutions as 'organs' that work towards the proper functioning of the entire 'body' of society. The perspective was implicit in the original sociological positivism of Comte but
16490-542: The voyage of the Beagle , Charles Darwin went to London to stay with his brother Erasmus . He found him spending his days "driving out Miss Martineau", who had returned from her trip to the United States. Charles wrote to his sister: Our only protection from so admirable a sister-in-law is in her working him too hard." He commented, "She already takes him to task about his idleness — She is going some day to explain to him her notions about marriage — Perfect equality of rights
16684-622: The ASA in 1905. The sociological canon of classics with Durkheim and Max Weber at the top owes its existence in part to Talcott Parsons , who is largely credited with introducing both to American audiences. Parsons consolidated the sociological tradition and set the agenda for American sociology at the point of its fastest disciplinary growth. Sociology in the United States was less historically influenced by Marxism than its European counterpart, and to this day broadly remains more statistical in its approach. The first sociology department established in
16878-470: The Harvard department." As Parsons began to dominate general theory, his work primarily referenced European sociology—almost entirely omitting citations of both the American tradition of sociocultural-evolution as well as pragmatism. In addition to Parsons' revision of the sociological canon (which included Marshall, Pareto, Weber and Durkheim), the lack of theoretical challenges from other departments nurtured
17072-464: The Sickroom is considered to be one of Martineau's finest works. It upset evangelical readers, as they "thought it dangerous in 'its supposition of self-reliance'". This series of essays embraced traditional womanhood. Martineau dedicated it to Elizabeth Barrett , as it was "an outpouring of feeling to an idealized female alter ego, both professional writer and professional invalid- and utterly unlike
17266-543: The Sociological Method (1895). For Durkheim, sociology could be described as the "science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning." Durkheim's monograph Suicide (1897) is considered a seminal work in statistical analysis by contemporary sociologists. Suicide is a case study of variations in suicide rates among Catholic and Protestant populations, and served to distinguish sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy. It also marked
17460-747: The United Kingdom was at the London School of Economics and Political Science (home of the British Journal of Sociology ) in 1904. Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse and Edvard Westermarck became the lecturers in the discipline at the University of London in 1907. Harriet Martineau , an English translator of Comte, has been cited as the first female sociologist. In 1909, the German Sociological Association
17654-417: The age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education. Categories based on the biological sex of students include single-sex education and mixed-sex education . Special education is tailored to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities , addressing various impairments on intellectual , social, communicative, and physical levels. Its goal
17848-482: The air comes in through my open upper sash brisk, but sun-warmed. The robins twitter and hop in my flower-boxes... And at night, what a heaven! What an expanse of stars above, appearing more steadfast, the more the Northern Lights dart and quiver! During her illness, she for a second time declined a pension on the civil list , fearing to compromise her political independence. After publication of her letter on
18042-417: The basic form of society would increase in complexity and those forms of social organization that promoted solidarity would eventually overcome social disorganization. As Giddens states: Functionalist thought, from Comte onwards, has looked particularly towards biology as the science providing the closest and most compatible model for social science. Biology has been taken to provide a guide to conceptualizing
18236-462: The breakthrough ideas for his nascent theory of evolution. In April 1838, Charles wrote to his older sister Susan that Erasmus has been with her noon, morning, and night: — if her character was not as secure, as a mountain in the polar regions she certainly would lose it. — Lyell called there the other day & there was a beautiful rose on the table, & she coolly showed it to him & said 'Erasmus Darwin' gave me that. — How fortunate it is, she
18430-593: The characteristics of their author's style. Tory paternalists reacted by calling her a Malthusian "who deprecates charity and provision for the poor", while Radicals opposed her to the same degree. Whig high society fêted her. In May 1834 Charles Darwin , on his expedition to the Galapagos Islands , received a letter from his sisters saying that Martineau was "now a great Lion in London, much patronized by Ld. Brougham who has set her to write stories on
18624-474: The complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the topic, teaching method, medium used, and funding. The most common division is between formal , non-formal , and informal education . Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, typically with a chronological and hierarchical order. The modern schooling system organizes classes based on the student's age and progress, ranging from primary school to university. Formal education
18818-762: The content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, resulting in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction lies between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards such as good grades and recognition from peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial, leading to increased creativity, engagement, and long-term commitment. Educational psychologists aim to discover methods to increase motivation, such as encouraging healthy competition among students while maintaining
