Porta Salaria was a gate in the Aurelian Walls of Rome , Italy . Constructed between 271 AD and 275 AD, it was demolished in 1921.
135-589: Porta Salaria was part of the Aurelian Walls built by emperor Aurelian in the 3rd century, including pre-existing constructions in order to hasten the works. Under it passed the Via Salaria nova, which joined the Via Salaria vetus (Old Via Salaria) outside the city. The gate had a single passage and was flanked by two semi-circular towers. The Horti Sallustiani were located in the city just inside
270-623: A dux of the Illyrian and Thracian legions . Ulpius was reportedly born in the city of Italica , in modern Spain . He took an interest in Aurelian's early career. Aurelian was reportedly his deputy for a time. When a group of Goths invaded Illyria and Thrace, Ulpius had fallen ill, so he ordered Aurelian to deal with the invaders. Aurelian was designated as legate of the Third Legion. He used his force of 2,500 auxiliaries , and
405-572: A senator and corrector (governor) of Lucania et Bruttium . Aurelian returned to Rome and won his last honorific from the Senate – Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World"). This title was first assumed by Aurelian in late summer of 272, and had been carried previously by both Valerian and Gallienus. In four years, Aurelian had secured the frontiers of the Empire and reunified it. Aurelian
540-459: A usurper . With his base of power secure, he now turned his attention to Rome's greatest problems – recovering the vast territories lost over the previous two decades, and reforming the res publica . In 248, Emperor Philip the Arab had celebrated the millennium of the city of Rome with great and expensive ceremonies and games, and the Empire had given a tremendous proof of self-confidence. In
675-597: A 'rogue scholiast' catering to, and making fun of or parodying, the antiquarian tendencies of the Theodosian age, in which Suetonius and Marius Maximus were fashionable reading and Ammianus Marcellinus was producing sober history in the manner of Tacitus . The History implausibly makes the Emperor Tacitus (275–276) a descendant and connoisseur of the historian. In a passage on the Quadriga tyrannorum –
810-410: A Moesian". Pseudo-Victor and John Xiphilinus place his birthplace in an area between Dacia Ripensis and Macedonia (overlapping with Dacia Mediterranea ). Modern research considers Dacia Ripensis as the more likely region. When he was born this region was part of Moesia Superior . Aurelian was an Illyrian like several other emperors of the late 3rd century ( Illyrian emperors ) all of whom shared
945-513: A common military background. Pseudo-Victor describes his father as a colonus (tenant farmer) who worked the lands of a senator named Aurelius. Aurelian's father was probably a veteran of the Roman army. He married the daughter of Aurelius from whom Aurelian received his name via his mother. The Historia Augusta describes her as "priestess of Sol ", whose worship Aurelian promoted as Emperor ( Sol Invictus ). These two propositions, together with
1080-546: A complete set of imperial biographies from Julius Caesar onwards, while Lampridius' stated intention was to write a collection of biographies that would deal with the Gordians, Claudius II, Aurelian, Diocletian, Maximian and the four rivals of Constantine. Capitolinus also implied that he was writing more biographies than are present in the History . The second half of the History is divided between two scriptores . Unlike
1215-597: A complex manuscript tradition with a number of variant versions. The title as recorded on the Codex Palatinus manuscript, written in the 9th century, is Vitae Diversorum Principum et Tyrannorum a Divo Hadriano usque ad Numerianum Diversis compositae ("The Lives of various Emperors and Tyrants from the Divine Hadrian to Numerian by Various Authors"). It is assumed that the work may have been originally called de Vita Caesarum or Vitae Caesarum ("Lives of
1350-475: A complex allegorical game. Despite the conundrums, it is the only continuous account in Latin for much of its period and so is continually being re-evaluated. Modern historians are unwilling to abandon it as a unique source of possible information, despite its obvious untrustworthiness on many levels. The name Historia Augusta originated with Isaac Casaubon , who produced a critical edition in 1603, working from
1485-644: A devastating plague swept through the Balkans, killing many soldiers in both armies. Emperor Claudius fell ill on the march to the battle and returned to his regional headquarters in Sirmium, leaving Aurelian in charge of operations against the Goths. Aurelian used his cavalry to great effect, breaking the Goths into smaller groups which were easier to handle. By late summer the Goths were defeated: any survivors were stripped of their animals and booty and were levied into
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#17327656322061620-637: A lie on a minor issue. In fear of what the emperor might do, he forged a document listing the names of high officials marked by the emperor for execution and showed it to collaborators. The notarius Mucapor and other high-ranking officers of the Praetorian Guard , fearing punishment from the emperor, murdered him shortly after October 275 ( Tacitus began his reign in November or December), in Caenophrurium , Thrace . Aurelian's enemies in
1755-404: A method of abuse and ridicule. According to this theory it is no coincidence that, in selecting the name "Trebellius Pollio", the author is playing with the concepts of fides and fidelitas historica at the precise point in the lives that are assigned to "Trebellius Pollio" and "Flavius Vopiscus Syracusius". In the case of "Flavius Vopiscus Syracusius", it was argued that it too was inspired by
1890-495: A minimum, five of the History's sixteen citations of Dexippus are considered to be fake, and Dexippus appears to be mentioned, not as a principal source of information, but rather as a contradictory author to be contrasted against information sourced from Herodian or the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte . In addition Quintus Gargilius Martialis , who produced works on horticulture and medicine, is cited twice as
2025-536: A more radical reform." Indeed, around this time, Aurelian reformed the Cura Annonae to replace the dole of grain by a dole of bread, salt and pork, as well as subsidized prices for other goods such as oil and wine. The deaths of the Sassanid Kings Shapur I (272) and Hormizd I (273) in quick succession, and the rise to power of a weakened ruler ( Bahram I ), presented an opportunity to attack
2160-473: A pagan attack on Christianity , the writer having concealed his identity for personal safety. Under this anti-Christianity theory, the lacuna covering the period from Philip the Arab through to the end of Valerian's reign is seen as deliberate, as it freed the author from addressing Philip's reign, as by the late 4th century, Philip was being claimed as a Christian emperor, as well as not discussing Decius and Valerian's reigns, as they were well known persecutors of
2295-466: A reduced price since 123 BC, and for free since 58 BC through the Cura Annonae . Aurelian is usually credited with changing or completing the change of the food distribution system from grain or flour to bread, and adding olive oil, salt, and pork to the products distributed to the populace. These products had been distributed sporadically before. Aurelian is also credited with increasing the size of
