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78-607: The territory of Safed Sanjak consisted of the area between the Zahrani River in the north to Mount Carmel (near Haifa ) in the south, and the area between the Sea of Galilee in the east and the Mediterranean Sea in the west. Besides Safed, it included the port cities of Acre and Tyre and the entire Galilee and Jabal Amil area. The district had a mixed population of peasants and Bedouin . The inhabitants of

156-509: A Thursday instead of a Friday at Khalwats instead of mosques. Such gatherings and traditions were not compulsory and people were encouraged to pursue a state of compliance with the real law of nature governing the universe. Epistle thirteen of the Epistles of Wisdom called it "A spiritual doctrine without any ritualistic imposition". The time of the call was seen as a revolution of truth, with missionaries preaching its message all around

234-661: A focus on the Druze community's consistent connection to Mount Lebanon and defense of its practical autonomy. Later, the Druze were severely attacked at Saoufar in the 1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze after the Ottomans claimed that the Druze had assaulted their caravans near Tripoli . As a result of the Ottoman experience with the rebellious Druze, the word Durzi in Turkish came, and continues, to mean someone who

312-510: A force against him, and he was compelled to flee the land and seek refuge in the courts of Tuscany and Naples in 1613 and 1615 respectively. In 1618, political changes in the Ottoman sultanate had resulted in the removal of many enemies of Fakhr-al-Din from power, signaling the prince's triumphant return to Lebanon soon afterwards. Through a clever policy of bribery and warfare, he extended his domains to cover all of modern Lebanon, some of Syria and northern Galilee. In 1632, Küçük Ahmed Pasha

390-458: A general decline of the region around Safed precipitated by famine, plagues, natural disasters and political chaos, and the flight of peasants from their villages to the main towns or their adoption of nomadism. The Ottomans entered the territory of the mamlaka through the Daughters of Jacob Bridge and did not meet any resistance in or around Safed. They bypassed the city, setting up camps at

468-641: A new eyalet (province) was created based in Sidon , and Safed was annexed to it. The province was disbanded later that year and Safed Sanjak reverted to Damascus Eyalet. During Fakhr al-Din's exile between 1613 and 1619, the Shia Muslim Harfush dynasty tried and failed to gain control of it. Around the same time, in 1617, the Shia Muslim clan of Munkar and the house of El Assaad Family of Ali Al-Saghir emerged, along with Al Shukr, as opponents of

546-440: A renegade. Al-Hakim disappeared one night while on his evening ride—presumably assassinated, perhaps at the behest of his formidable elder sister Sitt al-Mulk . The Druze believe he went into Occultation with Hamza ibn Ali and three other prominent preachers, leaving the care of the "Unitarian missionary movement" to a new leader, al-Muqtana Baha'uddin. The call was suspended briefly between 19 May 1018 and 9 May 1019 during

624-484: A way to attach their community with ad-Darazi's poor reputation. Before becoming public, the movement was secretive and held closed meetings in what was known as Sessions of Wisdom. During this stage a dispute occurred between ad-Darazi and Hamza bin Ali mainly concerning ad-Darazi's ghuluww ("exaggeration"), which refers to the belief that God was incarnated in human beings to ad-Darazi naming himself "The Sword of

702-571: Is believed to have been of Persian origins and his title al-Darazi is Persian in origin, meaning "the tailor". He arrived in Cairo in 1015, or 1017, after which he joined the newly emerged Druze movement. Al-Darazi was converted early to the Unitarian faith and became one of its early preachers. At that time, the movement enlisted a large number of adherents. As the number of his followers grew, he became obsessed with his leadership and gave himself

780-470: Is considered one of the most important rivers of the Jabal Rihane area. Its mouth is located north of the mouth of the (longer) Litani River . Zahrani Bridge crosses over this river. Druze The Druze ( / ˈ d r uː z / DROOZ ; Arabic : دَرْزِيّ , darzī or دُرْزِيّ durzī , pl. دُرُوز , durūz ), who call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn (lit. '