19012-556: The country). Lower secondary education usually requires the completion of primary school as its entry prerequisite. It aims to expand and deepen learning outcomes, with a greater focus on subject-specific curricula , and teachers often specialize in one or a few specific subjects. One of its goals is to acquaint students with fundamental theoretical concepts across various subjects, laying a strong foundation for lifelong learning . In certain instances, it may also incorporate rudimentary forms of vocational training . Lower secondary education
19206-414: The decline of theories of sociocultural evolution in the United States, the interactionist thought of the Chicago School dominated American sociology. As Anselm Strauss describes, "we didn't think symbolic interaction was a perspective in sociology; we thought it was sociology." Moreover, philosophical and psychological pragmatism grounded this tradition. After World War II, mainstream sociology shifted to
19400-410: The detail of Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of
19594-547: The development of students' personalities. Evidence-based education employs scientific studies to determine the most effective educational methods. Its aim is to optimize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies by ensuring they are grounded in the best available empirical evidence . This encompasses evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research. Autodidacticism , or self-education, occurs independently of teachers and institutions. Primarily observed in adult education, it offers
19788-513: The direct influence of one mind on another mind. Mesmerism was designed to make invisible forces augment the mental powers of the mesmeric object." Martineau eventually published an account of her case in 16 Letters on Mesmerism , which caused much discussion. Her work led to friction with "the natural prejudices of a surgeon and a surgeon's wife" (i.e., her brother-in-law, Thomas Michael Greenhow and her sister, Elizabeth Martineau Greenhow ). In 1845, Martineau left Tynemouth for Ambleside in
19982-501: The distinction between natural and social science (' Geisteswissenschaft '). Various neo-Kantian philosophers, phenomenologists and human scientists further theorized how the analysis of the social world differs to that of the natural world due to the irreducibly complex aspects of human society, culture, and being . In the Italian context of development of social sciences and of sociology in particular, there are oppositions to
20176-421: The early stages of education when the child's mind is not yet fully developed. This is particularly relevant in cases where young children must learn certain things without comprehending the underlying reasons, such as specific safety rules and hygiene practices. Education can be characterized from both the teacher's and the student's perspectives. Teacher-centered definitions emphasize the perspective and role of
20370-428: The education sector, such as students, teachers, school principals, as well as school nurses and curriculum developers. Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. These policies determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held, as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, such as infrastructure. Regulations also cover
20564-451: The emergence of ancient civilizations , the invention of writing led to an expansion of knowledge, prompting a transition from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was largely accessible to elites and religious groups. The advent of the printing press in the 15th century facilitated widespread access to books, thus increasing general literacy . In the 18th and 19th centuries, public education gained significance, paving
20758-458: The emerging schools for the education of girls. Her support of abolitionism , then widely unpopular across the U.S., caused controversy, which her publication, soon after her return, of Society in America (1837) and How to Observe Morals and Manners (1838), only fueled. In Society in America , Martineau angrily criticized the state of women's education. She wrote: The intellect of women
20952-433: The enjoyment of the learning process, typically prevails. While the differentiation among the three types is generally clear, certain forms of education may not neatly fit into a single category. In primitive cultures, education predominantly occurred informally, with little distinction between educational activities and other daily endeavors. Instead, the entire environment served as a classroom, and adults commonly assumed
21146-464: The exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer
21340-407: The feminist tradition in sociology. Each key figure is associated with a particular theoretical perspective and orientation. Marx and Engels associated the emergence of modern society above all with the development of capitalism; for Durkheim it was connected in particular with industrialization and the new social division of labor which this brought about; for Weber it had to do with the emergence of
21534-491: The first foundation of the discipline, sustained by speculative philosophy in accordance with the antiscientific tendencies matured by critique of positivism and evolutionism, so a tradition Progressist struggles to establish itself. At the turn of the 20th century, the first generation of German sociologists formally introduced methodological anti-positivism , proposing that research should concentrate on human cultural norms , values , symbols , and social processes viewed from
21728-407: The first sociology textbook: An introduction to the study of society . George Herbert Mead and Charles Cooley , who had met at the University of Michigan in 1891 (along with John Dewey ), moved to Chicago in 1894. Their influence gave rise to social psychology and the symbolic interactionism of the modern Chicago School . The American Journal of Sociology was founded in 1895, followed by
21922-402: The foundation of the discipline itself. Social analysis has origins in the common stock of universal, global knowledge and philosophy, having been carried out from as far back as the time of old comic poetry which features social and political criticism, and ancient Greek philosophers Socrates , Plato , and Aristotle . For instance, the origin of the survey can be traced back to at least