2430-480: A vision of the great 1st-century philosopher Apollonius of Tyana , whom he respected greatly, in a dream. Apollonius implored: "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!" Aurelian spared Tyana, and it paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the Emperor would not exact revenge upon them. Within six months, his armies stood at
2565-496: A way that suggests multiple authorship. To what extent this is due to the fact that portions of the work are obviously compiled from multiple sources is unclear. Several computer analyses of the text have been done to determine whether there were multiple authors. Many of them conclude that there was but a single author, but disagree on methodology. However, several studies done by the same team concluded there were several authors, though they were not sure how many." A unique feature of
2700-841: Is a late Roman collection of biographies , written in Latin , of the Roman emperors , their junior colleagues, designated heirs and usurpers from 117 to 284. Supposedly modeled on the similar work of Suetonius , The Twelve Caesars , it presents itself as a compilation of works by six different authors, collectively known as the Scriptores Historiae Augustae , written during the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine I and addressed to those emperors or other important personages in Ancient Rome . The collection, as extant, comprises thirty biographies, most of which contain
2835-588: Is contested — his rise to the highest ranks is more easily understood if he did not have to start from the bottom. His suggestion has not been taken up by other academic authorities. Whatever his origins, Aurelian certainly must have built up a very solid reputation for military competence during the tumultuous mid-decades of the century. To be sure, the exploits detailed in the Historia Augusta vita Divi Aureliani , while not always impossible, are not supported by any independent evidence and one at least
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#17327656322062970-416: Is correctly cited, three times his material is cited as "Arrianus", probably to multiply the author's sources. Not only does the author copy from Herodian without citation, either direct lifts, abbreviations or supplementations, he often distorts Herodian, to suit his literary objective. Then there is the deliberate citation of false information which is then ascribed to legitimate authors. For instance, at
3105-429: Is demonstrably an invention typical of that author. However, he was probably associated with Gallienus 's cavalry army and shone as an officer of that elite unit because, when he finally emerged in a historically reliable context in the early part of the reign of Claudius II , he seems to have been its commander. The existence of Ulpius Crinitus has been doubted by many historians . If he did exist he would have been
3240-598: Is just speculative. Sources hint at an interregnum between Aurelian's death and the election of Marcus Claudius Tacitus as his successor. Additionally, some of Ulpia's coins appear to have been minted after Aurelian's death. The city of Orléans in France is named after Aurelian. Originally named Cenabum , Aurelian rebuilt and renamed it Aurelianum or Aureliana Civitas ("city of Aurelian", cité d'Aurélien ), which evolved into Orléans . Historia Augusta The Historia Augusta (English: Augustan History )
3375-411: Is mentioned almost exclusively in those Vitae where the History used Herodian as the primary source, and his appearances vanish once Herodian's history comes to an end. The author also misattributes material taken from a legitimate historian and ascribe it to a fictitious author. For instance, Herodian is used more often than he is explicitly referenced in the History . In addition to the ten times he
3510-682: Is now occupied by Piazza Fiume ("Fiume square"). The 1921 demolition uncovered several funerary monuments of the sepulchres that flanked the old Via Salaria and that had been re-used to erect the towers. A copy of the sepulchre of Quintus Sulpicius Maximus , an 11-year-old boy, is now visible in Piazza Fiume (the original is the Musei Capitolini ). On right of the walls near the square are remains of 1st-century BC tombs. Aurelian Aurelian ( Latin : Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ; 9 September c. 214 – c. November 275)
3645-553: Is reinforced by noted similarities between the fictitious criticism of "Trebellius Pollio" by "Flavius Vopiscus" at the start of the Life of Aurelian , with similar comments made by Asinius Pollio about Julius Caesar's published Commentaries . Significantly, Lucius Trebellius adopted the cognomen Fides for his actions as Plebeian Tribune in 47 BC to resist laws that would abolish debts. Later when he fell into debt himself and began supporting debt abolishment, Cicero used his cognomen as
3780-422: Is the name Capitolinus. The word vopiscus is a rare Latin term, referring to a twin who survives, while its sibling died in utero . This has been interpreted to refer to "Flavius Vopiscus" as being the final one to survive from the six authors of the History . Vulcacius is believed to be a mockery of Volcatius Sedigitus , who was a historical literary critic with some association with humor. The meanings behind
3915-794: Is the opening section of the life of Aurelian , in which 'Flavius Vopiscus' records a supposed conversation he had with the City Prefect of Rome during the festival of Hilaria in which the Prefect urges him to write as he chooses and invent what he does not know. Other examples of the work as a parody can be taken from the names of the Scriptores themselves. It has been suggested that "Trebellius Pollio" and "Flavius Vopiscus Syracusius" were invented, with one theory arguing that their origins are based on passages in Cicero's letters and speeches in
4050-485: Is unwise to dismiss it altogether as it is also the principal Latin source regarding a century of Roman history. For example, scholars had assumed that Veturius Macrinus, mentioned in the Life of Didius Julianus , was an invention of the author, like so many other names. However, an inscription was uncovered which confirmed his existence and his post as praetorian prefect in 193. Likewise, the information that Hadrian's Wall
4185-471: The cohortes urbanae ("urban cohorts"), reinforced by some regular troops of the imperial army, to attack the rebelling mob: the resulting battle, fought on the Caelian hill , marked the end of the revolt, even if at a high price (some sources give the figure, probably exaggerated, of 7,000 casualties). Many of the rebels were executed; also some of the supporting senators were put to death. The mint of Rome
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4320-619: The limes of the Rhine , seceded to form a third, autonomous state within the territories of the Roman Empire, which is now known as the Gallic Empire . In Rome, the Emperor was occupied with internal menaces to his power and with the defence of Italia and the Balkans. The first actions of the new Emperor were aimed at strengthening his own position in his territories. Late in 270, Aurelian campaigned in northern Italia against
4455-535: The Goths at the Battle of Naissus . Aurelian was married to Ulpia Severina , about whom little is known. She was from Dacia . They are known to have had a daughter together. Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers outside Mediolanum. The new emperor immediately ordered the Senate to deify Gallienus. Next, Claudius began to distance himself from those responsible for his predecessor's assassination, ordering