858-464: Is due to confusion about the role of the early preacher al-Darazi, whose teachings the Druze rejected as heretical. These sources assert that al-Hakim rejected al-Darazi's claims of divinity, and ordered the elimination of his movement while supporting that of Hamza ibn Ali. Wadi al-Taym , in Lebanon , was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century and

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936-464: Is no available information about the administrative divisions of Safed Sanjak during the 17th century. By the 18th century, Safed Sanjak was divided into ten nawahi . Before Ottoman rule, Safed was the capital of its own mamlaka (province) of the Cairo -based Mamluk Sultanate . Administrative information about Mamlakat Safad derives mainly from two sources: the qadi (Islamic head judge) of Safed in

1014-502: Is not permitted for outsiders. Interfaith marriages are rare and strongly discouraged. They differentiate between spiritual individuals, known as "uqqāl", who hold the faith's secrets, and secular ones, known as "juhhāl", who focus on worldly matters. Druze believe that, after completing the cycle of rebirth through successive reincarnations, the soul reunites with the Cosmic Mind ( al-ʻaql al-kullī ). The Epistles of Wisdom

1092-499: Is the foundational and central text of the Druze faith. The Druze faith originated in Isma'ilism (a branch of Shia Islam ), and has been influenced by a diverse range of traditions, including Christianity , Gnosticism , Neoplatonism , Zoroastrianism , Manichaeism , Pythagoreanism . This has led to the development of a distinct and secretive theology, characterized by an esoteric interpretation of scripture that emphasizes

1170-477: Is the ultimate thug. The 16th and 17th centuries witnessed a succession of armed Druze rebellions against the Ottomans countered by repeated Ottoman punitive expeditions against the Chouf, in which the Druze population of the area was severely depleted and many villages destroyed. These military measures, severe as they were, did not succeed in reducing the local Druze to the required degree of subordination. This led

1248-594: The Epistles of Wisdom , Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad warns al-Darazi, saying, "Faith does not need a sword to aid it", but al-Darazi ignored Hamza's warnings and continued to challenge the Imam. The divine call or unitarian call is the Druze period of time that was opened at sunset on Thursday, 30 May 1017 by Ad-Darazi. The call summoned people to a true unitarian belief that removed all attributes (wise, just, outside, inside, etc.) from God. It promoted absolute monotheism and

1326-585: The Banu Zaydan clan under its chief, whose name is not defined in the sources. The chief's son Umar al-Zaydani was appointed the mutasallim (tax farmer) of Safed by Bashir I who also appointed his own son Mansur governor of Safad Sanjak. Mansur died in 1702 and was succeeded as governor by Umar, who held the post until he died in 1706, the same year Bashir I died in Safed. The governor of Sidon Eyalet, backed by local forces from Nablus , resolved to subjugate

1404-822: The Franks . Because of their fierce battles with the Crusaders, the Druze earned the respect of the Sunni caliphs and thus gained important political powers. After the middle of the twelfth century, the Maan family superseded the Tanukhs in Druze leadership. The origin of the family goes back to Prince Ma'an, who made his appearance in Lebanon in the days of the Abbasid caliph al-Mustarshid (1118–35). The Ma'ans chose for their abode

1482-594: The Holy Land of the Crusaders, the Mamluk Sultanate now turned their attention to the schismatic Muslims of Syria. In 1305, after the issuing of a fatwa by the scholar ibn Taymiyya calling for jihad against all non-Sunni Muslim groups like the Druze, Alawites , Isma'ilis, and Twelver Shi'a , al-Nasir Muhammad inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Druze at Keserwan , and forced outward compliance on their part to Sunnism. The Sunni Mamluk campaigns led to