22116-561: The free-market ideas of Adam Smith and others throughout the British Empire . Martineau then agreed to compose a series of similar monthly stories over a period of two years, the work being hastened by having her brother James also work on the series with her. The subsequent works offered fictional tutorials on a range of political economists such as James Mill , Bentham and Ricardo , the latter especially forming her view of rent law. Martineau relied on Malthus to form her view of
22310-486: The freedom to choose what and when to study, making it a potentially more fulfilling learning experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance may lead to aimless learning, while the absence of external feedback could result in autodidacts developing misconceptions and inaccurately assessing their learning progress. Autodidacticism is closely associated with lifelong education , which entails continuous learning throughout one's life. Categories of education based on
22504-426: The idea of domestic realism . Martineau's ideas in the novel were inspired by the works of David Hartley . This novel in particular was different from her other works as her development was evident. Her development included both her improvement of fictional writing, but also showed mastery of the theories she wrote about. In the early 19th century, most social institutions and norms were strongly shaped by gender, or
22698-457: The importance of critical thinking in distinguishing education from indoctrination . They argue that indoctrination focuses solely on instilling beliefs in students, regardless of their rationality; whereas education also encourages the rational ability to critically examine and question those beliefs. However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished, as some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in
22892-502: The individual student, and sociological factors associated with the student's social environment. Additional factors encompass access to educational technology , teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and mutually influence each other. On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation , intelligence , and personality. Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning. Motivated students are more likely to interact with
23086-418: The inequality between particular groups. The following quotes from Durkheim and Marx epitomize the political, as well as theoretical, disparities, between functionalist and conflict thought respectively: To aim for a civilization beyond that made possible by the nexus of the surrounding environment will result in unloosing sickness into the very society we live in. Collective activity cannot be encouraged beyond
23280-540: The island nation's gaining independence in 1804. In 1839, during a visit to Continental Europe , Martineau was diagnosed with a uterine tumor. She several times visited her brother-in-law, Thomas Michael Greenhow , who was a celebrated doctor in Newcastle upon Tyne , to try to alleviate her symptoms. On the last occasion she stayed for six months in the Greenhow family house at 28 Eldon Square. Immobile and confined to
23474-451: The less complex sciences , attacking the laissez-faire sociology of Herbert Spencer and Sumner. Ward's 1,200-page book was used as core material in many early American sociology courses. In 1890, the oldest continuing American course in the modern tradition began at the University of Kansas , lectured by Frank W. Blackmar . The Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago was established in 1892 by Albion Small , who also published
23668-401: The map. To be sure, [its] beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu , for example, and to Condorcet , not to speak of Saint-Simon , Comte's immediate predecessor. But Comte's clear recognition of sociology as a particular science, with a character of its own, justified Durkheim in regarding him as the father or founder of this science, even though Durkheim did not accept the idea of
23862-419: The meaning attributed to the agent or agents, as types, in a pure type constructed in the abstract. In neither case is the 'meaning' to be thought of as somehow objectively 'correct' or 'true' by some metaphysical criterion. This is the difference between the empirical sciences of action, such as sociology and history, and any kind of prior discipline, such as jurisprudence, logic, ethics, or aesthetics whose aim
24056-489: The means of violence in the context of the industrialisation of war). The first college course entitled "Sociology" was taught in the United States at Yale in 1875 by William Graham Sumner . In 1883, Lester F. Ward , who later became the first president of the American Sociological Association (ASA), published Dynamic Sociology—Or Applied social science as based upon statical sociology and
24250-783: The mid-20th century, especially, have led to increasingly interpretative , hermeneutic , and philosophical approaches towards the analysis of society. Conversely, the turn of the 21st century has seen the rise of new analytically , mathematically , and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis. Social research has influence throughout various industries and sectors of life, such as among politicians, policy makers , and legislators; educators ; planners ; administrators ; developers ; business magnates and managers; social workers; non-governmental organizations; and non-profit organizations, as well as individuals interested in resolving social issues in general. Sociological reasoning predates
24444-610: The money to build a house of her own rather than pay for something she did not love. The next place Martineau was brought to look at was the land of a minister at Ambleside called the Knoll. She ended up getting a great deal for the original plot of land and a bonus plot. The next task she took on was actually planning the layout of the house, which found very enjoyable. When the actual act of constructing came around, she and her contractor were on very good terms and understood each other's expectations, in terms of payment and time commitments. It