4590-687: The Historia Augusta fall into three groups: In Marshall's opinion, the best scholarly editions are those by H. Peter (Teubner, 2nd ed. 1884), and E. Hohl (Teubner, 1971, reissue of 1965 revised by Ch. Samberger & W. Seyfarth). A copy of the Codex Palatinus (possibly the one made for Petrarch in 1356) was the basis of the editio princeps of the History , published in Milan in 1475. A subsequent printed version (the Aldine edition)
4725-575: The Historia Augusta is that it purports to supply the biographies not only of reigning Emperors, called "primary lives" by modern scholars, but also "secondary lives" of their designated heirs, junior colleagues, and usurpers who unsuccessfully claimed the supreme power. Thus among the biographies of 2nd-century and early 3rd-century figures are included Hadrian 's heir Aelius Caesar , and the usurpers Avidius Cassius , Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus , Caracalla 's brother Geta and Macrinus ' son Diadumenianus . None of these pieces contain much in
4860-402: The History are in fact a type of alternative historical narrative, with events and the personalities of recent 4th century emperors woven into the fabric of a series of 3rd century emperors. According to Paschoud, the representation of the emperor Probus is in fact a version of Julian, with Carus substituting for Valentinian I and Carinus for Gratian . From the sixth century to the end of
4995-547: The History is the equivalent of a literary puzzle or game, with the reader's understanding and enjoyment of the numerous elaborate and complicated allusions contained within it being the only purpose behind its existence. In support of this theory, Rohrbacher provides an example with respect to Ammianus Marcellinus' work. In one passage (Amm. 19.12.14), Ammianus describes the Christian emperor Constantius II's attempts to prosecute cases of magic under treason laws, in particular
5130-401: The History was composed by a team of writers during the reign of Constantius II after the defeat of Magnentius on behalf of the senatorial aristocracy who had supported the usurper. In the 21st century, Alan Cameron rebutted a number of Syme's and Barnes' arguments for a composition date c. 395–400, suggesting a composition date between 361 and the 380s. Linked to the problem of dating
5265-535: The Palmyrene Empire , ruled by Queen Zenobia from the city of Palmyra . Zenobia had carved out her own empire, encompassing Syria , Palestine , Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor . The Syrian queen cut off Rome's shipments of grain, and in a matter of weeks, the Romans started running low on bread. In the beginning, Aurelian had been recognized as Emperor, while Vaballathus , the son of Zenobia, held
5400-455: The Vandals , Juthungi , and Sarmatians , expelling them from Roman territory. To celebrate these victories, Aurelian was granted the title of Germanicus Maximus . The authority of the Emperor was challenged by several usurpers — Septimius , Urbanus , Domitianus , and the rebellion of Felicissimus —who tried to exploit the sense of insecurity of the empire and the overwhelming influence of
5535-402: The scriptores . If those statements are true, and those additional lives were completed, then an editor must have been involved in the project in order to select one scriptor' s life over another's. The presence of a post-Constantinian editor, as originally postulated by Theodor Mommsen , still has notable support, most recently articulated by Daniel Den Hengst, who suggests that the editor
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5670-560: The tres militia – the three steps of the equestrian military career – one of the routes to higher equestrian office in the Imperial Service. This could be a more expeditious route to senior military and procuratorial offices than that pursued by ex-rankers, although not necessarily less laborious. However, although Saunders's conjecture as to Aurelian's early career is not supported by any evidence other than his nomen which could indicate Italian settler ancestry — and even this
5805-463: The 'four-horse chariot of usurpers' said to have aspired to the purple in the reign of Probus – the History itself accuses Marius Maximus of being a producer of 'mythical history': homo omnium verbosissimus, qui et mythistoricis se voluminibis implicavit ('the most long-winded of men, who furthermore wrapped himself up in volumes of historical fiction'). The term mythistoricis occurs nowhere else in Latin. Of considerable significance in this regard
5940-509: The 19th century, historians had recognized that the Historia Augusta was a flawed and not a particularly reliable source, and since the 20th century modern scholars have tended to treat it with extreme caution. Older historians, such as Edward Gibbon , not fully aware of its problems with respect to the fictitious elements contained within it, generally treated the information preserved within it as authentic. For instance, in Gibbon's account of
6075-540: The 1st century BC. With respect to "Trebellius Pollio", this is a reference to Lucius Trebellius, a supporter of Mark Antony who was mentioned in the Philippics ( Phil , 11.14), and another reference to him in Epistulae ad Familiares along with the term "Pollentiam" reminded the History's author of Asinius Pollio , who was a fellow plebeian tribune alongside Lucius Trebellius and a historian as well. This
6210-458: The 4th century, such as Petronius Probinus (consul in 341) and Petronius Probianus (consul in 322). Momigliano's opinion was that there was insufficient evidence to dismiss a composition date of the early 4th century, and that any post-Constantinian anachronisms could be explained by an editor working on the material at a later date, perhaps during the reigns of Constantius II or Julian . Other opinions included H Stern's, who postulated that
6345-654: The Caesars"). How widely the work was circulated in late antiquity is unknown, but its earliest known use was in a Roman History composed by Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus in 485. Lengthy citations from it are found in authors of the 6th and 9th centuries, including Sedulius Scottus who quoted parts of the Marcus Aurelius , the Maximini and the Aurelian within his Liber de Rectoribus Christianis , and
6480-461: The Church. It avoided dealing with their fates, as Christians saw their ends as divine retribution for their persecutions. Where mentioned, both Decius and Valerian are viewed very positively by the author of the History . It is noted that the History also parodies Christian scripture. For instance, in the Life of Alexander Severus there is: "It is said that on the day after his birth a star of
6615-550: The Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of the Palmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he conquered the Gallic Empire in the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of the Aurelian Walls in Rome , the abandonment of the province of Dacia , and monetary reforms attempting to curb the devaluation of the Roman currency . Although Domitian , two centuries earlier,
6750-533: The Historia Augusta have been rejected as fabrications, partly on stylistic grounds, partly because they refer to military titles or points of administrative organisation which are otherwise unrecorded until long after the purported date, or for other suspicious content. The History cites dozens of otherwise unrecorded historians, biographers, letter-writers, knowledgeable friends of the writers, and so on, most of whom must be regarded as expressions of