1560-617: The apostasy of al-Darazi and again between 1021 and 1026 during a period of persecution by the Fatimid caliph al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah for those who had sworn the oath to accept the call. Persecutions started forty days after the disappearance into Occultation of al-Hakim, who was thought to have been converting people to the Unitarian faith for over twenty years prior. Al-Hakim convinced some heretical followers such as al-Darazi of his soteriological divinity and officially declared

1638-525: The 1370s, Shams al-Din al-Uthmani, and the Mamluk historian al-Qalqashandi , who based much of his material about Mamlakat Safad on al-Uthmani's work. Most of the information about the mamlaka covers the period between 1260 and 1418, while little is known for the last century of Mamluk rule before the Ottoman conquest following the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516. Travelers' accounts from the 15th century describe

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1716-521: The Al Shukr of Aynatha , a family of Shia seyyeds (religious leaders), dominated the Bilad Bishara nahiya of the sanjak. The initial prosperity of the sanjak waned toward the end of the 16th century and remained in general decline, more or less extending until the 19th century. The native chronicler and Hanafi mufti of Safed, al-Khalidi al-Safadi (d. 1625), indicated in his writings that

1794-652: The Antioch plain in the north to Safad in the south, with a part of the Syrian desert dominated by Fakhr-al-Din's castle at Tadmur ( Palmyra ), the ancient capital of Zenobia . The ruins of this castle still stand on a steep hill overlooking the town. Fakhr-al-Din became too strong for his Turkish sovereign in Constantinople . He went so far in 1608 as to sign a commercial treaty with Duke Ferdinand I of Tuscany containing secret military clauses. The Sultan then sent

1872-568: The Chouf in south-western Lebanon (southern Mount Lebanon Governorate ), overlooking the maritime plain between Beirut and Sidon , and made their headquarters in Baaqlin , which is still a leading Druze village. They were invested with feudal authority by Sultan Nur ad-Din Zengi and furnished respectable contingents to the Muslim ranks in their struggle against the Crusaders. Certain aspects of

1950-572: The Daughters of Jacob's Bridge, Khan Jubb Yusuf , Khan al-Minya and Khan al-Tujjar , all located in the mamlaka , before proceeding to conquer Mamluk Egypt. While Selim I was in Egypt, rumors spread in Safed that he had been killed, spurring the townspeople to revolt against the Ottomans before being suppressed by the new authorities. After its incorporation into the Ottoman Empire, Safed

2028-461: The Divine call after issuing a decree promoting religious freedom. Al-Hakim was replaced by his underage son, al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah. The Unitarian/Druze movement acknowledged al-Zahir as the caliph but continued to regard Hamzah as its Imam. The young caliph's regent, Sitt al-Mulk, ordered the army to destroy the movement in 1021. At the same time, Bahāʼ al-Dīn was assigned the leadership of

2106-425: The Druze daʻwah in 1018. In an attempt to gain the support of al-Hakim, al-Darazi started preaching that al-Hakim and his ancestors were the incarnation of God. An inherently modest man, al-Hakim did not believe that he was God, and felt al-Darazi was trying to depict himself as a new prophet. In 1018 Al-Hakim had al-Darazi executed, leaving Hamza the sole leader of the new faith and al-Darazi considered to be

2184-457: The Druze by name. The word Dogziyin ("Druzes") occurs in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, but it is clear that this is a scribal error. Be that as it may, he described the Druze as "mountain dwellers, monotheists, who believe in 'soul eternity' and reincarnation ". He also stated that "they loved the Jews". The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with

2262-467: The Druze community. The spies set about agitating trouble and soiling the reputation of the Druze. This resulted in friction with the new caliph who clashed militarily with the Druze community. The clashes ranged from Antioch to Alexandria , where tens of thousands of Druze were slaughtered by the Fatimid army, "this mass persecution known by the Druze as the period of the mihna ". The largest massacre