24638-486: The monthly sales . . . had reached 10,000 in a decade in which a sale of 2,000 or 3,000 copies of a work of fiction was considered highly successful." Her article "The Martyr Age of the United States" (1839), in the Westminster Review , introduced English readers to the struggles of the abolitionists in America several years after Britain had abolished slavery . In October 1836, soon after returning from
24832-474: The most modern form of the conflict which primitive man must carry on with nature for his bodily existence. The eighteenth century may have called for liberation from all the ties which grew up historically in politics, in religion, in morality, and in economics to permit the original natural virtue of man, which is equal in everyone, to develop without inhibition; the nineteenth century may have sought to promote, in addition to man's freedom, his individuality (which
25026-428: The nature of education, its objectives, impacts, and methods for enhancement. Education studies encompasses various subfields, including philosophy , psychology , sociology , and economics of education . Additionally, it explores topics such as comparative education , pedagogy , and the history of education . In prehistory , education primarily occurred informally through oral communication and imitation . With
25220-417: The nineteenth century. To say this is certainly not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. But by insisting on the irreducibility of each of his basic sciences to the particular science of sciences which it presupposed in the hierarchy and by emphasizing the nature of sociology as the scientific study of social phenomena Comte put sociology on
25414-422: The notion of objective sui generis "social facts" to serve as unique empirical objects for the science of sociology to study. The variety of positivism that remains dominant today is termed instrumental positivism . This approach eschews epistemological and metaphysical concerns (such as the nature of social facts) in favour of methodological clarity, replicability , reliability and validity . This positivism
25608-415: The perception of what was appropriate for men versus for women. Writing was no exception; non-fiction works about social, economic and political issues were dominated by men, while limited areas, such as romance fiction, and topics dealing with domesticity were considered to be appropriate for women authors. Despite these gendered expectations in the literary world, Martineau strongly expressed her opinions on
25802-403: The period from birth until the commencement of primary school . It is designed to facilitate holistic child development, addressing physical, mental, and social aspects. Early childhood education is pivotal in fostering socialization and personality development , while also imparting fundamental skills in communication, learning, and problem-solving. Its overarching goal is to prepare children for
25996-427: The point set by the condition of the social organism without undermining health. The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in
26190-409: The poor Laws " and recommending Poor Laws and Paupers Illustrated in pamphlet -sized parts. They added that their brother Erasmus "knows her & is a very great admirer & every body reads her little books & if you have a dull hour you can, and then throw them overboard, that they may not take up your precious room". In 1834–36, after completing the economic series, Harriet Martineau paid
26384-735: The preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities. Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style assessment by teachers. The learner's personality may also influence educational achievement. For instance, characteristics such as conscientiousness and openness to experience , identified in
26578-577: The preservation and transmission of knowledge and skills rooted in indigenous heritage. This approach often employs traditional methods such as oral narration and storytelling. Other forms of alternative schooling include gurukul schools in India, madrasa schools in the Middle East, and yeshivas in Jewish tradition. Some distinctions revolve around the recipients of education. Categories based on
26772-513: The process of rationalization . The field predominated in continental Europe , with British anthropology and statistics generally following on a separate trajectory. By the turn of the 20th century, however, many theorists were active in the English-speaking world . Few early sociologists were confined strictly to the subject, interacting also with economics, jurisprudence , psychology and philosophy, with theories being appropriated in
26966-418: The progression of human understanding, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases. In observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and having classified the sciences, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term. Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus that bore fruit in the later decades of
27160-556: The rise of the Parsonian structural-functionalist movement, which reached its crescendo in the 1950s, but by the 1960s was in rapid decline. By the 1980s, most functionalist perspectives in Europe had broadly been replaced by conflict -oriented approaches, and to many in the discipline, functionalism was considered "as dead as a dodo:" According to Giddens : Harriet Martineau Harriet Martineau (12 June 1802 – 27 June 1876)
27354-424: The rocks, a spreading heath, where I watch troops of boys flying their kites; lovers and friends taking their breezy walks on Sundays..." She expressed a lyrical view of Tynemouth: When I look forth in the morning, the whole land may be sheeted with glittering snow, while the myrtle-green sea swells and tumbles... there is none of the deadness of winter in the landscape; no leafless trees, no locking up with ice; and