6885-683: The Persians and another in Egypt against the usurper Firmus , Aurelian was obliged to return to Palmyra in 273 when that city rebelled once more. This time, Aurelian allowed his soldiers to sack the city, and Palmyra never recovered. More honors came his way; he was now known as Parthicus Maximus and Restitutor Orientis ("Restorer of the East"). The rich province of Egypt was also recovered by Aurelian. The Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in Alexandria
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#17327656322067020-470: The Philippics' reference to "Caesar Vopiscus" ( Phil , 11.11), with Cicero's reference to Vopiscus immediately preceding his reference to Lucius Trebellius. The cognomen "Syracusius" was selected because Cicero's In Verrem is filled with references to "Syracusae" and "Syracusani". Further, in Cicero's De Oratore , Cicero refers to Strabo Vopiscus as an authority on humour, during which he refers to
7155-826: The Sassanid Empire, and in 275 Aurelian set out for another campaign against the Sassanids. On his way, he suppressed a revolt in Gaul – possibly against Faustinus, an officer or usurper of Tetricus – and defeated barbarian marauders in Vindelicia ( Germany ). However, Aurelian never reached Persia, as he was murdered while waiting in Thrace to cross into Asia Minor. As an administrator, he had been strict and had handed out severe punishments to corrupt officials or soldiers. A secretary of his (called Eros by Zosimus ) had told
7290-399: The Senate briefly succeeded in passing damnatio memoriae on the emperor, but this was reversed before the end of the year, and Aurelian, like his predecessor Claudius II, was deified as Divus Aurelianus . There is some evidence that Aurelian's wife, Ulpia Severina , who had been declared Augusta in 274, ruled the empire in her own right for some time after his death, although this
7425-719: The area. In early 269, emperor Claudius and Aurelian marched north to meet the Alamanni, defeating them at the Battle of Lake Benacus . While still dealing with the defeated enemy, news came from the Balkans reporting large-scale attacks from the Heruli , Goths , Gepids , and Bastarnae . Claudius immediately dispatched Aurelian to the Balkans to contain the invasion as best he could until Claudius could arrive with his main army. The Goths were besieging Thessalonica when they heard of emperor Claudius' approach, causing them to abandon
7560-612: The armies in Roman politics. Aurelian, being an experienced commander, was aware of the importance of the army, and his propaganda, known through his coinage, shows he wanted the support of the legions. The burden of the northern barbarians was not yet over, however. In 271, the Alamanni moved towards Italia, entering the Po plain and sacking the villages; they passed the Po River , occupied Placentia and moved towards Fano . Aurelian, who
7695-426: The armies of four Germanic chieftains to defeat the Goths in battle. Aurelian used the resources gained from the battles to enrich the provinces . After the battle, Crinitus thanked Valerian , the emperor at the time, for providing him with such a talented deputy. Crinitus adopted Aurelian as his heir, either voluntarily or possibly through force. Emperor Valerian attended the adoption ceremony which took place in
7830-582: The army and for agriculture. The end result was that the Empire could not endure the blow of the capture of Emperor Valerian in 260 by the Sassanids . The eastern provinces found their protectors in the rulers of the city of Palmyra , in Syria , whose autonomy grew until the formation of the Palmyrene Empire , which was successful in defending against the Sassanid threat. The western provinces, those facing
7965-422: The army in 235 at around age twenty. It is also generally assumed that, as a member of the lowest rank of society – albeit a citizen – he would have enlisted in the ranks of the legions. Saunders suggests that his career is more easily understood if it is assumed that his family was of Roman settler origins with a tradition of military service and that he enlisted as an equestrian. This would have opened up for him
8100-538: The army or settled as farmers in frontier regions. Aurelian had no time to relish his victories; in late August news arrived from Sirmium that emperor Claudius was dead. When Claudius died, his brother Quintillus seized power with support of the Senate. With an act typical of the Crisis of the Third Century , the army refused to recognize the new emperor, preferring to support one of its own commanders: Aurelian
8235-507: The author include it in another life. This is taken as evidence that the mid-work lacuna is deliberate, as the author was apparently reluctant to abandon any useful material that could be gleaned from the Kaisergeschichte . Interpretations of the purpose of the History also vary considerably, some considering it a work of fiction or satire intended to entertain (perhaps in the vein of 1066 and All That ), others viewing it as
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#17327656322068370-434: The author's creative imagination. For example, the biographer "Cordus" is cited twenty-seven times in the History . Long considered to be a real, but lost, biographer until midway into the 20th century, with a couple of minor exceptions where material claimed to be sourced from Cordus is in reality from Suetonius or Cicero, every other citation is fake, providing details which have been invented and ascribed to Cordus. Cordus
8505-488: The baths of Byzantium. Following this, Crinitus disappeared from the historical record. A painting showing Ulpius Crinitus alongside Aurelian has been found in the Temple of Sol , adding to the veracity of his existence. Aurelian's successes as a cavalry commander ultimately made him a member of Emperor Gallienus ' entourage. In 268 Gallienus travelled to Italy and fought Aureolus , his former general and now usurper for
8640-488: The beginning of the work, which may suggest the compilation might have been a direct continuation of Suetonius ' The Twelve Caesars . It has been theorized that the mid-3rd-century lacuna might actually be a deliberate literary device of the author or authors, saving the labour of covering Emperors for whom little source material may have been available. Despite devoting whole books to ephemeral or in some cases non-existent usurpers, there are no independent biographies of
8775-436: The biographer 'Lampridius' (who was apparently writing his biographies after 324) by 'Vopiscus', who was meant to be writing his biographies in 305–306. Then, in 1889, Hermann Dessau , who had become increasingly concerned by the large number of anachronistic terms, Vulgar Latin vocabulary, and especially the host of obviously false proper names in the work, proposed that the six authors were all fictitious personae , and that
8910-413: The biographies are increasingly tracts of invention in which occasional nuggets of fact are embedded. Even where recognisable facts are present, their use in the History cannot be taken at face value. In the Life of Alexander Severus , the History makes the claim at 24.4 that Alexander had considered banning male prostitution but had decided against making it illegal, although the author added that
9045-408: The cavalry and sent in only the infantry to stop their break-out. The determined Goths killed many of the oncoming infantry and were only prevented from slaughtering them all when Aurelian finally charged in with his Dalmatian cavalry. The Goths still managed to escape and continued their march through Thrace. The Roman army continued to follow the Goths during the spring and summer of 270. Meanwhile,