2340-452: The Druze led by Mulhim Shihab in exchange for their military backing. Zahir fortified Acre and made it the capital of his expanding sheikhdom and the center of his monopoly on the cotton trade from Palestine. Acre's practical dominance of the sanjak under Zahir, who ruled until his death in 1775, and his Ottoman-appointed successors Jazzar Pasha (1775–1804), Sulayman Pasha al-Adil (1805–1819) and Abdullah Pasha (1820–1831) contributed to

2418-476: The Faith", which led Hamza to write an epistle refuting the need for the sword to spread the faith and several epistles refuting the beliefs of the ghulat . In 1016 ad-Darazi and his followers openly proclaimed their beliefs and called people to join them, causing riots in Cairo against the Unitarian movement including Hamza bin Ali and his followers. This led to the suspension of the movement for one year and

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2496-664: The Jabal Amil region were predominantly Shia Muslim, specifically and historically called Mitwali , while the Galilee had a Sunni Muslim majority, including peasants and Bedouin, and a large Druze minority. The district also contained Jewish communities. In the 16th century, the Safed Sanjak was divided into the following five nawahi (singular: nahiya ; third-level administrative subdivisions) and a'mal (singular: amal ; fourth-level administrative subdivisions): There

2574-816: The Lebanese coast against Crusader retaliation by sea. In the early period of the Crusader era, the Druze feudal power was in the hands of two families, the Tanukhs and the Arslans . From their fortresses in the Gharb area (now in Aley District of southern Mount Lebanon Governorate ), the Tanukhs led their incursions into the Phoenician coast and finally succeeded in holding Beirut and the marine plain against

2652-554: The Ma'an) or Jabal al-Druze . The latter title has since been usurped by the Hawran region, which since the middle of the 19th century has proven a haven of refuge to Druze emigrants from Lebanon and has become the headquarters of Druze power. Under Fakhr-al-Dīn II (Fakhreddin II), the Druze dominion increased until it included Lebanon-Phoenicia and almost all Syria, extending from the edge of

2730-482: The Ma'ns in Bilad Bishara. After a five-year exile in Tuscany , Fakhr al-Din reestablished his position in the region, his power reaching its apex in the 1630s until he was killed by imperial Ottoman troops in 1635. Ali al-Saghir and his brother Husayn, who traced their origins to an old, influential Shia Muslim tribe, eliminated the rival clans of Sudun in 1639 and Al Shukr in 1649, thereafter establishing their family as

2808-680: The Middle East. These messengers were sent out with the Druze epistles and took written vows from believers, whose souls are thought to still exist in the Druze of today. The souls of those who took the vows during the call are believed to be continuously reincarnating in successive generations of Druze until the return of al-Hakim to proclaim a second Divine call and establish a Golden Age of justice and peace for all. By 1018, al-Darazi had gathered around him partisans—"Darazites"—who believed that universal reason became incarnated in Adam at

2886-425: The Ottoman government to agree to an arrangement whereby the different nahiyahs (districts) of the Chouf would be granted in iltizam ("fiscal concession") to one of the region's amirs , or leading chiefs, leaving the maintenance of law and order and the collection of taxes in the area in the hands of the appointed amir. This arrangement was to provide the cornerstone for the privileged status ultimately enjoyed by

2964-475: The Ottoman government. He was tasked in Safed with controlling the Shia Muslim clans, who were generally viewed more negatively by the Sunni Ottomans than the Druze, and like the Druze and Bedouin of the region in general, were in a frequent state of rebellion through their stockpiling of muskets and refusal to pay taxes. Three years after Fakhr al-Din's appointment, the Ottomans commended him for "guarding

3042-694: The Ottoman government. With the demise of the Ma'ns in the late 17th century, the Safad Sanjak also largely came under the control of the Shihab dynasty . The Shihabi emir, Bashir I , Haydar's uncle and the effective leader of the Shihab dynasty, launched a punitive campaign against the Ali al-Saghirs in Bilad Bishara in 1698, capturing Mushrif and his son Muhammad and transferring them to the custody of Sidon's governor Kaplan Pasha , brother of Tripoli Eyalet 's governor and Shihab ally Arslan Mehmed Pasha . Bashir