27548-463: The role of educators. However, informal education often proves insufficient for imparting large quantities of knowledge. To address this limitation, formal educational settings and trained instructors are typically necessary. This necessity contributed to the increasing significance of formal education throughout history. Over time, formal education led to a shift towards more abstract learning experiences and topics, distancing itself from daily life. There
27742-458: The same as that set forth by Comte, who was unique in advocating such a rigid (and perhaps optimistic) version. While Émile Durkheim rejected much of the detail of Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method. Durkheim maintained that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisted that they should retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality. He developed
27936-933: The same fundamental motive was at work, namely the resistance of the individual to being leveled, swallowed up in the social-technological mechanism. The contemporary discipline of sociology is theoretically multi-paradigmatic in line with the contentions of classical social theory. Randall Collins ' well-cited survey of sociological theory retroactively labels various theorists as belonging to four theoretical traditions: Functionalism, Conflict, Symbolic Interactionism, and Utilitarianism. Accordingly, modern sociological theory predominantly descends from functionalist (Durkheim) and conflict (Marx and Weber) approaches to social structure, as well as from symbolic-interactionist approaches to social interaction, such as micro-level structural ( Simmel ) and pragmatist ( Mead , Cooley ) perspectives. Utilitarianism (also known as rational choice or social exchange), although often associated with economics,
28130-448: The same manner as natural science . An emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method is sought to provide a tested foundation for sociological research based on the assumption that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only arrive by positive affirmation through scientific methodology. Our main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct.... What has been called our positivism
28324-492: The same time opposed female pedantics "with a sharp eye for feminine propriety and good manners. Her daughters could never be seen in public with a pen in their hand". Despite this conservative approach to raising girls, Harriet was not the only academically successful daughter in the family; her sister Rachel ran her own Unitarian academy with artist Hilary Bonham Carter as one of her students. Mrs. Martineau strictly enforced proper feminine behavior, pushing her daughter to "hold
28518-593: The scientific understanding of social life. Writing shortly after the malaise of the French Revolution , he proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism , an epistemological approach outlined in the Course in Positive Philosophy (1830–1842), later included in A General View of Positivism (1848). Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era in
28712-745: The situation. Low socioeconomic status is also associated with poorer physical and mental health , contributing to a cycle of social inequality that persists across generations. Ethnic background correlates with cultural distinctions and language barriers, which can pose challenges for students in adapting to the school environment and comprehending classes. Moreover, explicit and implicit biases and discrimination against ethnic minorities further compound these difficulties. Such biases can impact students' self-esteem, motivation, and access to educational opportunities. For instance, teachers may harbor stereotypical perceptions, albeit not overtly racist , leading to differential grading of comparable performances based on
28906-510: The skills necessary to become productive members of society. In doing so, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems . Organized institutions play a significant role in education. For instance, governments establish education policies to determine the timing of school classes, the curriculum, and attendance requirements. International organizations , such as UNESCO , have been influential in promoting primary education for all children . Many factors influence
29100-546: The social institutions responsible for education, such as family, school, civil society, state, and church. Compulsory education refers to education that individuals are legally mandated to receive, primarily affecting children who must attend school up to a certain age. This stands in contrast to voluntary education, which individuals pursue based on personal choice rather than legal obligation. Education serves various roles in society , spanning social, economic, and personal domains. Socially, education establishes and maintains
29294-440: The specific wet nurse that Harriet's mother had hired could not produce a sufficient amount of milk for an infant. This left Harriet starved for the first few weeks of her life, which is what Mrs. Martineau had attributed all of Harriet's future ailments to. Harriet's ideas on domesticity and the "natural faculty for housewifery", as described in her book Household Education (1848), stemmed from her lack of nurture growing up. It
29488-433: The structure and the function of social systems and to analyzing processes of evolution via mechanisms of adaptation. Functionalism strongly emphasizes the pre-eminence of the social world over its individual parts (i.e. its constituent actors, human subjects). Functionalist theories emphasize "cohesive systems" and are often contrasted with "conflict theories", which critique the overarching socio-political system or emphasize
29682-538: The student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the content covered. Additional criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8). Early childhood education, also referred to as preschool education or nursery education, encompasses