9180-446: The chief manuscripts also date from the 9th or 10th centuries. The six Scriptores – "Aelius Spartianus", "Julius Capitolinus", "Vulcacius Gallicanus", " Aelius Lampridius ", "Trebellius Pollio", and "Flavius Vopiscus (of Syracuse)" – dedicate their biographies to Diocletian , Constantine and various private persons, and so ostensibly were all writing around the late 3rd and early 4th century. The first four scriptores are attached to
9315-430: The composition of the History is the question about the authorship of the work. Taking the History at face value, there is clearly a division between the authors named prior and after the presence of the interrupting lacuna. For the first half of the History , four scriptores are present, and the biographies are divided in a remarkably erratic fashion: Of these four, Spartianus and Gallicanus claim to be undertaking
9450-483: The death penalty applied to those men who were condemned simply for wearing an amulet to ward off diseases: " si qui remedia quartanae vel doloris alterius collo gestaret " ("For if anyone wore on his neck an amulet against the quartan ague or any other complaint"). There is a very similar imperial ruling described in the Life of Caracalla (5.7), which makes no sense in Caracalla's time, and is worded in almost exactly
9585-545: The early 4th-century date but only advanced it as far as the reign of Julian the Apostate , useful for arguing the work was intended as pagan propaganda. In the 1960s and 1970s, Dessau's original arguments received powerful restatement and expansion from Sir Ronald Syme , who devoted three books to the subject and was prepared to date the writing of the work closely in the region of AD 395. Other recent studies also show much consistency of style, and most scholars now accept
9720-576: The elite Dalmatian cavalry and soon promoted to overall head of the army after the emperor and what had been Emperor Claudius' own position before his acclamation. The war against Aureolus and the concentration of forces in Italy allowed the Alamanni to break through the Rhaetian limes along the upper Danube . Marching through Raetia and the Alps unhindered, they entered northern Italy and began pillaging
9855-421: The emperor Philip later banned the practice. Although the claim about Alexander is false, the note about Philip is true – the source of this is Aurelius Victor (28.6–7, and who sourced it from the Kaisergeschichte ), and the History even copies Victor's style of moralising asides, which were not in the Kaisergeschichte . Normally, this anecdote would have been included in a Life of Philip, but its absence saw
9990-465: The emperors themselves, begin to assume the rhetorical and fictive qualities previously confined to the 'secondary' ones, probably because the secondary lives were written after the Life of Caracalla . The biography of Macrinus is notoriously unreliable, and after a partial reversion to reliability in the Life of Elagabalus , the Alexander Severus , one of the longest biographies in
10125-563: The entire work, develops into a kind of exemplary and rhetorical fable on the theme of the wise philosopher king . Clearly the author's previous sources had given out, but also his inventive talents were developing. He still makes use of some recognized sources – Herodian up to 238, and probably Dexippus in the later books, for the entire imperial period the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte as well as Aurelius Victor , Eutropius , Ammianus Marcellinus and Jerome – but
10260-469: The execution of those directly involved. Aureolus was still besieged in Mediolanum and sought reconciliation with the new emperor, but Claudius had no sympathy for a potential rival. The emperor had Aureolus killed and one source implicates Aurelian in the deed, perhaps even signing the warrant for his death himself. During the reign of Claudius, Aurelian was promoted rapidly: he was given command of
10395-420: The factual, but short reigns of Emperors Quintillus and Florian , whose reigns are merely briefly noted towards the end of the biographies of their respective predecessors, Claudius Gothicus and Tacitus . For nearly 300 years after Casaubon's edition, though much of the Historia Augusta was treated with some scepticism, it was used by historians as an authentic source – Edward Gibbon used it extensively in
10530-424: The first half, the emperors tackled in this section are grouped logically, and are divided roughly in half between the two scriptores in chronological sequence: In terms of any acknowledgement of the mutual existence between the scriptores , only Flavius Vopiscus, ostensibly writing in 305 or 306, refers to any of the other authors, specifically Trebellius Pollio, Julius Capitolinus and Aelius Lampridius. None of
10665-445: The first magnitude was visible for the entire day at Arca Caesarea", while "where, save at Rome, is there an imperial power that rules an empire?" is considered to be a response to 2 Thessalonians 2:6–7. Syme argued that it was a mistake to regard it as a historical work at all and that no clear propaganda purpose could be determined. He theorized that the History is primarily a literary product – an exercise in satire produced by
10800-562: The first volume of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . However, "in modern times most scholars read the work as a piece of deliberate mystification written much later than its purported date, however the fundamentalist view still has distinguished support. (...) The Historia Augusta is also, unfortunately, the principal Latin source for a century of Roman history. The historian must make use of it, but only with extreme circumspection and caution." Existing manuscripts and witnesses of
10935-452: The following years, however, the Empire had to face a huge pressure from external enemies, while, at the same time, dangerous civil wars threatened the empire from within, with usurpers weakening the strength of the state. Also, the economic substrate of the state, agriculture and commerce, suffered from the disruption caused by the instability. On top of this, an epidemic swept through the Empire around 250, greatly diminishing manpower both for
11070-547: The full force of his cavalry, killing many and driving the remainder westward into Thrace . As winter set in, the Goths retreated into the Haemus Mountains , only to find themselves trapped and surrounded. The harsh conditions now exacerbated their shortage of food. However, the Romans underestimated the Goths and let their guard down, allowing the enemy to break through their lines and escape. Apparently emperor Claudius ignored advice, perhaps from Aurelian, and withheld
11205-498: The gate. During the restoration by emperor Honorius in the early 5th century, the arch was strengthened in opus mixtum , and over it three large windows were opened. The Goth king Alaric I entered Rome from this gate to begin the famous Sack of Rome . In 537, the area between Porta Salaria and Castro Pretorio was the location of the siege by the Goth king Witigis against the troops of Belisarius . On September 20, 1870,
11340-481: The gates of Palmyra, which surrendered when Zenobia tried to flee to the Sassanid Empire . Eventually Zenobia and her son were captured and made to walk the streets of Rome in his triumph, the woman in golden chains. With the grain stores once again shipped to Rome, Aurelian's soldiers handed out free bread to the citizens of the city, and the Emperor was hailed a hero by his subjects. After a brief clash with