3120-894: The Persian , al- Khidr (whom they identify with Elijah , John the Baptist and Saint George ), Job , Luke the Evangelist , and others as "mentors" and "prophets". The Druze faith is one of the major religious groups in the Levant , with between 800,000 and a million adherents. They are primarily located in Lebanon , Syria , and Israel , with smaller communities in Jordan . They make up 5.5% of Lebanon's population, 3% of Syria and 1.6% of Israel. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon and in

3198-640: The Raydan Mosque, near the Al-Hakim Mosque . In 1017, Hamza began to preach a Muwaḥḥidūn (Unitarian) doctrine. Hamza gained the support of the Fātimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who issued a decree promoting religious freedom and eventually became a central figure in the Druze faith. Little is known about the early life of al-Darazi. According to most sources, he was born in Bukhara . He

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3276-589: The Saqr, who had developed a reputation for raiding villages, endangering travelers and commerce, and evading taxes. In an effort to improve their position with the authorities, the Saqr invested in Umar al-Zaydani's son Zahir al-Umar to serve as their representative. With their backing, Zahir gained control of Tiberias and persuaded Sidon to appoint him its tax farmer. By 1738 he gained the surrender of Safed by its local strongman and tax farmer Muhammad Naf'i. In 1746 he added

3354-558: The Unitarians by Hamza. For the next seven years, the Druze faced extreme persecution by al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah, who wanted to eradicate the faith. This was the result of a power struggle inside of the Fatimid Calphate, in which the Druze were viewed with suspicion because they refused to recognize the new caliph as their Imam. Many spies, mainly the followers of al-Darazi, joined the Unitarian movement to infiltrate

3432-873: The United States at that time. Scholar Colbert C. Held from the University of Nebraska, Lincoln estimates that the global Druze population is around 1 million. He notes that about 45% to 50% live in Syria, 35% to 40% live in Lebanon, and less than 10% live in Israel. Recently, there has been a growing Druze diaspora. Outside the Middle East , significant Druze communities exist in Australia, Canada, Europe, Latin America (mainly Venezuela, Colombia and Brazil ),

3510-535: The United States, and West Africa. They are Arabs who speak Levantine Arabic and follow a social pattern very similar to those of the other peoples of the Levant (eastern Mediterranean). In 2021 the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East are in Venezuela, with approximately 60,000, and in the United States, with around 50,000. In 2017, the Los Angeles Times reported about 30,000 Druze in

3588-618: The United States, with the largest concentration in Southern California . The story of the creation of the Druze faith in the days between 1017 and 1018 is dominated by three men and their struggle for influence. Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad, an Ismaili mystic and scholar from Zozan , Khorasan, in the Samanid Empire . arrived in Fatimid Egypt in 1014 or 1016. He assembled a group of scholars that met regularly in

3666-586: The authorities for not forwarding revenues from Tyre earmarked for a waqf (religious trust) in Damascus. It may have precipitated their decline, which was advanced with the deaths of Husayn and his son Hasan in 1655 and 1656. In 1660, the Sidon Eyalet was reestablished and Safed was once again annexed to it. The Ottoman governor of the new province launched a campaign against the Shia feudal lords, resulting in

3744-466: The beginning of the world, was then passed to the prophets, then into Ali, and then into his descendants, the Fatimid Caliphs. Al-Darazi wrote a book laying out this doctrine, but when he read from his book in the principal mosque in Cairo, it caused riots and protests against his claims and many of his followers were killed. Hamza ibn Ali rejected al-Darazi's ideology, calling him "the insolent one and Satan". The controversy led Caliph al-Hakim to suspend