29876-593: The student, ensuring the process is beneficial, and conducting it in a morally appropriate manner. While such precise definitions often characterize the most typical forms of education effectively, they face criticism because less common types of education may occasionally fall outside their parameters. Dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be challenging, which is why some theorists prefer offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead. This approach suggests that all forms of education are similar to each other but need not share
30070-690: The students. Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico. International organizations also play a pivotal role in education. For example, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education through various means. One of its activities
30264-727: The subject encompass science education , language education , art education , religious education , physical education , and sex education . Special mediums such as radio or websites are utilized in distance education , including e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. Often, these take the form of open education , wherein courses and materials are accessible with minimal barriers, contrasting with traditional classroom or onsite education. However, not all forms of online education are open; for instance, some universities offer full online degree programs that are not part of open education initiatives. State education, also known as public education ,
30458-409: The subject, some of her friends raised a small annuity for her soon after. In 1844, Martineau underwent a course of mesmerism , returning to health after a few months. There was national interest in mesmerism at this time. Also known as "animal magnetism", it can be defined as a "loosely grouped set of practices in which one person influenced another through a variety of personal actions, or through
30652-425: The success of education. Psychological factors include motivation , intelligence , and personality . Social factors, such as socioeconomic status , ethnicity , and gender , are often associated with discrimination . Other factors encompass access to educational technology , teacher quality, and parental involvement. The primary academic field examining education is known as education studies . It delves into
30846-457: The survey-research of Paul Lazarsfeld at Columbia University and the general theorizing of Pitirim Sorokin , followed by Talcott Parsons at Harvard University . Ultimately, "the failure of the Chicago, Columbia, and Wisconsin [sociology] departments to produce a significant number of graduate students interested in and committed to general theory in the years 1936–45 was to the advantage of
31040-484: The tasks at hand. Therefore, society is a complex, ever-changing mosaic of subjective meanings. Some critics of this approach argue that it only looks at what is happening in a particular social situation, and disregards the effects that culture, race or gender (i.e. social-historical structures) may have in that situation. Some important sociologists associated with this approach include Max Weber , George Herbert Mead , Erving Goffman , George Homans , and Peter Blau . It
31234-401: The teacher in transmitting knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate manner. On the other hand, student-centered definitions analyze education based on the student's involvement in the learning process, suggesting that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences. It's also possible to consider definitions that incorporate both perspectives. In this approach, education
31428-480: The teacher plays a central role in imparting information to students, and student-centered education , where students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities. In conscious education, learning and teaching occur with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education unfolds spontaneously without conscious planning or guidance. This may occur, in part, through the influence of teachers' and adults' personalities , which can indirectly impact
31622-461: The tendency of human population to exceed its means of subsistence. However, in stories such as "Weal and Woe in Garvelock", she promoted the idea of population control through what Malthus referred to as "voluntary checks" such as voluntary chastity and delayed marriages. One of Martineau's most popular works of fiction was Deerbrook (1839). The book drew much attention because it focused on
31816-565: The term "education" can denote the mental states and qualities of educated individuals and the academic field studying educational phenomena. The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about the aims of education and the extent to which education differs from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking . These disagreements impact how to identify, measure, and enhance various forms of education. Essentially, education socializes children into society by instilling cultural values and norms , equipping them with
32010-573: The term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning. Having a clear understanding of the term is crucial when attempting to identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve educational practices. Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying specific features exclusive to all forms of education. Education theorist R. S. Peters , for instance, outlines three essential features of education, including imparting knowledge and understanding to
32204-412: The three states and criticized Comte's approach to sociology. Both Comte and Karl Marx set out to develop scientifically justified systems in the wake of European industrialization and secularization , informed by various key movements in the philosophies of history and science . Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a "science of society" nevertheless came to be recognized as
32398-504: The tradition of the English Dissenters . According to the writer Diana Postlethwaite, Harriet's relationship with her mother was strained and lacking affection, which contributed to views expressed in her later writing. Martineau claimed her mother abandoned her to a wet nurse . Harriet's childhood was rather different compared to any other ordinary child. Her family was financially comfortable and they were close friends with