11475-405: The life of a single emperor, but some include a group of two or more, grouped together merely because these emperors were either similar or contemporaneous. The true authorship of the work, its actual date, its reliability and its purpose have long been matters for controversy by historians and scholars ever since Hermann Dessau , in 1889, rejected both the date and the authorship as stated within
11610-460: The lives from Hadrian to Gordian III , while the final two are attached to the lives from Valerian to Numerian . The biographies cover the emperors from Hadrian to Carinus and Numerian. A section covering the reigns of Philip the Arab , Decius , Trebonianus Gallus , Aemilian and all but the end of the reign of Valerian is missing in all the manuscripts, and it has been argued that biographies of Nerva and Trajan have also been lost at
11745-467: The loaves of bread without increasing their price – a measure that was undoubtedly popular with the Romans who were not receiving free bread and other products through the dole. Aurelian is believed to have terminated Trajan 's alimenta program. Roman prefect Titus Flavius Postumius Quietus was the last known official in charge of the alimenta , in 271. If Aurelian "did suppress this food distribution system, he most likely intended to put into effect
11880-410: The manuscript. Major problems include the nature of the sources that it used, and how much of the content is pure fiction. For instance, the collection contains in all about 150 alleged documents, including 68 letters, 60 speeches and proposals to the people or the senate, and 20 senatorial decrees and acclamations. By the second decade of the 21st century, the consensus supported the position that there
12015-459: The mint workers to revolt: the rebellion spread in the streets, even if it seems that Felicissimus was killed immediately, presumably executed. The Palmyrene rebellion in Egypt had probably reduced the grain supply to Rome , thus disaffecting the population to the emperor. This rebellion also had the support of some senators, probably those who had supported the election of Quintillus , and thus had something to fear from Aurelian. Aurelian ordered
12150-427: The need to conform to authentic historical facts. As the work proceeds the author's inventiveness undergoes an increasing degree of elaboration as legitimate historical sources begin to run out, eventually composing largely fictional accounts such as the "biographies" of the "Thirty Tyrants" , whom the author claimed had risen as usurpers under Gallienus . After the biography of Caracalla the 'primary' biographies, of
12285-480: The only uprising of mint workers. The rationalis Felicissimus , a senior public financial official whose responsibilities included supervision of the mint at Rome, revolted against Aurelian. The revolt seems to have been caused by the fact that the mint workers, and Felicissimus first, were accustomed to stealing the silver for the coins and producing coins of inferior quality. Aurelian wanted to eliminate this, and put Felicissimus on trial. The rationalis incited
12420-486: The other five demonstrate any awareness of the existence of any of their 'colleagues'. However, these references cause difficulties when these authors also address Constantine in their dedications, as Vopiscus was also doing. For instance, Capitolinus mostly addresses Diocletian, but in the Albinus , Maximini and Gordiani he addresses Constantine in a fashion that suggests he is writing after 306. The theory that there
12555-426: The other two scriptores , Spartianus and Lampridius, have eluded interpretation. It should also be noted that the results of recent computer-assisted stylistic analysis concerning the single vs multiple authorship have proven to be inconclusive: " Computer -aided stylistic analysis of the work has, however, returned ambiguous results; some elements of style are quite uniform throughout the work, while others vary in
12690-542: The part of the Aurelian Walls between Porta Salaria and Porta Pia witnessed the end of the Papal States (see Capture of Rome ). The gate was damaged by the artillery fire of the Italian troops, and the following year it was demolished. In 1873, it was rebuilt under the design of the architect Virginio Vespignani . However, in 1921, it was again decided to demolish the gate to open the area to road traffic. The area
12825-465: The people or the senate, and 20 senatorial decrees and acclamations. Records like these are quite distinct from the rhetorical speeches often inserted by ancient historians – it was accepted practice for the writer to invent these himself – and on the few occasions when historians, such as Sallust in his work on Catiline or Suetonius in his Twelve Caesars , include such documents, they have generally been regarded as genuine. Almost all those found in
12960-504: The principle of "one faith, one empire", which would not be made official until the Edict of Thessalonica . He appears with the title deus et dominus natus ("God and born ruler") on some of his coins, a style also later adopted by Diocletian. Lactantius argued that Aurelian would have outlawed all the other gods if he had had enough time. He was recorded by Christian historians as having organized persecutions . Aurelian's reign records
13095-464: The ranks. He went on to lead the cavalry of the emperor Gallienus , until Gallienus' assassination in 268. Following that, Claudius Gothicus became emperor until his own death in 270. Claudius' brother Quintillus then ruled for three months, before Aurelian took the empire for himself. During his reign, he defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated the Goths , Vandals , Juthungi , Sarmatians , and Carpi . Aurelian restored
13230-402: The reign of Gallienus, he uncritically reproduces the Historia Augusta's biased and largely fictional account of that reign. So when Gibbon states "The repeated intelligence of invasions, defeats, and rebellions, he received with a careless smile; and singling out, with affected contempt, some particular production of the lost province, he carelessly asked, whether Rome must be ruined, unless it
13365-419: The reputation of Sicilians when it came to humour, and Syracuse was one of the principal cities of Sicily . Such references were intended as a "knowing wink" to the readers of the History , who would recognise the mockery of the historical material by the author. This corresponds with David Rohrbacher's view of the History , who maintains that the author has no political or theological agenda; rather that
13500-788: The same author. If the validity of six independent authors is accepted, there are still issues, as the way they approached their work shows similar themes and details. All six not only provide biographies for the emperors, but also for the Caesars and usurpers. They describe their work and approach in very similar language, and quote otherwise unknown historians and biographers, such as Junius Cordus. They collectively share many errors, such as calling Diadumenianus "Diadumenus". They share much idiosyncratic content and similar language, with particular focus on women, wine and military discipline, and were fixated on poor-quality plays on words ascribing personality traits to certain emperors, for instance Verus
13635-413: The same way: " qui remedia quartanis tertianisque collo adnexas gestarent " ("wearing them around their necks as preventives of quartan or tertian fever"). Other theories include André Chastagnol 's minimalist opinion that the author was a pagan who supported the Senate and the Roman aristocracy and scorned the lower classes and the barbarian races, while François Paschoud proposed that the last books of