3822-411: The closing years of the 16th century in the sanjak were marked by devastation and desolation, which is generally reflected in Ottoman government records. In 1602 the Druze chieftain of the Chouf -based Ma'n dynasty and governor of Sidon-Beirut, Fakhr al-Din II , was appointed governor of Safed. Fakhr al-Din had become an increasingly powerful figure in the region and at the time enjoyed support from

3900-448: The concepts of supporting your fellow man, true speech and pursuit of oneness with God. These concepts superseded all ritual , law and dogma and requirements for pilgrimage , fasting , holy days , prayer , charity, devotion , creed and particular worship of any prophet or person was downplayed. Sharia was opposed and Druze traditions started during the call continue today, such as meeting for reading, prayer and social gathering on

3978-406: The country, keeping the Bedouins in check, ensuring the welfare and tranquility of the population, promoting agriculture and increasing prosperity". Khalidi, who became Fakhr al-Din's adviser and practical court historian, also testified that Bedouin brigandage along the highways of the sanjak ceased under Fakhr al-Din, resulting in peace and security, and that agriculture was thriving anew. In 1614,

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4056-400: The deaths of Ali and many of his sons. Less powerful Shia clans, such as the Zayn of Bint Jbeil , filled the local leadership void in the aftermath, though the Ali al-Saghir regrouped toward the end of the century and may have maintained tacit support from the Ma'n. Ahmad Ma'n died in 1697 without male progeny and the Ma'n tax farms in Sidon-Beirut Sanjak were transferred to Haydar Shihab by

4134-433: The destruction of many Christian churches and monasteries and Druze sanctuaries khilwat , and caused mass destruction of Maronite and Druze villages and the killings and mass displacement of its inhabitants. Lebanese Sunni authors generally write of the campaigns from a pro-Mamluk stance, seeing in them the legitimate Muslim state's efforts to incorporate Mount Lebanon into the Islamic realm, while Druze authors write with

4212-448: The early Islamic period. This perspective is accepted by the entire Druze communities in Syria and Lebanon , as well as by most Druze in Israel . The name Druze is derived from the name of Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazī (from Persian darzi , "seamster") who was an early preacher . Although the Druze consider ad-Darazī a heretic , the name has been used to identify them, possibly by their historical opponents as

4290-402: The expulsion of ad-Darazi and his supporters. Although the Druze religious books describe ad-Darazi as the "insolent one" and as the "calf" who is narrow-minded and hasty, the name "Druze" is still used for identification and for historical reasons. In 1018, ad-Darazi was assassinated for his teachings; some sources claim that he was executed by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Some authorities see in

4368-656: The faith, such as transmigration of souls between adherents and incarnation , were viewed as heretical or kufr ( infidelity ) and foreign by Sunni and Shia Muslims, but contributed to solidarity among the Druze, who closed their religion to new converts in 1046 due to the threat of persecution. The proto-Salafi thinker ibn Taymiyya believed the Druze had a high level of infidelity besides being apostates . Thus, they were not trustworthy and should not be forgiven. He taught also that Muslims cannot accept Druze penitence nor keep them alive, and that Druze property should be confiscated and their women enslaved . Having cleared

4446-433: The harem and went on to become Ottoman Ambassador to India. Fakhr-al-Din II was the first ruler in modern Lebanon to open the doors of his country to foreign Western influences. Under his auspices the French established a khān (hostel) in Sidon, the Florentines a consulate, and Christian missionaries were admitted into the country. Beirut and Sidon, which Fakhr-al-Din II beautified, still bear traces of his benign rule. See

4524-414: The importance of the mind and truthfulness. Druze beliefs include the concepts of theophany and reincarnation . The Druze hold Shuaib in high regard, believing him to be the same person as the biblical Jethro . They regard Adam , Noah , Abraham , Moses , Jesus , Muhammad , and the Isma'ili Imam Muhammad ibn Isma'il as prophets. Additionally, Druze tradition honors figures such as Salman