32592-612: The traditional roles of feminine propriety to earn a living for her family. Along with her needlework, she began selling her articles to the Monthly Repository , earning accolades, including three essay prizes from the Unitarian Association . Her regular work with the Repository helped establish her as a reliable and popular freelance writer. In Martineau's Autobiography , she reflects on her success as
32786-494: The transition to primary education. While preschool education is typically optional, in certain countries such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four. Primary (or elementary) education usually begins between the ages of five and seven and spans four to seven years. It has no additional entry requirements and aims to impart fundamental skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Additionally, it provides essential knowledge in subjects such as history , geography ,
32980-417: The two, was the principal achievement of Marx's theory. The sociological treatment of historical and moral problems, which Comte and after him, Spencer and Taine , had discussed and mapped, became a precise and concrete study only when the attack of militant Marxism made its conclusions a burning issue, and so made the search for evidence more zealous and the attention to method more intense. Herbert Spencer
33174-548: The understanding of social processes and phenomenological method. Traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification , social class , social mobility , religion , secularization , law , sexuality , gender , and deviance . Recent studies have added socio-technical aspects of the digital divide as a new focus. As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency , sociology has gradually expanded its focus to other subjects and institutions, such as health and
33368-424: The vote "before he knew it was not [Martineau's], and wasted a good deal of indignation, and even now can hardly believe it is not hers". In early December 1836 Charles Darwin called on Martineau and may have discussed the social and natural worlds she was writing about in her book Society in America , including the "grandeur and beauty" of the "process of world making" she had seen at Niagara Falls . He remarked in
33562-504: The way for the global movement to provide primary education to all, free of charge , and compulsory up to a certain age. Presently, over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school. The term "education" originates from the Latin words educare , meaning "to bring up," and educere , meaning "to bring forth." The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields. Many agree that education
33756-401: The women in her own family". Written during a kind of public break from her mother, this book was Martineau's proclamation of independence. At the same time, Martineau turned the traditional patient–doctor relationship on its head by asserting control over her space even in sickness. The sickroom was her space. Life in the Sickroom explained how to regain control even in illness. Alarmed that
33950-587: The writings of European contributors to modern sociology. Khaldun's Muqaddimah was considered to be amongst the first works to advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict . The word sociology derives part of its name from the Latin word socius ('companion' or 'fellowship'). The suffix -logy ('the study of') comes from that of the Greek -λογία , derived from λόγος ( lógos , 'word' or 'knowledge'). The term sociology
34144-412: The youngest of the eight, Ellen. The Martineau family was of French Huguenot ancestry and professed Unitarian views. Her uncles included the surgeon Philip Meadows Martineau (1752–1829), whom she had enjoyed visiting at his nearby estate, Bracondale Lodge , and businessman and benefactor Peter Finch Martineau . Martineau was closest to her brother James, who became a philosopher and clergyman in
34338-492: Was a fictional tutorial intended to help the general public understand the ideas of Adam Smith . Illustrations was published in February 1832 in an edition of just 1500 copies, since the publisher assumed it would not sell well. Yet it very quickly became highly successful, and would steadily out-sell the work of Charles Dickens . Illustrations was her first work to receive widespread acclaim, and its success served to spread
34532-685: Was a greater emphasis on understanding general principles and concepts rather than simply observing and imitating specific behaviors. Types of education are often categorized into different levels or stages. One influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education , maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This classification encompasses both formal and non-formal education and distinguishes levels based on factors such as
34726-433: Was a house of my own among poor improvable neighbours, with young servants whom I might train and attach to myself: with pure air, a garden, leisure, solitude at command, and freedom to work in peace and quietness". She began house-hunting and the first house she looked at was not entirely perfect and did not have everything that she needed and was looking for. Her friend, who went with her to view it, said it would be worth
34920-696: Was an English social theorist . She wrote from a sociological, holistic , religious and feminine angle, translated works by Auguste Comte , and, rare for a woman writer at the time, earned enough to support herself. The young Princess Victoria enjoyed her work and invited her to her 1838 coronation . Martineau advised "a focus on all [society's] aspects, including key political, religious, and social institutions". She applied thorough analysis to women's status under men. The novelist Margaret Oliphant called her "a born lecturer and politician... less distinctively affected by her sex than perhaps any other, male or female, of her generation." Her lifelong commitment to