13770-408: The siege and pillage north-eastern Macedonia. Aurelian intercepted the Goths with his Dalmatian cavalry and defeated them in a series of minor skirmishes, killing as many as three thousand of the enemy. Aurelian continued to harass the enemy, driving them northward into Upper Moesia where emperor Claudius had assembled his main army. The ensuing battle was indecisive: the northward advance of the Goths
13905-562: The six Scriptores as distinct persons and in favour of the first-hand authenticity for the content. As early as 1890, Theodor Mommsen postulated a Theodosian 'editor' of the Scriptores' work, an idea that has resurfaced many times since. Hermann Peter, editor of the Historia Augusta and of the Historicorum Romanorum reliquiae , proposed a date of 330 for when the work was written, based upon an analysis of style and language. Others, such as Norman H. Baynes , abandoned
14040-435: The six scriptores authored fictional lives for some of their biographies, all of them using fake sources, documents and acclamations. It has been postulated that the names of the scriptores themselves are a form of literary playfulness, not only mocking both legitimate authors and historians, but the narrative itself. The names Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus are sourced in various ways from Cicero 's writings, as
14175-557: The theory of a forger working around the last decades of the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. Arnaldo Momigliano and A. H. M. Jones were the most prominent 20th century critics of the Dessau-Syme theory amongst English-speaking scholars. Momigliano, summarizing the literature from Dessau down to 1954, defined the question as "res iudicanda" (i.e. "a matter to be decided") and not as "res iudicata" ("a matter that has been decided"). Momigliano reviewed every book published on
14310-418: The theory of a single author of unknown identity, writing after 395. Although it was believed that the Historia Augusta did not reference any material from Ammianus Marcellinus ' history, which was finished before 391 and which covered the same period, this has now been shown not to be the case, and that the Historia Augusta does in fact make reference to Ammianus' history. Not all scholars have accepted
14445-430: The throne. Driving Aureolus back into Mediolanum , Gallienus promptly besieged his adversary in the city. However, during the siege the Emperor was assassinated. One source says Aurelian, who was present at the siege, participated and supported general Claudius for the purple — which is plausible. In 268 or 269 Aurelian and his cavalry participated in the victory of Emperor Gallienus (or Emperor Claudius II Gothicus ) over
14580-580: The title Germanicus Maximus . However, the menace of the Germanic people and a Germanic invasion was still perceived by the Romans as likely; therefore Aurelian resolved to build a new system of walls around Rome that became known as the Aurelian Walls . The emperor led his legions to the Balkans, where he defeated and routed the Goths beyond the Danube, killing the Gothic leader Cannabaudes , and assuming
14715-447: The title of rex and imperator ("king" and "supreme military commander"), but Aurelian decided to invade the eastern provinces as soon as he felt his army to be strong enough. Asia Minor was recovered easily; every city but Byzantium and Tyana surrendered to him with little resistance. The fall of Tyana lent itself to a legend: Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having
14850-409: The title of Gothicus Maximus . However, he decided to abandon the province of Dacia , on the exposed north bank of the Danube, as it was too difficult and expensive to defend. He reorganized a new province of Dacia south of the Danube, inside the former Moesia , called Dacia Aureliana , with Serdica as the capital. In 272, Aurelian turned his attention to the lost eastern provinces of the empire,
14985-406: The topic by Sir Ronald Syme, and provided counter arguments to most if not all of Syme's arguments. For instance, the reference in the Life of Probus about the emperor's descendants which has been taken to refer to Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus (consul in 371) and his family may, in the opinion of Momigliano, equally refer to the earlier members of the family, which was prominent throughout
15120-451: The tradition that the clan Aurelius had been entrusted with the maintenance of that deity's cult in Rome, inspired the notion that this could explain the devotion to the sun-god that Aurelian was to manifest as emperor. However, it seems that this extrapolation of unverifiable facts is now generally accepted as being no more than just that. It is commonly accepted that Aurelian probably joined
15255-608: The violence of nature and by the inroads of the Scythians, he said, "What! We cannot do without saltpetre!" and when Gaul was lost, he is reported to have laughed and remarked, "Can the commonwealth be safe without Atrebatic cloaks?" Thus, in short, with regard to all parts of the world, as he lost them, he would jest, as though seeming to have suffered the loss of some article of trifling service. Gibbon then noted after this passage: "This singular character has, I believe, been fairly transmitted to us. The reign of his immediate successor
15390-413: The way of solid information: all are marked by rhetorical padding and obvious fiction. The biography of Marcus Aurelius' colleague Lucius Verus , which Mommsen thought 'secondary', is rich in apparently reliable information and has been vindicated by Syme as belonging to the 'primary' series. The 'secondary' lives allowed the author to exercise freedom in the invention of events, places and people without
15525-449: The work was in fact composed by a single author in the late 4th century, probably in the reign of Theodosius I . Among his supporting evidence was that the life of Septimius Severus appeared to have made use of a passage from the mid-4th-century historian Aurelius Victor , and that the life of Marcus Aurelius likewise uses material from Eutropius . In the decades following Dessau, many scholars argued to preserve at least some of
15660-526: Was a Roman emperor who reigned from 270 to 275 during the Crisis of the Third Century . As emperor, he won an unprecedented series of military victories which reunited the Roman Empire after it had nearly disintegrated under the pressure of barbarian invasions and internal revolts. Born in modest circumstances, most likely in Moesia Superior , he entered the Roman army in 235 and climbed up
15795-474: Was a reformer, and settled many important functions of the imperial apparatus, dealing with the economy and religion. He restored many public buildings, reorganized the management of the food reserves, set fixed prices for the most important goods, and prosecuted misconduct by the public officers. Aurelian strengthened the position of the Sun god Sol Invictus as the main divinity of the Roman pantheon. His intention
15930-423: Was a single author, as initially postulated by Hermann Dessau , is based on the difficulties inherent in having a single work comprising a number of individuals but without any textual evidence of an editor who brought the material together. This is especially evident in that the text has examples of stated intentions by an author to write a life of one of the emperors, only for that life to be completed by another of