4602-592: The monotheists ' or 'the unitarians'), are an Arab esoteric religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith , an Abrahamic , monotheistic , and syncretic religion whose main tenets assert the unity of God, reincarnation , and the eternity of the soul. Although the Druze faith developed from Isma'ilism , Druze do not identify as Muslims . They maintain Arabic language and culture as integral parts of their identity, with Arabic being their primary language. Most Druze religious practices are kept secret, and conversion to their religion

4680-400: The name "Druze" a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic dārisah ("she who studies"). Others have speculated that the word comes from the Persian word Darazo ( درز "bliss") or from Shaykh Hussayn ad-Darazī, who was one of the early converts to the faith. In the early stages of the movement, the word "Druze" is rarely mentioned by historians, and in Druze religious texts only

4758-435: The new leadership that replaced him had friendly political ties with at least one prominent Druze leader. In 1043, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana declared that the sect would no longer accept new pledges, and since that time proselytism has been prohibited awaiting al-Hakim's return at the Last Judgment to usher in a new Golden Age. Some Druze and non-Druze scholars like Samy Swayd and Sami Makarem state that this confusion

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4836-425: The origins of the Druze have been proposed, with the Arabian hypothesis being the most widely accepted among historians, intellectuals, and religious leaders within the Druze community. This hypothesis significantly influences the Druze's self-perception, cultural identity, and both oral and written traditions. It suggests that the Druze are descended from twelve Arab tribes that migrated to Syria before and during

4914-440: The political decline of Safed, which became a nahiya center with limited local influence, belonging to the Acre Sanjak . Zahrani River The Zahrani ( Arabic : نهر زهراني ) is a river in Southern Lebanon . It is located south of Sidon . Zahrani (زهراني) is the adjective form of the noun Zahran (زهران), which means flowering or blossoming in Arabic . This river irrigates most of Jabal Rihane and Nabatiyeh areas. It

4992-431: The sanjak was in 1525/26, followed by a second survey in 1538/39. The second survey shows substantial increases in the population and tax revenues, possibly a result of peasants returning to their villages and the stability brought by the early Ottoman rulers. In 1547–48, Safad Sanjak contained a total of 287 villages. In the 16th century, the Sudun clan of Qana , who were Shia Muslims of purported Circassian origins, and

5070-401: The sole leaders of the Shia Muslim clans across Jabal Amil, including the areas of Tibnin, Hunin , Qana and Ma'araka. The settlements of the Galilee, particularly Safed and Tiberias, deteriorated during the struggle to capture the region by the nephew of Fakhr al-Din, Mulhim ibn Yunus Ma'n, who ultimately gained control of Safed Sanjak in 1653. The following year, the Ali al-Saghir clan irked

5148-399: The south of Syria around Jabal al-Druze (literally the "Mountain of the Druze"). The Druze community played a critically important role in shaping the history of the Levant, where it continues to play a significant political role. As a religious minority, they have often faced persecution from various Muslim regimes, including contemporary Islamic extremism . Several theories about

5226-408: The task of keeping watch over the Crusaders in the seaport of Beirut , to prevent them from making any encroachments inland. Subsequently, the Druze chiefs of the Gharb placed their considerable military experience at the disposal of the Mamluk sultans in Egypt (1250–1516); first, to assist them in putting an end to what remained of Crusader rule in the coastal Levant, and later to help them safeguard

5304-440: The tax farm of Acre to his domains, while he and other Zaydanis had consolidated their control over the rest of the Galilee. After twenty-five years of clashes and cooperation, Zahir and the Shia Muslim clans of Jabal Amil led by Nassif al-Nassar of the Ali al-Saghir clan agreed a formal alliance making Zahir their official representative with the authorities in Sidon, overseeing their tax payments and agreeing to defend them against