35114-434: Was established in 1892 by Albion Small —from the invitation of William Rainey Harper —at the University of Chicago . The American Journal of Sociology was founded shortly thereafter in 1895 by Small as well. The institutionalization of sociology as an academic discipline, however, was chiefly led by Émile Durkheim , who developed positivism as a foundation for practical social research . While Durkheim rejected much of
35308-593: Was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript . Sociology was later defined independently by French philosopher of science Auguste Comte (1798–1857) in 1838 as a new way of looking at society. Comte had earlier used the term social physics , but it had been subsequently appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet . Comte endeavored to unify history, psychology, and economics through
35502-534: Was found that affection shown toward Harriet by her mother was quite rare. In fact, there have been findings that suggested that Harriet had imagined angels coming to take her away, which was thought to symbolize her wishing to find a way to escape her mother's reign through suicide. Although their relationship was better in adulthood, Harriet saw her mother as the antithesis of the warm and nurturing qualities which she knew to be necessary for girls at an early age. Her mother urged all her children to be well read, but at
35696-599: Was founded by Ferdinand Tönnies , Max Weber, and Georg Simmel , among others. Weber established the first department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1919, having presented an influential new antipositivist sociology. In 1920, Florian Znaniecki set up the first department in Poland . The Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt (later to become
35890-454: Was in a strange sense relieved in the long run that marriage was not an option, as their relationship was filled with stress and disagreements. Martineau remained unmarried in her life. Her earliest novels were also published during these years, beginning with Principle and Practice in 1827 and Five Years of Youth: or, Sense and Sentiment in 1829. In 1829, the family's textile business failed. Martineau, then 27 years old, stepped out of
36084-632: Was minimal specialization , with children typically learning a broad range of skills essential for community functioning. However, modern societies are increasingly complex, with many professions requiring specialized training alongside general education. Consequently, only a relatively small number of individuals master certain professions. Additionally, skills and tendencies acquired for societal functioning may sometimes conflict, with their value dependent on context. For instance, fostering curiosity and questioning established teachings promotes critical thinking and innovation, while at times, obedience to authority
36278-476: Was not until April 1846 that Martineau moved into her new house, which was later referred to as The Knoll at Ambleside in England. Education Education is the transmission of knowledge , skills , and character traits and manifests in various forms. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools , following a curriculum. Non-formal education also follows
36472-504: Was occupied with her brother James on the political economy series, as well as a supplemental series of Poor Laws and Paupers Illustrated and Illustrations of Taxation which was intended to directly influence government policy. About the same time, she published four stories expressing support of the Whig Poor Law reforms. These tales (direct, lucid, written without any appearance of effort, and yet practically effective) display
36666-626: Was often dominated by the three biggest insecurities in her life: her hearing disability, her poor handwriting, and the look of her hair. The next step in Harriet Martineau's education came when she received an invitation from the all-girl boarding school that her Aunt and Uncle Kentish ran in Bristol. Besides the standardized course she took at the school, Harriet began her lifelong self-directed research here. She dived deep into topics on her own, such as Latin, Greek, Italian, and even took
36860-531: Was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists. It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th-century thinkers, including Émile Durkheim , defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim's Division of Labour in Society is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology Durkheim borrowed extensively. Also
37054-403: Was taught French by her mother, which was the predominant language spoken by her father. Thomas, her father, taught her Latin, and her brother Thomas taught Harriet maths and writing. Unfortunately for Harriet, being taught at home especially by all her siblings often led to lots of mockery. When she was nine years old Harriet transitioned to a small school run by a man named Mr. Perry. Mr. Perry
37248-483: Was the sixth of the eight children of Thomas, a textile manufacturer. He served as deacon of the Octagon Chapel, Norwich from 1797. Her mother, Elizabeth (née Rankin), was the daughter of a sugar refiner and grocer. Harriet's five older siblings included two sisters and three brothers. In age order their names were, Elizabeth, Thomas, Henry, Robert and Rachel Ann. Harriet's two younger siblings were James and
37442-447: Was theorized in full by Durkheim, again with respect to observable, structural laws. Functionalism also has an anthropological basis in the work of theorists such as Marcel Mauss , Bronisław Malinowski , and Radcliffe-Brown . It is in the latter's specific usage that the prefix "structural" emerged. Classical functionalist theory is generally united by its tendency towards biological analogy and notions of social evolutionism , in that
37636-470: Was very special to Harriet, allegedly one of the first people in her life to provide her with a positive and non-judgmental learning environment. Later on in her life, Harriet claimed that Mr. Perry's school was the catalyst for her intellectual development and interest in education. As her education progressed she began to grow very fond of the following topics: Shakespeare, political economy, philosophy and history. Despite her love for all these topics, her mind
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