16065-558: Was an improvement over the previous situation gives an idea of the severity of the economic situation Aurelian faced. The Emperor struggled to introduce the new "good" coin by recalling all the old "bad" coins before their introduction. A very large number of rare gold coins of Aurelian have been discovered as part of the Lava Treasure in Corsica , France, in the 1980s. Rome had been distributing grain to its poorest citizens at
16200-524: Was born on 9 September, a date recorded in the Chronograph of 354 . The 6th-century chronicler John Malalas wrote that he died at the age of 61, implying a birth in 214. However, his chronicle is often described as "too frequently unreliable", meaning that his statement may not be completely accurate. The Historia Augusta describes him both as a Pannonian from Sirmium and as a native of Dacia Ripensis "which he founded so that he would have been
16335-459: Was burned to the ground. This section of the city once contained the Library of Alexandria , although the extent of the surviving Library in Aurelian's time is uncertain. In 274, the victorious emperor turned his attention to the west, and the Gallic Empire which had already been reduced in size by Claudius II . Aurelian won this campaign largely through diplomacy; the "Gallic Emperor" Tetricus
16470-448: Was closed temporarily, and the institution of several other mints caused the main mint of the empire to lose its hegemony. His monetary reformation included the introduction of antoniniani containing 5% silver. They bore the mark XXI (or its Greek numeral form KA ), which meant - according to some researchers - that twenty of such coins would contain the same silver quantity of an old silver denarius . Considering that this
16605-605: Was constructed during Hadrian's reign and that the Antonine Wall was built during the reign of Antoninus Pius are recorded by no other extant ancient writer apart from the Historia Augusta , the veracity of which has been confirmed by inscriptions. A peculiarity of the work is its inclusion of a large number of purportedly authentic documents such as extracts from Senate proceedings and letters written by imperial personages. In all it contains around 150 alleged documents, including 68 letters, 60 speeches and proposals to
16740-475: Was halted but Roman losses were heavy. Claudius could not afford another pitched battle, so he instead laid a successful ambush, killing thousands. However, the majority of the Goths escaped and began retreating south the way they had come. For the rest of year, Aurelian harassed the enemy with his Dalmatian cavalry. Now stranded in Roman territory, the Goths' lack of provisions began to take its toll. Aurelian, sensing his enemies' desperation, attacked them with
16875-632: Was in Pannonia to control the Vandals ' withdrawal, quickly entered Italia, but his army was defeated in an ambush near Placentia (January 271). When the news of the defeat arrived in Rome, it caused great fear for the arrival of the barbarians, but Aurelian attacked the Alamanni camping near the Metaurus River , defeating them in the Battle of Fano , and forcing them to re-cross the Po river; Aurelian finally routed them at Pavia . For this, he received
17010-406: Was only a single author, who wrote either in the late 4th century or the early 5th century, who was interested in blending contemporary issues (political, religious and social) into the lives of the 3rd century emperors. There is further consensus that the author used the fictitious elements in the work to highlight references to other published works, such as to Cicero and Ammianus Marcellinus , in
17145-444: Was proclaimed emperor about August or September (older sources argue for May) by the legions in Sirmium. Aurelian defeated Quintillus' troops, and was recognized as emperor by the Senate after Quintillus' death. The claim that Aurelian was chosen by Claudius on his death bed can be dismissed as propaganda; later, probably in 272, Aurelian put his own dies imperii at the day of Claudius' death, thus implicitly considering Quintillus
17280-466: Was published at Venice in 1516, and this was followed closely by an edition edited by Desiderius Erasmus , and published by Johann Froben in Basel in 1518. In 1776, Gibbon observed that there was something wrong with the numbers and names of the imperial biographers, and that this had already been recognised by older historians who had written on that subject. A clear example was the referencing of
17415-425: Was short and busy; and the historians who wrote before the elevation of the family of Constantine could not have the most remote interest to misrepresent the character of Gallienus." Modern scholars now believe that Gallienus' reputation was posthumously maligned, that he was one of the main architects of the later Roman imperial structure, and that his reforms were built upon by succeeding emperors. Nevertheless, it
17550-505: Was supplied with linen from Egypt, and arras cloth from Gaul", he is reworking the passage in The Two Gallieni : I am ashamed to relate what Gallienus used often to say at this time, when such things were happening, as though jesting amid the ills of mankind. For when he was told of the revolt of Egypt, he is said to have exclaimed "What! We cannot do without Egyptian linen!" and when informed that Asia had been devastated both by
17685-401: Was the author of the second half of the History , operating under the pseudonyms of Pollio and Vopiscus. Further, that this editor not only wrote the secondary lives in the first half, but he was responsible for the insertions into the primary lives in that series. He takes the view that the vast stylistic differences between the two halves of the History means they cannot have been written by
17820-546: Was the first emperor who had demanded to be officially hailed as dominus et deus ("master and god"), these titles never occurred in written form on official documents until the reign of Aurelian. His successes were instrumental in ending the crisis, earning him the title Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World"). Many details about Aurelian's early life come from the Historia Augusta and are considered unreliable. Comparative research with other sources from his era has rendered some details more secure than others. Aurelian
17955-548: Was to give to all the peoples of the Empire, civilian or soldiers, easterners or westerners, a single god they could believe in without betraying their own gods. The centre of the cult was a new temple , built in 274 and dedicated on December 25 of that year in the Campus Agrippae in Rome, with great decorations financed by the spoils of the Palmyrene Empire. During his short rule, Aurelian seemed to follow
18090-480: Was truthful, while Severus was a severe individual. The authors shared certain stylistic characteristics that has been suggested would not naturally occur between individuals writing separately. For instance, the authors all happen to use the word occido with respect to killing, a total of 42 occurrences, but only once do any of them use the alternative word of interficio . This ratio is not found with any other writers in this time period and for this genre. Each of
18225-474: Was willing to abandon his throne and allow Gaul and Britain to return to the Empire, but could not openly submit to Aurelian. Instead, the two seem to have conspired so that when the armies met at the Battle of Châlons at Durocatalaunum that autumn, Tetricus simply deserted to the Roman camp and Aurelian easily defeated the Gallic army facing him. Tetricus was rewarded for his collusion by Aurelian who made him
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