5382-536: The title "The Sword of the Faith". Al-Darazi argued that he should be the leader of the daʻwah rather than Hamza ibn Ali and gave himself the title "Lord of the Guides" because Caliph al-Hakim referred to Hamza as "Guide of the Consented". It is said that al-Darazi allowed wine, forbidden marriages and taught metempsychosis although this may be exaggeration by contemporary and later historians and polemicists. This attitude led to disputes between Ad-Darazi and Hamza ibn Ali, who disliked his behavior and his arrogance. In

5460-410: The vast majority residing in the Levant . The primary countries with Druze populations are Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. According to the Institute of Druze Studies, as of 1998, approximately 40–50% of Druze live in Syria, 30–40% in Lebanon, 6–7% in Israel, and 1–2% in Jordan. About 2% of the Druze are scattered across other Middle Eastern countries, and there were approximately 20,000 Druze in

5538-418: The whole of Mount Lebanon, Druze and Christian areas alike. With the advent of the Ottoman Turks and the conquest of Syria by Sultan Selim I in 1516, the Ma'ans were acknowledged by the new rulers as the feudal lords of southern Lebanon. Druze villages spread and prospered in that region, which under Ma'an leadership so flourished that it acquired the generic term of Jabal Bayt-Ma'an (the mountain home of

5616-484: The word Muwaḥḥidūn ("Unitarian") appears. The only early Arab historian who mentions the Druze is the eleventh century Christian scholar Yahya of Antioch , who clearly refers to the heretical group created by ad-Darazī, rather than the followers of Hamza ibn 'Alī. As for Western sources, Benjamin of Tudela , the Jewish traveler who passed through Lebanon in or around 1165, was one of the first European writers to refer to

5694-533: Was afterward appointed the governor of the Safad Sanjak. He routed a coalition of the Ali al-Saghir, Sa'b and Munkar Shia clans in Nabatieh in 1707. Taking control of Bilad Bishara, he granted it to his Druze deputy Mahmud Abu Harmush. By the late 17th century, the Bedouin Banu Saqr tribe practically dominated the area west of Tiberias between Safed and Nablus. The Saqr extended their protection to

5772-410: Was at Antioch, where 5000 prominent Druze were killed, followed by that of Aleppo . As a result, the faith went underground, in hope of survival, as those captured were either forced to renounce their faith or be killed. Druze survivors "were found principally in southern Lebanon and Syria". In 1038, two years after the death of al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah, the Druze movement was able to resume because

5850-464: Was captured, taken to Istanbul , and imprisoned with two of his sons in the infamous Yedi Kule prison. The Sultan had Fakhr-al-Din and his sons killed on 13 April 1635 in Istanbul , bringing an end to an era in the history of Lebanon, which would not regain its current boundaries until it was proclaimed a mandate state and republic in 1920. One version recounts that the younger son was spared, raised in

5928-613: Was named Lord of Damascus . Küçük Ahmed Pasha was a rival of Fakhr-al-Din and a friend of the sultan Murad IV , who ordered the pasha and the sultanate's navy to attack Lebanon and depose Fakhr-al-Din. This time the prince decided to remain in Lebanon and resist the offensive, but the death of his son Ali in Wadi al-Taym was the beginning of his defeat. He later took refuge in Jezzine 's grotto, closely followed by Küçük Ahmed Pasha who eventually caught up with him and his family. Fakhr-al-Din

6006-510: Was reorganized into a sanjak administratively part of the Damascus Eyalet . Its jurisdiction roughly corresponded with the territory of Mamlakat Safad. Safed Sanjak prospered at least during the first sixty years of Ottoman rule, with displaced peasants returning to their villages and the town of Safed becoming a haven for Jews from Europe, who turned the town into a wool production center . The first known Ottoman land and tax survey in

6084-632: Was the first area where the Druze appeared in the historical record under the name "Druze". It is generally considered the birthplace of the Druze faith. It was during the period of Crusader rule in Levant (1099–1291) that the Druze first emerged into the full light of history in the Gharb region of the Chouf . As powerful warriors serving the leaders in Damascus against the Crusades , the Druze were given

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